Declaration

I, Avneesh Tiwari, B.Sc 3rd Year (6th Semester) student of

the Department of Physics, S.D.M P.G College Doiwala
Dehradun,
declare that the project titled “Semiconductors in Modern
Technology and Future Innovation” is my original work and
has not been submitted elsewhere for any academic award.

Name: Avneesh Tiwari

Class/Year: B.Sc 3rd Year (6th Semester)
Date: __________________
 Certificate

This is to certify that Avneesh Tiwari, a student of B.Sc 3rd Year

(6th Semester) from the Department of Physics, S.D.M P.G
College Doiwala Dehradun, has successfully completed the
research project titled
“Semiconductors in Modern Technology and Future Innovation”
as a part of the curriculum for the academic session 2024–25.

The project is an original and independent work carried out by

the student and is found to be satisfactory in terms of content,
presentation, and research methodology.

We wish him all the best for his future endeavors.

Date : ______________
Place: Doiwala , Dehradun

[ Dr. N.K Naithani ]

( HOD ) Physics
S.D.M P.G College Doiwala Dehradun

[ Dr. Kuwar Singh ]

Department of Physics
S.D.M P.G College Doiwala Dehradun
 Acknowledgement

I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to

everyone who supported me throughout the
completion of my research project titled
“semiconductor in modern technology and future
Innovation ''
First and foremost, I extend my sincere thanks to Dr.
N.K. Naithani, Head of the Department of Physics,
and Dr. Kuwar Singh, for their valuable guidance,
encouragement, and constant support throughout the
project. Their insightful suggestions and feedback
greatly contributed to the quality of this work.

I am also thankful to the faculty and staff of the

Department of Physics, S.D.M P.G College Doiwala
Dehradun, for providing the necessary facilities and
academic environment.

Last but not least, I express my deep appreciation to

my family and friends for their continuous motivation
and support during this academic endeavor.
 Abstract
This project highlights the importance of
semiconductors in modern technology
and their role in future innovations. It
covers the basics of semiconductor
types, their working principles, and key
applications in electronics,
communication, and computing. The
study also touches on emerging areas like
artificial intelligence and quantum
computing, emphasizing how
semiconductors are shaping the future of
technology.
 Content
1. Introduction and Historical Evolution
2. Fundamental principles of semiconductor physics
3. Semiconductor material properties
4. Semiconductor Devices and components
5. Semiconductor fabrication and manufacturing
6. Integrated circuits (IC) design and Architecture
7. Memory and Data storage Technologies
8. Semiconductor in computing and AI applications
9. Power Electronics and Energy Applications
10. Semiconductor in telecommunication and
connectivity.
11. Semiconductor in healthcare and biomedical
applications
12. Environmental and Sustainability challenges
13. Global market supply chain and policy
14 . Future Trends and Emerging Technologies
15. Conclusion and future outlook
Chap (1) Introduction and Historical Evolution of
semiconductor

• Introduction

Semiconductors are materials whose electrical

conductivity lies between that of conductors and
insulators. Unlike metals, which readily conduct
electricity, or insulators, which completely resist it,
semiconductors can be engineered to conduct
electricity under certain conditions. This unique
property makes them the backbone of modern
electronic devices, ranging from smartphones and
computers to satellites and medical equipment. The
functionality of semiconductors is highly tunable,
allowing precise control over electronic signals, which
is crucial in integrated circuits and transistors.

Semiconductors are primarily made from elements like

silicon and germanium, or from compounds such as
gallium arsenide. Silicon, due to its abundance and
stable properties, is the most widely used material.
The behavior of semiconductors can be manipulated
by introducing impurities—a process known as doping
—which enhances their ability to conduct electricity in
specific ways. This versatility makes them essential to
the development of microelectronics and
nanotechnology.

01
Early semiconductor discoveries

The foundation of semiconductor technology began

in the 19th century with the accidental observation
of unique electrical behavior in certain materials:

1833 – Michael Faraday discovered that the

resistance of silver sulfide decreased with increasing
temperature, contradicting the behavior of metals.
This anomaly hinted at a new class of materials.

1874 – Karl Ferdinand Braun observed the rectifying

effect in metal sulfides like galena (lead sulfide),
noting that they allowed current to flow in only one
direction—one of the earliest signs of diode behavior.

These early discoveries laid the groundwork for more

practical applications in the early 20th century,
especially in radio technology.

origin of semiconductor science

In the early 1900s, scientists began investigating

the underlying physics behind these materials.
The emergence of quantum mechanics and solid-
state physics offered a new lens for
understanding electron behavior in solids.

02
 The development of band theory provided a clear
explanation of how semiconductors differ from
conductors and insulators, based on the
availability of energy states for electrons.

Identification of key material silicon & Germanium

Germanium was the first material used in early transistors
due to its high electron mobility. It enabled the creation of
the first practical semiconductor devices, like diodes and
transistors in the 1940s. However, it had limitations such
as poor thermal stability and difficulty forming an
insulating oxide layer.

Silicon soon replaced germanium because it is more

abundant, thermally stable, and capable of forming a
natural silicon dioxide (SiO₂) layer. This oxide layer is
crucial for modern integrated circuits. Today, silicon is the
most widely used material in the semiconductor industry
due to its superior properties and manufacturing
advantages.

Germanium Silicon
03
Invention of tha Transistor
The invention of the transistor marked a revolutionary
milestone in the history of electronics and
semiconductors. It replaced bulky vacuum tubes and
enabled the miniaturization and efficiency of modern
electronic devices.
By the early 20th century, vacuum tubes were widely
used to amplify signals in radios and other electronic
equipment. However, they were large, fragile,
consumed a lot of power, and generated excessive heat.
Researchers began exploring solid-state alternatives.

The Breakthrough at Bell Labs (1947)

On December 16, 1947, physicists John Bardeen, Walter
Brattain, and William Shockley at Bell Telephone
Laboratories successfully created the first point-contact
transistor using germanium.

This device could amplify electrical signals, a function

previously done by vacuum tubes, but with far less power
and size.

In 1948, Shockley developed the junction transistor, which

was more reliable and easier to manufacture. It laid the
foundation for modern semiconductor electronics.

04
Rise of the Integrated Circuit
The integrated circuit (IC) transformed the field of
electronics by enabling the combination of multiple
electronic components—such as transistors, resistors,
and capacitors—onto a single chip of semiconductor
material, usually silicon.
Invention and Development
In 1958, Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments built the first working
integrated circuit, using germanium. His design demonstrated
that components could be miniaturized and linked together
on a single chip.
In 1959, Robert Noyce of Fairchild Semiconductor
independently developed an improved version using
silicon and a process called planar technology, which
made large-scale manufacturing feasible.

Advantages and Impact

ICs dramatically reduced size, cost, and power

consumption while increasing reliability and
performance.

They made possible the mass production of complex

electronic circuits and became the foundation of all
modern digital devices.

05
Evolution of Applications

Semiconductors have been central to technological

progress, enabling the development of powerful,
compact, and energy-efficient devices. Over time, their
applications have expanded rapidly, transforming
multiple sectors—most notably consumer electronics,
computing, and telecommunications.

Consumer Electronics: From transistor radios to

smartphones and smart home devices,
semiconductors have enabled smaller, more
powerful, and efficient consumer products.

Computing: Semiconductors enabled the transition

from large mainframes to personal computers and
modern computing devices, including high-
performance CPUs and GPUs. Future developments
include quantum and neuromorphic chips.

Telecommunications: Semiconductors revolutionized

communication, from early phone systems to 5G
networks and the Internet of Things (IoT), supporting
faster, more reliable data transfer and connectivity.

06
 Chap (2) Fundamental principles of
semiconductor physics

Crystal structure and energy Bands

Semiconductors like silicon and germanium have a crystalline
structure, meaning their atoms are arranged in a highly
ordered and repeating pattern. Silicon, for example, forms a
diamond cubic lattice, where each atom forms covalent
bonds with four neighboring atoms.

This regular structure ensures uniform electrical properties.

Any disruption in this arrangement, such as defects or
impurities, can affect conductivity.

Energy Band Theory

The behavior of electrons in a solid is described using energy
bands:

Valence Band: The highest range of electron energies in which

electrons are normally present at absolute zero temperature.

Conduction Band: The range of energies above the valence

band where electrons are free to move and conduct
electricity.

Band Gap (Eg): The energy difference between the conduction

and valence bands. It determines the electrical properties of
the material.
07
Conductors (no band gap) , insulators (very lager
band gap)
This band structure explains how semiconductors
conduct electricity only when needed, making them
ideal for controlled electronic devices.

_____________ **____**____**_____________

08
 Charge carriers and Doping
(a). Intrinsic semiconductor
Definition An intrinsic semiconductor is a pure
semiconductor material without any impurities or
doping. Examples include silicon (Si) and
germanium (Ge).
Charge
. carriers In intrinsic semiconductors,
electrons in the valence band absorb energy (from
heat or light) and jump to the conduction band,
leaving behind holes in the valence band. The
number of electrons equals the number of holes.
Conductivity Their electrical conductivity is
low at room temperature, as there are few charge
carriers (electrons and holes).

09
(b). Extrinsic semiconductor
Definition: Extrinsic semiconductors are materials that
have been doped with impurities to improve their electrical
conductivity

Conductivity Extrinsic semiconductors have much higher

conductivity than intrinsic semiconductors due to the increased
number of charge carriers introduced by doping.

Conclusion

Intrinsic semiconductors are pure

materials with low conductivity.

Extrinsic semiconductors are modified

by doping to enhance conductivity, and
their properties can be finely controlled
based on the type and level of doping. 10
 Types of Extrinsic Semiconductors:
n-type : Doped with elements that have 5
valence electrons (e.g., phosphorus). This
adds extra electrons to the conduction
band, making electrons the majority charge
carriers.

P-type : Doped with elements that have 3

valence electrons (e.g., boron). This creates
holes in the valence band, making holes the
majority charge carriers.

11
Charge carriers and Doping
Intrinsic Semiconductor:
Charge carriers
electorns - in the conduction band
holes - in the valance band
Both are created by thermal excitation
Electron concentration= hole Concentration
• Conductivity - Relatively low (increase with temp)
No Doping,No impurities are added properties depends only on the
semiconductor material & Temperature

Extrinsic semiconductor

Types & Charge Carriers:

n type semiconductor
Doped with donor atoms (e.g., Phosphorus)
Extra electrons are the majority charge carriers.
Holes are minority carriers.

p type semiconductor
Doped with acceptor atoms (e.g., Boron)
Holes are the majority charge carriers.
Electrons are minority carriers.
Conductivity:
Much higher than intrinsic semiconductors.
Controlled by the type and amount of doping.
Doping:
Intentional addition of impurity atoms to increase
conductivity and control carrier type.
12
 P-N JUNCTION & DIODE BEHAVIOUR
Formation of a p-n Junction:
A p-n junction is formed by joining p-type and n-type
semiconductors together, creating a fundamental
building block of most semiconductor devices like
diodes, transistors, and solar cells.
1. Initial Contact:
The p-type region has a high concentration of holes
(positive charge carriers).
The n-type region has a high concentration of
electrons (negative charge carriers).

2. Diffusion Process:
When the p-type and n-type materials are joined:
Electrons from the n-region diffuse into the p-region.
Holes from the p-region diffuse into the n-region.
This happens due to the concentration gradient
between the two regions.
3. Formation of Depletion Region:
As electrons and holes diffuse across the junction,
they recombine.
This creates a depletion region near the junction
where there are no free charge carriers.
In this region, fixed ions are left behind:
Negative ions on the p-side
Positive ions on the n-side 13
4. Built-in Potential (Barrier Potential):
Due to the uncovered ions, an electric field is created in
the depletion region.This electric field prevents further
movement of electrons and holes across thejunction.
This results in a potential barrier (typically 0.3 V for Ge,
0.7 V for Si).
5. Equilibrium State:
Eventually, equilibrium is established:The diffusion
current (due to carrier movement) is balanced by
the drift current (due to the electric field).No net
current flows in equilibrium.

P-N Junction Diode Diagram

14
V-I characteristics of P-N Junction

The current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of a p-n junction

diode describe how the current through the diode varies
with the applied voltage. This behavior is non-linear and
depends on the direction of the applied voltage: forward
bias or reverse bias.

1. Forward Bias

In forward bias, the p-side is connected to the

positive terminal of the battery and the n-side to
the negative.
This reduces the width of the depletion region
andlowers the barrier potential.Once the applied
voltage exceeds the barrier potential (~0.7 V for
silicon, ~0.3 V for germanium), a large current
flows.The I-V curve rises exponentially beyond the
threshold voltage.

15
2. Reverse Bias
In reverse bias, the p-side is connected to the
negative terminal and the n-side to the positive.This
widens the depletion region and increases the
barrierpotential.Very small current flows due to
minority carriers — called reverse saturation
current.If reverse voltage is increased excessively,
the diode may undergo breakdown, causing a sudden
rise in current.
Key Points:
High resistance.
Very small current.
Possible breakdown at high voltage.

• I-V Curve :

The curve in forward bias shows a sharp rise

after the cut-in voltage.

In reverse bias, the current remains nearly

zero until breakdown.

The diode is unidirectional, conducting

significantly only in one direction.
16
 Advanced Semiconductor Concepts

1. Quantum Wells :A quantum well is formed when

a thin layer of a semiconductor material with a
narrower bandgap is sandwiched between two
layers of material with a wider bandgap.Electrons
and holes are confined in the thin layer, leading to
quantized energy levels.Widely used in lasers,
LEDs, and high-speed transistors.
2. Superlattices
Superlattices are periodic structures formed
by alternating thin layers (a few nanometers) of
two different semiconductor materials.They
modify the band structure due to electron
wavefunction overlap across layers.Useful for
bandgap engineering, enabling custom optical
and electronic properties.
3. Heterojunctions
A heterojunction is the interface between two
different semiconductor materials (e.g., GaAs and
AlGaAs).It creates band discontinuities (step-like
changes in energy bands) that affect carrier
movement.Improvesdevice performance in high-
electron mobility transistors (HEMTs) and solar cells.

17
4. Effect of Dimensional Scaling on Bandgap:
As semiconductor devices are scaled down to
nanometer sizes, quantum confinement effects
become significant.
The bandgap increases with smaller dimensions,
affecting electron mobility and optical
properties.This is crucial in nanowires, quantum
dots, and ultra-thin films.

Case Study: Silicon vs Gallium Arsenide (Si vs

GaAs)
Si is excellent for integrated circuits but inefficient
in light emission due to its indirect bandgap.
GaAs, with its direct bandgap, is ideal for LEDs,
lasers, and microwave devices, and performs better
at high frequencies.

____________________••*••___________________

18
 Chap (3) Semiconductor Materials and
properties

1. Silicon and Its Alloys

Silicon (Si) is the most widely used material in semiconductor
technology due to its abundance, stability, and well-understood
electrical characteristics. It has an indirect bandgap of 1.12 eV,
which makes it less effective for optoelectronic applications like
LEDs but ideal for integrated circuits and solar cells. Silicon is
the foundation of CMOS (complementary metal-oxide-
semiconductor) technology, which powers most digital devices.

Silicon-Germanium (SiGe) alloys offer improved performance by

enhancing carrier mobility and reducing lattice strain. These
alloys are used in high-speed and RF (radio frequency)
applications. By incorporating Ge into the silicon lattice, the
bandgap narrows slightly, allowing for faster switching speeds
and reduced power consumption in transistors.

2. Compound semiconductor
Unlike elemental semiconductors like silicon,
compound semiconductors are made from two or more
elements. Examples include Gallium Arsenide (GaAs),
Indium Phosphide (InP), Gallium Nitride (GaN), and
Silicon Carbide (SiC). These materials often have direct
bandgaps, making them suitable for optoelectronics like
LEDs and laser diodes.
GaAs has a direct bandgap of 1.42 eV and is used in
high-frequency and high-speed applications.

19
Inp is prominent in fiber-optic communication systems
due to its excellent electron velocity.
GaN is known for high electron mobility and is used in
blue and UV LEDs and power electronics.
SiC is highly thermally conductive and chemically
stable, used in harsh environments and power
switching devices.

Compound semiconductors also allow for the.

construction of heterojunctions, which lead to
improved performance in transistors and photovoltaic
cells.

3 . Wide bandgap material

Wide-bandgap (WBG) materials have bandgaps

significantly larger than silicon. The two most notable WBG
materials are Silicon Carbide (SiC) and Gallium Nitride
(GaN).
SiC has a bandgap of ~3.26 eV and can operate at high
voltages, temperatures, and frequencies.
GaN has a bandgap of ~3.4 eV and is used in RF amplifiers
and high-efficiency power devices.

The key advantages of WBG materials include higher

breakdown voltage, faster switching speeds, and lower on-
resistance. However, challenges include high
manufacturing costs, substrate availability, and thermal
management.

20
4. Two-Dimensional (2D) Materials

2D materials consist of single layers of atoms

arranged in two dimensions. The most famous 2D
material is graphene, a monolayer of carbon atoms
with extraordinary electrical, thermal, and
mechanical properties.

Other emerging 2D materials include:

MoS₂ (Molybdenum Disulfide): A transition metal

dichalcogenide with a direct bandgap in monolayer
form.

WS₂, WSe₂, and MoTe₂: Used in flexible and

transparent electronics.

2D materials offer potential for applications in ultra-

thin transistors, flexible electronics, and nanoscale
sensors. They exhibit quantum confinement effects
that can be harnessed for next-generation computing
and memory devices.

21
5. Material Fabrication

The fabrication of semiconductor materials

involves multiple steps, beginning with crystal
growth and extending to wafer processing:

Czochralski Method: Used to grow large single

crystals of silicon by slowly pulling a seed
crystal from molten silicon.

Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE): Allows for the

precise layer-by-layer growth of compound
semiconductors.

Metal-Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition

(MOCVD): Commonly used for GaN and LED
production.

Post-growth processes include wafer slicing,

polishing, and doping control. Doping
introduces impurities into the crystal to control
carrier concentrations (n-type or p-type), which
is fundamental to semiconductor functionality.

22
6. Material Challenges and Innovations

Despite advancements, several challenges

remain:

Defects: Dislocations, vacancies, and impurities

affect device performance.

Purity: High-purity materials are required for

modern ICs to function reliably.

Thermal Conductivity: Efficient heat dissipation

is essential in power devices.

Emerging Materials: Research into perovskites

(for solar cells) and topological insulators (for
quantum computing) is ongoing.

These innovations aim to overcome the

physical and economic limits of current
semiconductor materials and pave the way for
faster, more efficient electronics.

23
Chap.(4): Semiconductor Devices and
Components

1. Diode & Rectifier

A diode is a two-terminal electronic device
that conducts current primarily in one
direction. The basic type of diode is the PN
junction diode, created by joining p-type and
n-type semiconductor materials. This
junction forms a depletion region due to the
movement of electrons and holes near the
interface, creating an electric field that
opposes further charge movement.

P-N Junction diode: when forward biased

(positive voltage on the p-side), the potential
barrier is lowered, allowing charge carriers to
move across the junction and enabling current
flow. In reverse bias (positive voltage on the n-
side), the barrier increases, blocking current
except for a small leakage. Applications include
rectification in power supplies, signal
demodulation, and protection circuits.
24
 P N Junction diagram

2. Zener diode
A Zener diode is a special type of diode designed
to allow current to flow in the reverse direction
when a specific, predetermined reverse
breakdown voltage (called the Zener voltage) is
reached. Unlike regular diodes that get damaged
beyond a certain reverse voltage, Zener diodes
are built to operate safely and reliably in this
breakdown region.

Symbol of zener diode

25
structure and working of zener diode

A Zener diode is heavily doped to reduce the

width of the depletion region, enabling it to
undergo breakdown at a low voltage.

When forward-biased, it behaves like a normal

diode.

When reverse-biased and the applied voltage

exceeds the Zener voltage (Vz), the diode
conducts in reverse with minimal change in
voltage.

zener breakdown mechanism

At low reverse voltages, Zener breakdown

occurs due to strong electric fields enabling
quantum tunneling of electrons across the
depletion region.

At higher voltages, avalanche breakdown

dominates, where energetic carriers collide
with atoms, creating more carriers.

26
 VI characteristics of zener diode
The V-I characteristics of a Zener diode describe
how the current (I) through the diode varies with
the applied voltage (V). These characteristics are
divided into two regions based on the polarity of
the applied voltage: forward bias and reverse
bias.

1. Forward Bias Region:

When the anode is connected to the positive terminal

and the cathode to the negative terminal, the Zener
diode behaves like a regular PN junction diode.
The diode starts conducting once the forward voltage
exceeds approximately 0.7 V for silicon diodes.
In this region, current increases rapidly with a small
increase in voltage.
27
2. Reverse Bias Region (zener region)

When the cathode is connected to the positive

terminal and the anode to the negative terminal,
the diode is reverse-biased.
Initially, a very small reverse leakage current
flows.
As the reverse voltage reaches the Zener
breakdown voltage (Vz), the diode starts to
conduct in reverse.
The voltage across the diode remains nearly
constant at Vz, even if the reverse current
increases. This is the Zener breakdown region.
This property makes it ideal for voltage
regulation.

Knee Point (Vz): The point at which breakdown

begins in reverse bias.
Reverse Breakdown Region: Current increases
sharply, but voltage stays constant at Vz.
Maximum Zener Current (Iz max): The maximum
current the diode can safely handle in reverse
without damage.
Zener Resistance (Rz): A small dynamic resistance
in the breakdown region (slope of the I-V curve).
28
Schottk Diode : Consists of a metal-
semiconductor junction with faster switching
and lower forward voltage drop than
traditional PN junction diodes. Used in high-
speed switching and RF applications.

Schottky diode diagram

Photodiode: Converts light into electrical

current by absorbing photons, creating
electron-hole pairs. Used in optical
communication, solar panels, and sensors.

Photodiode
diagram

29
2. Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJTs)
BJTs are current-controlled three-terminal devices composed
of either NPN or PNP semiconductor layers. The terminals are
emitter, base, and collector. The key operation is current
amplification, where a small base current controls a much
larger collector-emitter current.

NPN Transistor : The emitter injects electrons into the base,

which are collected by the collector. This configuration is
common due to higher electron mobility.

PNP Transistor : operates similarly but with hole conduction.

Used where negative voltages are preferred.

30
3. Field-Effect Transistors (FETs)

FETs are voltage-controlled devices where current

flows through a semiconductor channel between
source and drain, controlled by a voltage applied to
the gate. The gate is insulated from the channel by a
thin oxide layer.

MOSFET (Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor FET): The

most widely used type, especially in digital ICs.

Enhancement Mode: Channel forms when gate

voltage exceeds the threshold.

Depletion Mode: Channel exists at zero gate bias and

can be pinched off.

Channel Formation: Applying voltage to the gate

attracts charge carriers (electrons for n-MOS, holes
for p-MOS), forming a conductive channel.

Threshold Voltage (Vth): Minimum voltage to induce

a channel.

31
Advanced Variants:

FinFET: Uses a 3D fin-shaped channel for better gate

control and reduced leakage.

GAAFET (Gate-All-Around FET): Surrounds the channel

entirely, improving performance at sub-5nm nodes.

MOSFETs dominate modern integrated circuits due to

their low power consumption, fast switching, and
scalability.

32
4. Advanced Devices.

HEMT (High Electron Mobility Transistor): Utilizes

a heterojunction (typically AlGaAs/GaAs or
AlGaN/GaN) to create a 2D electron gas with high
mobility. Used in RF, microwave, and satellite
communication.

MESFET: Similar to a JFET but uses a Schottky

barrier instead of a p-n junction. Used in high-
frequency applications.

IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor):

Combines MOSFET gate input and BJT output for
high efficiency and fast switching. Used in power
electronics like inverters, motor drives, and UPS
systems.

Thyristor: A four-layer PNPN device that latches on

when triggered. Used in AC power control, such as
in dimmers and phase control.

These devices provide solutions for specialized

applications requiring high speed, high voltage, or
high current handling.
33
5.Sensors and Photonic Devices.
Semiconductors also enable sensing and photonics
technologies:
CMOS Image Sensors: Convert light to electrical
signals in digital cameras, smartphones, and medical
imaging.

Photodetectors: Include PIN photodiodes and

avalanche photodiodes for detecting light in fiber
optic systems and environmental sensors.

LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes): Emit light through

electron-hole recombination in a forward-biased
junction. GaN-based LEDs are common in lighting.

Laser Diodes: Emit coherent light and are used in

optical communication, CD/DVD drives, and medical
instruments.

Silicon Photonics: Integrates optical components on

silicon chips, enabling high-speed data transfer within
and between chips using light instead of electrical
signals.
These devices are critical for applications ranging from
telecommunications and data centers to consumer
electronics and industrial automation.

__________**___________
34
Chap (5) Semiconductor Fabrication and
Manufacturing process
1. Water Fabrication .

Wafer fabrication is the foundational process in semiconductor

manufacturing, involving a series of physical and chemical
steps to build integrated circuits (ICs) on silicon wafers. The
steps include:

Photolithography: This process involves coating the wafer with

a light-sensitive photoresist layer and exposing it to ultraviolet
(UV) light through a patterned mask. The exposed regions are
developed, revealing areas for subsequent etching or doping.

Etching (Dry/Wet): Etching removes specific areas of material.

Dry etching uses plasma or reactive gases, while wet etching
employs chemical solutions.

Oxidation: A thermal process in which a thin layer of silicon

dioxide is grown on the wafer surface. This layer acts as an
insulator or mask.

Deposition (CVD/PVD): Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) and

Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) are used to deposit materials
such as polysilicon or metals. CVD involves chemical reactions
in vapor form, while PVD involves physical processes like
sputtering.
These processes are repeated multiple times to build complex
structures layer by layer on the wafer surface.

35
2. Doping and Implantation

Doping is the introduction of impurities into intrinsic

semiconductors to modify their electrical properties.
It is crucial for controlling the type and level of
conductivity.

Thermal Diffusion: In this method, wafers are

exposed to dopant gases at high temperatures. The
dopants diffuse into the silicon lattice.

Ion Implantation: This technique uses a high-energy

ion beam to implant dopants into specific wafer
regions. It offers precise control over dose and depth.

Annealing: After implantation, wafers are annealed

(heated) to repair damage and activate dopants by
allowing them to occupy substitutional positions in
the silicon lattice.

Masking: Photoresist layers are used as masks to

define regions for doping.

Dose Control: Ion dose and energy levels are carefully

monitored to achieve the desired doping profile.

36
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