1

A Guide
in
Livestock Nutrition

TNPSC examination
for
Veterinary Assistant Surgeon
Aspirants

2019

C.Valli
R.Murugeswari
S.Gunasekeran
P.Anuradha

Institute of Animal nutrition

TANUVAS
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SYLLABUS

UNIT - III: LIVESTOCK NUTRITION

Nutritional terms and definitions - Role of nutrition in health and production;

classification and composition of feed and fodders including forest grasses;
antinutritional factors and toxins in feeds and fodders; feeding standards and nutrient
requirements of different categories of livestock / poultry and computation of rations.
Nutritional deficiency and its influence on livestock performance; feed supplements and
additives; conservation and preservation of feed and fodders; economic utilization of agro
by-products for feeding livestock – Utilisation of unconventional feeds – Wildlife
nutrition. Quality control of feed, feed block/baling, By-Pass Proteins and by-pass Fat,
Feeding livestock during scarcity, Metabolic disorders in Livestock and Poultry,
Processing of feeds and forage to improve nutritive value.
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CHAPTER I

NUTRITIONAL TERMS AND DEFINITION

A glossary of terms frequently used in discussing matters related to feed and

nutrition is presented in this chapter:

Additives: An ingredient or substance added to a basic feed mix, usually in small

quantities, for the purpose of fortifying it with certain nutrients, stimulants and/or
medicines.
Ad Libitum: Free-choice assess to feed.
ADF: Acid Detergent Fibre. Contains cellulose lignin silica and insoluble NPN
Agglomerated feed: A mixture of feeds in compacted or extruded form.
Agroforestry: A land management approach that deliberately combines the production
of trees with other crops and/or livestock. By blending agriculture and forestry with
conservation practices. Agroforestry optimizes economic, environmental and social
benefits.
Air-dry (approximately 90% dry matter): This refers to feed that is dried by means of
natural air movement, usually in the open. It may be either an actual or assumed dry
matter content, the latter is approximately 90 per cent. More feeds are fed in the air-dry
state.
Alfalfa Meal - the aerial portion of the alfalfa plant, reasonably free from other crop
plants, weeds and mold, which has been sun cured and finely ground.
Amino acids: Nitrogen-containing compounds that consists the “building blocks” or
units from which more complex proteins are formed. They contain both an amino (NH2)
group and a carboxyl (COOH) group.
Amino acid Imbalance: Certain proteins contain excessive amount of some amino acids
and are deficient in some other amino acids such proteins creates imbalance of amino
acid and depresses growth. The condition can be corrected by supplementing the limiting
amino acid.
Anabolism: Synthesis of complex substances from simple substances is called
anabolism.
Analogue: Anything that is analogous or similar to something else (also spelled analog).
Animal Protein: Protein derived from meat packing or rendering plants, surplus milk or
milk products and marine sources. It includes proteins from meat, milk, poultry, eggs,
fish and their products.
Animal Protein Factor (APF): The term formerly used to refer to an undefined growth
factor essential for poultry and swine and present in protein feeds or animal origin. It is
know to be same as vitamin B12.
Antimetabolite: A substance bearing a close structural resemblance to one required for
normal physiological functioning, which exerts its effect by replacing or interfering with
the utilisation of the essential metabolite.
Antioxidant: A compound that prevents oxidative rancidity or polyunsaturated fats.
Antioxidants are used to prevent rancidity in feed and foods.
Antivitamin: Any substance which inhibits the normal function of a vitamin.
Apparent Metabolisable Energy (ME): It the gross energy of the feed consumed minus
the gross energy contained in the faeces, urine and gaseous products of digestion. For
poultry the gaseous products are usually negligible, so ME represents the gross energy of
the feed minus the gross energy of the excreta. A correction for nitrogen retained in the
body is usually applied to yield a nitrogen-corrected ME (MEn) value. MEn, as
determined using the method described by Andeeson et al. (1958) or slight modifications
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thereof, is the most common measure or available energy used in formulation of poultry
feeds.
Appetite: This immediate desire to eat when feed present. Loss of appetite in an animal
is usually caused by illness of stress.
As-Fed: This refer to food as normally fed to animals. It may range from 0 to 100
percent dry matter.
Ash: The mineral matter of a feed. The residues that remain after complete incineration
of the organic matter.
Assay: Determination of (1) the purity or potency of a substance or (2) the amount of ant
particular constituent of a mixture.
Available nutrient: A nutrient which can be digested, absorbed and/or used in the body.
Average Daily gain (ADG): The average daily live weight increase of an animal.
Balanced Ration: One which provides an animal the proper amounts and proportions of
all the required nutrients.
Basal Diet: A diet common to all groups of experimental animals to which the
experimental substances(s) is added.
Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR): The heat produced by an animal during complete rest
(but not sleeping) following fasting when using just enough energy to maintain vital
cellular activity, respiration and circulation the measured value of which is called the
basal metabolic rate (BMR). Basal conditions include thermo neutral environment,
resting post absorptive state (digestive processes are quiescent), consciousness, quiesence
and sexual repose. It is determined in man 14 to 18 hours after eating when at absolute
rest. It is measured by means of a calorimeter and is expressed in calories per square
meter of body surface.
Biological value of a protein: The percentage of the protein of a feed or feed mixture
which is usable as a protein by the animal. Thus, the biological value of a protein is a
reflection of the kinds of amounts of amino acid available to the animal after digestion.
A protein which has a high biological value is said to be of good quality.
Nitrogen intake - (Nitrogen excreted in feces +
B.V. = Nitrogen excreted in urine) X 100
Nitrogen intake - Nitrogen excreted in feces

Blended: Combined or mixed so as to render the constituent parts indistinguishable from

one another such as when two or more feed ingredients or mixed.
Bomb Calorimeter: An instrument used to measure the gross energy content of any
material, in which the feed (or other substance) tested is placed and burned in the
presence of oxygen.
Bran: It is the outer coarse coat of the grain, separated during processing e.g. Rice bran,
wheat bran, maize bran etc.
Brix: A term commonly used to indicate the sugar (sucrose) content of molasses. It is
expressed in degrees and was originally used to indicate the percentage by weight of
sugar in sucrose solutions, with each degree Brix being equal to 1 percent sucrose.
By-product feeds: The innumerable roughage and concentrates obtained as secondary
products from plant and animal processing and from industrial manufacturing.
Cake (press cake): The mass resulting from the pressing of seeds, meat or fish in order
to remove oils, fats or other liquids.
Carrier: An edible material to which ingredients are added to facilitate their uniform
incorporation into feeds. The active particles are absorbed, impregnated or coated into or
onto the edible material in such a way as to carry the active ingredient physically.
Catabolism: Degradation of complex material into simpler substances is called
catabolism
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Calorie: The basic unit of heat energy is the calorie it may be defined as the amount of
heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water through 1 degree Centigrade
Cereals: A plant in the gross family (Graminae), the seeds of which are used for human
and animal food; Eg. Maize and wheat.
Chaff: Glumes, husks or other seeds covering, together with other plant parts, separated
from seed in threshing or processing.
Chelate: The word chelate is derived from the Greek word meaning “claw”. It refer to a
cyclic compound which is formed between an organic molecule and a metabolic ion, the
latter being held within then organic molecule as if by a claw. Examples of naturally
occurring chelates are the chlorophylls, cytochromes, hemoglobin and vitamin B12.
Chemical score: The quality of the protein is decided by that amino acid which is
greatest deficit when compared with standard protein (egg protein).
Coefficient or digestibility: The percentage value of a food nutrient that is absorbed. For
example, if a food contains 10 grams of nitrogen and it is found that 9.5 grams are
absorbed, the digestibility is 95 per cent.
Coenzyme: A substance, usually containing a vitamin, which works with an enzyme
(protein mainly) to perform a certain function.
Collagen: A white papery transparent type of connective tissue which is of protein
composition. It forms gelatin which heated with water.
Commercial feeds: Feeds mixed by manufacturers who specialize in the feed business.
Concentrate: A broad classification of feedstuffs which are high in energy and low in
crude fiber (under 18%). For convenience concentrates are often broken down (1)
carbonaceous feeds and (2) nitrogenous feeds.
Corn Gluten Meal - the dried residue from corn after the removal of the larger part of
the starch and germ, and the separation of the bran by the process employed in the wet
milling manufacture of corn starch or syrup, or by enzymatic treatment of the endosperm.
Cracked: Particle size reduced by combined breaking and crushing action.
Crimped: Rolled between corrugated rollers. The gain to which this term refers may be
tempered or conditioned before crimping and may be rolled afterward.
Crude fat: Material that is extracted from moisture-free feeds by ether. It consists
largely of fats and oils with small amounts of waxes, resins and colouring matter. In
calculating the energy value of a feed the cat is considered to have 2.25 times as much
energy as either nitrogen-free extract or protein.
Crubbles: Pelleted feed reduced to granular form.
Decortication: Removal of the bark, hull, husk or shell from a plant, seed or root.
Removal of portions of the cortical substance of a structure or organ, as in the brain,
kidney and lung.
Defluorinated: Processed in such manner that the fluorine content is reduced to a level
which is nontoxic under normal use.
Dehulled: Grains or other seeds with the outer covering removed.
Dehydrate: To remove most or all moisture from a substance for the purpose of
preservation, primarily through artificial drying.
Desiccate: To dry completely.
Depraved appetite (pica): A craving for and eating of unnatural substances, such as dirt,
hair, dung, wood, etc.
Diet: Feed ingredient or mixed or ingredient, including water, which is consumed by
animals.
Digestibility: denotes the percentage of the whole feed or single nutrient which is not
excreted in the faeces and is therefore assumed to be available for absorption from the GI
tract.
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Digestible energy: Gross energy minus the energy loss in faeces is called as digestible
energy.
Digestible nutrient: The part of each feed nutrient that is digested or absorbed by the
animal.
Digestible Protein: The protein of the ingested food protein which is absorbed.
Digestion coefficient (coefficient of digestibility): the difference between the nutrients
consumed and the nutrients excreted expressed as a percentage.
Dry matter: That part of a feed which is not water. It is computed by determining the
percentage of water and subtracting the water content from 100 percent.
Dry matter basis: A method of expressing the level of nutrient contained in a feed on the
basis that the material contains no moisture.
Dry rolling: Refer to processing grains without added steam or other moisture.
Efficiency of feed conversion: This is expressed as units of feed per unit of product
meal, milk or eggs.
Element: One of the many 105 known chemical substances that cannot be divided into
simpler substance by chemical means.
Emaciated: An excessively thin condition of the body:
Energy: Vigor power in action. The capacity of perform work.
Energy Feeds: Feeds that are high energy and low in fiber (under 18%), and that
generally contain less than 20 per cent protein.
Essential fatty acids: Certain fatty acids are essential for the growth and health of
animals and they cannot be synthesized in the animal system hence they are dietary
essential, such fatty acids are called as essential fatty acids. Linoleic, Linolenic and
arachidonic acids.
Essential amino acids are those that are necessary for growth and maintenance of body
but are not synthesized in sufficient amount by the body hence they are dietary essential.
The essential amino acids are Histidine, Isoleucine, Leucine, Lysine, Methionine,
Phenylalanine, Threonine, Tryptophan, Valine, Cysteine and Tyrosine. Taurine is
essential in cats. Glycine is essential in chicks.
Ether Extract (EE): Fatty substances of feeds or foods that are soluble in ether.
EUN: Here the loss of nitrogen is due to the catabolism incidental to maintenance of the
vital tissues of the body, which can be measured at the minimum urinary excretion on a
nitrogen free otherwise adequate (particularly energy adequacy) diet
Evaporated: Reduced to a denser form; concentrated as by evaporation or distillation.
Expanded: As applied to feed, it refers to an increase in volume as the result of a sudden
reduction in the surrounding pressure.
Expeller process: A process of the mechanical extraction of oil from seeds, involving the
use of screw press.
Extracted: Having removed fat or oil from materials by heat and mechanical pressure.
Similar terms: expeller extracted, hydraulic extracted, old process.
Extrinsic Factor: A dietary substance which was formerly thought to interact with the
intrinsic factor of the gastric secretion to produce the antianemic factor, now known to be
vitamin B12. (Also seed intrinsic factor).
Extruded: A type of feed preparation in which the feed is forced through a die under
pressure.
Fat: The term fat is frequently used in general sense to include both fats and oils or a
mixture of the two. Both fats and oils have the same general structure and chemical
properties, but they have different physical characteristics. The melting points of most
facts are acteristics. The melting points of most fats are such that they are solid at
ordinary room temperature, while oils have lower melting points and are liquids at these
temperatures.
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Fat Soluble: Fat soluble in fats and fat solvents but generally not soluble in water.
Fattening: The deposition of energy in the form of fat within the body tissues.
Feed (or feedstuff): Any naturally occurring ingredient or material, fed to animals for
the purpose sustaining them.
Feed activities and implements: Non nutritive products that improve the rate and/or
efficient of gain of animals, percent certain diseases, or pressure feeds,
Feed efficiency: The ratio expressing the number of units of feed required for one unit
of production (meat, milk, eggs) by an animals.
Feed Grade: Feedstuffs suitable for animals, but nor for human consumption.
Feed grain: Any of several grains mostly commonly used for livestock or poultry feed,
such as corn, sorghum, oats and barley.
Feedings standards are the table which indicates the quantities of nutrients to be fed to
the various classes of livestock for different physiological functions like growth,
maintenance, lactation, egg production and wool growth.
Feedstuff: Any product, of natural or artificial origin, that has nutritional value in the diet
when properly prepared.
Fermented: Acted upon by yeasts, moulds or bacteria in a controlled aerobic or
anaerobic process in the manufacture of such products as alcohols, acids, vitamins or the
B complex group or antibiotics.
Fiber content of a feed: The amount of hard-to-digest carbohydrates. Most fiber is
made up of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin.
Fibrous: High in cellulose and / or lignin content.
Finishing animals: The laying on or fat prior to slaughter.
Fish Meal - The clean, dried, ground tissue of undecomposed whole fish or fish cuttings,
either or both, with or without the extraction of part of the oil.
Flakes: An ingredient rolled or cut into flat pieces with or without prior steam
conditioning.
Flavouring agent: Feed additives that are supposed to increase palatability and feed
intake.
Flora: The plant life present. In nutrition it generally refers to the bacteria present in the
digestive tract.
Formula feed: A feed consisting of two or more ingredients mixed in specified
proportions.
Fortify: Nutritionally to add one or more feeds or feedstuffs.
Free-choice: Free to eat two or more feeds at will.
Germ: It is the embryo of any seed, rich in protein and fat.
Gluten: The though, viscid, nitrogenous substance remaining when the flour of wheat or
other grain is washed to remove the starch.
Grits: Coarsely ground grain from which the bran and germ have been removed, usually
screened to uniformed particle size.
Groats: Grain from which the hulls have been removed.
Gross Energy (GE): is the energy released as heat when a substance is completely
oxidised to carbon dioxide and water. Gross energy is also referred to as the heat of
combustion. It is generally measured using 25 to 30 atmospheres of oxygen in a bomb
calorimeter.
Ground: Reduced in particle size by impact, sharing or attrition.
Heat of fermentation (HF): The heat produced in the digestive tract as result of
microbial action.
Heat increment: Energy loss due to processes of digestion and metabolism is called heat
increment.
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Heat-processed: Subject to a method of preparation of involving the use of elevated
temperature, with or without pressure.
Hemicellulose: A carbohydrate classified in the crude fiber fraction of feed stuffs that is
similar to cellulose, expect that it contains pentoses 95-carbon sugars) and uronic acid in
addition to hexose.
Hulls: Outer covering of grain or other seed, especially when dry.
Hydraulic process: A process for the mechanical extraction of oil from seeds, involving
the use of a hydraulic press. Sometimes referred to as “old process”.
Hydrogenation: The chemical and addition of hydrogen to any unsaturated compound.
Hydrolysis: The splitting of a substance in to smaller units by chemically adding water to
the material.
Hypervitaminosis: An abnormal condition resulting from the intake of an excess of one
or more vitamins.
Hypocalcemia: Below normal concentration of ionic calcium in blood resulting in
convulsion as in tetany or parturient paresis (milk fever in crude).
Hypomagnesemia: An abnormally low level of magnesium in the blood.
Implant: A substance that is implanted into the body from the purpose of growth
promotion or controlling some physical function.
In Vitro: Occurring in an artificial environment, as in a test tube.
In Vivo: occurring in the living body.
Inert: Relatively inactive.
Ingest: To eat or take in through the mouth.
Ingesta: Food or drink taken into the stomach.
Ingestion: The taking in of food ad drink.
Ingredient: A constituent feed material.
IU (International Unit): A standard unit of potency of a biological agent Eg,. Vitamin,
hormone, antibiotic (antitoxin) as defined by the International Conference for Unification
of formulae. Potency is based on bioassay that produces a particular effect agreed on
internationally. Also called USP unit.
Joule: An international unit (4.184 j = 1 calorie) for expressing mechanical chemical or
electrical energy as wells as the concept of heat. In the future, energy requirements and
feed values will likely be expressed by this unit.
Keratin: A sulfur-containing protein which is the primary component of epiderms hair,
wool, hoof, horn and the organic matrix of the teeth.
Kernel: The whole grain of cereal. The meats of nuts and drupes (single-stoned fruits).
Kjeldahl: A method of determining the amount of nitrogen in an organic compound.
The quality of nitrogen measured is then multiplied by 6.25 to calculate the protein
content of the feed or compound analysed. The method was developed by the Danish
Chemist, J.G.C., Kjeldahl, in 1983.
Labile: Unstable. Easily destroyed.
Lignification: The process of impregnating cell walls of a plant with lignin.
Lignin: A practically indigestible compound which along with cellulose, is a major
component of the cell wall of certain plant materials, such as wood, hulls, straws and
overripe hays.
Limiting Amino Acid: The essential amino acid of a protein which shows the greatest
percentage deficit in comparison with amino acids contained in the same quantity of
another protein selected as a standard.
Macro (or major) Mineral: The Major mineral calcium, phosphorus, sodium, chlorine,
potassium, magnesium and sulfur.
Malnutrition: Any disorder of nutrition, commonly used to indicate a state of inadequate
nutrition.
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Meat Anologs: Food material usually prepared from vegetable protein to resemble
specific meats in texture, colour and flavour.
Meats: Animal tissue used as food.
Meat and Bone Meal - the rendered product from mammal tissues, including bone,
exclusive of blood, hair, hoof, horn, hide trimmings, manure, stomach and rumen
contents, except in such amounts as may occur unavoidably in good processing practices.
Meat By-Products - the non rendered, clean parts, other than meat, derived from
slaughtered mammals. It includes, but is not limited to, lungs, spleen, kidneys, brain,
livers, blood, bone, partially defatted low-temperature fatty tissue and stomachs and
intestines freed of their contents. It does not include hair, horns, teeth and hooves.
Mechanically Extracted: A method of extracting the fat content from oil seeds by the
application of heat and mechanical pressure. The hydraulic and expeller process and both
method of mechanical extraction.
Medicated feed: Any feed which contains drug ingredients intended or represented for
the cure, mitigation, treatment or prevention of diseases of animals (other than man).
Metabolism: Refers to all the changes that take place in the nutrients after they absorbed
from the digestive tract, including (1) the building-up process in which the absorbed
nutrients are used in the formation of repair of body tissue and (2) the breaking down
process in which nutrients are oxidised for the production of heat and work.
Metabolizable Energy (ME): It is the gross energy of the feed consumed minus the
gross energy contained in the faeces, urine and gaseous products of digestion. For poultry
the gaseous products are negligible.
MFN ( Metabolic faecal nitrogen) which comprises residues originated from the body,
Eg. Residues of bile digestive enzymes, epithelial cells derived from the alimentary tract
and undigested bacteria.
Metabolic body weight (W0.75): Body weight to the power of 0.75. This is calculated by
using Logarithm tables of a calculator.
Metabolite: Any substance produced by metabolism or by a metabolic process.
Mill by-product: A secondary product obtained in addition to the principal product in
milling practice.
Mimosine: Mimosine is a toxic amino acid, also called as ‘leucenine’ found in the plants
belonging to the genus Leucaena like subabul. This toxic substance mimosine can cause
problems when the forage is eaten in large quantities for a long period.
Minerals (ash): The inorganic elements of animals and plants determined by burning off
the organic matter and weighing the residue, which is called ash.
Mineral Supplement: A rich source of one or more of the inorganic elements needed to
perform certain essential body functions.
Mixing: to combine by agitation two or more materials to a specific degree of dispersion.
Moisture: A term used to indicate the water contained in feed-expressed as a percentage.
Moisture-free (M-F, oven-dry, 100% dry matter): This refers to any substance that has
been dried in an oven at 221oF (105oC) until all the moisture has been removed.
Molasses: Concentrated water solution of sugar, hemi-celluloses and minerals obtained
as by-product of various manufacturing operations of the juices or extracts of selected
plant materials are called molasses. e.g. Cane molasses, beet molasses and wood
molasses.
Molasses Brix: The term is used in referring to the amount of sugar content of
molasses.
Mycotoxins: Toxic metabolites produced by molds during growth. Sometimes present in
fed materials.
National Research Council (NRC): A division of the National Academy of Science
established in 1916 to promote the effective utilisation of scientific and technical
 10
resources. Periodically, this private, non-profit organisation of scientists publishes
bulletins giving nutrient requirements and allowance of domestic animals, copies of
which are available on a charge basis through the National Academy of Science, National
Research Council, 2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W., Washington D.C., 20418.
NDS: Neutral detergent solubles. Contains lipids, sugars and proteins.
NDF: Neutral detergent fibre. Cell wall contents. Includes digestible and indigestible
fibre.
Net Energy (NE): Is metabolisable energy minus the energy lost as the heat increment.
NE may include the energy used for maintenance only (NEn) or for maintenance and
production (NEm+p). Because of NE is used at different levels of efficiency for
maintenance or various productive functions, there is no absolute NE value for each
feedstuff. For this reason, productive energy, once a popular measure of the energy
available of NE is seldom used.
Net protein utilisation (NPU): Is the product of biological value and digestability
coefficient of protein.
Nitrogen: A chemical essential to life. Animals get it from protein feeds; plants get it
from the soil; and some bacteria get it directly from the air.
Nitrogen Balance: The nitrogen in the feed intake minus the nitrogen in the feces, minus
the nitrogen in the urine.
Nitrogen-Free Extract (NFE): It consists principally of sugars, starches, pentoses and
non-nitrogenous organic acid. The percentage is determined by subtracting the sum of
the percentage of moisture, crude protein, crude fat, crude fiber and ash from 100.
Non protein Nitrogen (NPN): Nitrogen which comes from other than a protein source
but may be used by a ruminant in the building of protein. NPN sources include
compounds like urea and anhydrous ammonia, which are used in feed formulation for
ruminants only.
Noxious: Harmful, not wholesome.
Nutrient allowances: Nutrient recommendation that allow for variations in feed
composition, possible losses during storage and processing, day-to-day and period-to-
period differences in needs of animals age and size of animal; stage of gestation and
lactation; the kind and degree of activity, the amount of stress, the system of
management, the health, condition, and temperature of the animal and the kind , quality
and amount of feed-all of which exert a powerful influence in determining nutritive
needs.
Nutrient requirements: This refers to meeting the animals minimum needs, without
margins of safety for maintenance, growth, fitting, reproduction, lactation, and work. To
meet these nutritive requirements the different classes of animals must receive sufficient
feed to furnish the necessary quantity of energy (carbohydrates and fats), protein, mineral
and vitamins.
Nutrient to calorie ratio: The energy needs of animals and their requirements of the
several nutrients are quantitatively corrected. For those nutrients that are needed
metabolise energy, it is logical to consider that the amount of energy metabolised
“determines” their requirements. Hence, it is logical to express nutrients in weight per
unit of energy needed. For example, it is suggested that the protein to calorie ratio should
be expressed as grams of protein per 100 kcal metabolisable energy (g peotein/100 kcal
ME). If the ME is corrected for nitrogen retained or lost from the body), then the
abbreviation should be g peotein/100 kcal MEn. This same dimension may easily to
extend to other nutrients, such as g calcium 100 kcal or mg riboflavin/100 kcal. Etc.
Nutrients: The chemical substance found in feed materials that can be used and are
necessary, for the maintenance, production and health of animals. The chief classes of
nutrients are carbohydrates, fats proteins, minerals, vitamins and water.
 11
Nutrition: The science encompassing the sum total process that has as a terminal
objective the provision of nutrients to the component cells of an animal.
Obese: Over weight due to surplus of body fat.
Off feed: Not eating with a normal healthy appetite.
Oil: Although fats and oils have the same general structure and chemical properties, they
have different physical characteristic. The melting points of oils are such that they are
liquid at ordinary room temperature.
Orts: Leftover feed which an animal refuses to eat.
Palatability: The result of the following factors sensed by the animal in locating and
consuming feed, appearance, odour, taste, texture, temperature and in some cases,
auditory properties of the feed (like the sound of pigs eating corn). These factors are
affected by the physical and chemical nature of feed.
Palatable Feeds: Feeds that are well liked and eaten with relish.
Pantothenic acid: One of the B Vitamins. It is a constituent of coenzyme A, which
plays an essential role in fat and cholesterol synthesis.
Parts per billion (PPB): It equals micrograms per kilo gram or microliter per liter.
Parts per million (PPM): It equals milligrams per kilo grams or microliter per liter.
Pearled: Dehulled grains reduced into smaller smooth particles by mechanic brushing or
abrasion.
Pectin: Any of the group or colorless, amorphous, methylated, pectic substance occurring
in plant tissue or obtained be restricted treatment of protopectin that are obtained from
fruits or succulent vegetables, that yield viscous solutions with water and when combined
with acid and sugar, yield a gel.
Peelings: Outer layers of covering which have been removed by stripping or tearing.
Pellet binders: Products that enhance the firmness of pelletes.
Pelletes: Ground feed compacted by steaming and forcing the material through die
opening.
Phase Feeding: Refers to change in animal’s diet (1) to adjust for age and stage of
production, (2) to adjust for season of the year and for temperature and climate changes,
(3) to account for differences in body weight and nutrient requirements of different
strains of animals or (4) to adjust on or more nutrient as other nutrients are changed for
economic or availability reasons.
Plant Proteins: This group includes the common oilseed by-products – soyabean meal,
cottonseed meal, linseed meal, peanut meal, safflower meal, sunflower meal, rapeseed
meal, and coconut (or copra) meal. They vary in protein content and nutrient value,
depending on the seed from which they are produced, the amount of hull and/or seed coat
included and the method of oil extraction used.
Polishing: By-product of rice, consisting of a fine residue that accumulates during
polishing of rice kernel contains about 10-15% protein, 12% fat and 3-4% crude fibre. It
is an excellent source of energy and vitamin B complex. Due to high fat content rancidity
can pose problem

Polyunsaturated fatty acids: Fatty acids having more than one double bond. Linoleic
and linolenic acids, which contain 2 and 3 bonds respectively, are essential in the diet of
man.
Poultry By-Product Meal - consists of the ground, rendered, clean parts of the carcass
of slaughtered poultry, such as necks, feet, undeveloped eggs, intestines, exclusive of
feathers, except in such amounts as might occur unavoidably in good processing
practices.
Precursor: A compound that can be used by the body to from another compound for
example, carotene is a precursor of vitamin A.
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Preservatives: A number of materials are available to incorporate into feed and their
products, with claims made that they will improve the preservation of nutrients, nutritive
value and/or palatability of the feed.
Pressed: Compacted or molded by pressure; having fat, oil or juice extracted under
pressure.
Pressure cooker: An airtight container for the cooking of feed at high temperature under
steam pressure.
Protein: From the Greek meaning “of first rank importance”. Complex organic
compounds made up chiefly of amino acids present in characteristic proportions for each
specific protein. At least 24 amino acids have been identified and may occur in
combinations to form an almost limitless number of proteins. Protein always contains
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen and in addition it usually contains sulfur and
frequently phosphorus. Crude protein is determined by finding the nitrogen content and
multiplying the result by 6.25. The nitrogen content of proteins averages about 16 per
cent (100/16=6.24). Proteins are essential in all plant and animal life as components of
the active protoplasm of each living cell.
Protein equivalent: A term indicating the total nitrogenous contribution of substance in
comparison with the nitrogen content of protein (usually plant protein). For example, the
non-protein nitrogen (NPN) compound urea contains approximately 45% nitrogen and
has a protein equivalent of 281% (6.25  45%).
PER (Protein efficiency ratio) is the gain in body weight per gram of protein intake.
PER = Gain in body weight (g)
Protein intake (g)
Protein-sparing: An effect in which less proteins is used by the animal to meet the
animal’s glucose needs in times of glucose shortage. Propionic acid is protein sparing in
that it can be converted to glucose. Acetic and butyric acid cannot be converted to
glucose. Likewise, fat cannot be converted. The glycogenic amino acids may be
converted to glucose.
Protein Supplements: Products that contain more than 20 percent protein or protein
equivalent.
Proximate Analysis: A chemical scheme for evaluating feedstuffs, in which a feed stuff
is partitioned into the six fractions: (1) moisture (water) or dry matter (DM); (2) total
(crude) protein (CP or TDN  6.25); (3) ether extract (EE) or fat; (4) ash (mineral salts);
(5) crude fiber (CF) – the incompletely digested carbohydrates and (6) nitrogen-free
extract (NFE) – the more readily digested carbohydrates (calculated rather than measured
chemically).
Purified Diet: A mixture of the known essential dietary nutrients in a pure form that is
fed to experimental (test) animals in nutrition studies.
Quality: A term used to denote the desirability and/or acceptance of an animal or feed
product.
Quality of protein: A term used to describe the amino acid balance or protein. A protein
is said to be of good quality when it contains all the essential amino acids in proper
proportions and amounts needed by a specific animal and it is said to be poor quality
when it is deficient in either content or balance of essential amino acids.
Ration(s): The amount of feed supplied to an animal for a definite period, usually for a
24 hour period. However by practical usage the word ration implies the feed fed to an
animal without limitation to the time in which it is consumed.
Respiratory quotient (RQ): This is the ratio between the volume of carbon dioxide
produced by the animal and the volume of oxygen used.
Saturated fat: A completely hydrogenated fat-each carbon atom is associated with the
maximum number of hydrogens; there are no double bonds.
 13
Selenium: An element that functions with glutathione peroxidase an enzyme which
enables the tripeptide glutathione to perform its role as a biological antioxidant in the
body. This explains why deficiencies of selenium and vitamin E result in similar signs-
loss of appetite and slow growth.
Silage Silage is the material produced by the controlled fermentation of a crop of high
moisture content. Ensilage is the name given to the process and the container, if used, is
called the silo.
chaff consists of the husk or glumes of the seed which are seperated from the grain
during threshing.
Sodium Bentonite (clay): Used as a pellet binder. Also shows promise for improving
the nitrogen utilisation or ruminants.
Solvent-extracted: fat or oil removed from materials (such as oilseeds) by organic
solvents. Also called “new process”.
Sorghum: A cereal grain used mainly for as feed grain.
Specific Dynamic Action (SDA): The increased production of heat by the body as a
result of stimulus to metabolic activity caused by ingesting food.
Spray-dehydrated: Material which has been dried by spraying onto the surface of heated
drum. It is recovered by scraping it from the drum.
Stablised: Made more resistant to chemical change by the addition of a particular
substance.
Starch equivalent is the number of kilograms of starch that would be required to
produce the same amount of fat as that of 100 kg of feed.
Straws Straws consist of the stem and leaves of plants after the removal of the ripe seeds
by threshing and are produced from most cereal crops and from some legumes
Steamed: Treatment of ingredients with steam to alter physical and/or chemical
properties.
Sun-cured: Material dried by exposure in open air to direct rays of the sun.
Supplement: A feed or feed mixtures used to improve the nutrition value of basal feeds
(eg. Protein supplement-soyabean meal). Supplements are usually rich in protein,
minerals, vitamins, antibiotic or a combination of part or all of these and they are usually
combined with basal feeds to produce a complete feed.
TDN (%) = % Dig.CP + (% Dig. EE  2.25) + % Dig.CF + % Dig.NFE
Gross energy: The quantity of heat generated from complete oxidation of unit weight of
a food is known as gross energy.
Toxemia: A condition produced by the presence of poisons (toxins) in the blood.
Toxic: Of poisonous nature.
Trace Elements: A chemical element used in minute amounts by organism and held
essential to their physiology. The essential trace elements are cobalt, copper, iodine, iron,
manganese, selenium and zinc.
Trace mineral: A mineral nutrient required by animals in micro amounts only
(measurable in milligrams per kilogram or smaller units).
Transamination: It is the reversible reaction between amino acids and keto acids leading
to the exchange of amino and ketonic groups.
Thermal Equivalent of Oxygen: The utilization of one litre of oxygen would lead to the
production of 20.98 Kj of heat this value is known as thermal equivalent of oxygen.
True Metabolisable Energy (TME) for poultry is the gross energy of the deed
consumed minus for gross energy of the excreta of feed origin corrected for nitrogen
retention, may be applied to give a TME value. Most MEn values in the literature have
been determined by assay in which the test material is substituted for part of the test diet
or for some ingredient of known ME value. When birds in these assay are allowed to
 14
consume feed on an ad libitum basis, the MEn value obtained approximate TMEn
values for most feedstuffs.
True protein: A nitrogenous compound which will hydrolyze completely to amino
acids.
Unsaturated fat: A fat having one or more double bonds; nor completely hydrogenated.
Unsaturated Fatty acid: Any one of several fatty acids containing one or more double
such as oleic, linoleic, linolenic and arachidonic acids.
Vaccum-dehydated: Freed or moisture after removal of surrounding air while in an
airtight enclosure.
Vitamins: Complex organic compounds that function as parts of enzyme systems
essential for the transformation of energy and the regulation of metabolism of the body,
and required in minute amounts by one or more animal species for normal growth,
production, reproduction, and/or health. All vitamins must be present in the ration for
normal functioning except for B vitamin in the ruminants (cattle and sheep) and vitamin
C.
Wheat Bran - the coarse outer covering of the wheat kernel as separated from cleaned
and scoured wheat in the usual process of commercial milling.
 15
CHAPTER II

ROLE OF NUTRITION IN HEALTH AND PRODUCTION

Proper nutrition is essential to the health and well-being of all domestic animals.
Nutrition is important because animals must maintain a high level of production. The genetic
advancement has led to increased productivity and production systems have become more
intensified, hence there is increased pressure on animal husbandry to ensure that nutrition does
not limit animal wellbeing, health, or production.
Proper nutrition is also central to the prevention and control of many infectious and
noninfectious diseases. Infectious diseases require successful colonization by a specific infectious
organism(s) (eg, a bacterium, virus, parasite); the mere presence of the microbe is not usually
sufficient for disease to develop. Environmental and host factors influence whether an animal will
develop clinical disease or has impaired productivity as a result of becoming infected. Mostly
animals that are in a poor plane of nutrition pick up infections to a greater extent than well fed
animals in good nutritional status.
Nutrition plays a role in influencing the animal's susceptibility to disease (eg, feline lower
urinary tract disease) as well as in managing certain diseases (eg, diabetes, hyperlipidemia,
ketosis in dairy cattle). Rations/diets must be formulated to provide for the basic physiologic
needs (eg, energy, protein, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals) of the animal and to ensure
optimal growth and productivity.
Nutritionally related diseases include diseases associated with a nutritional excess (eg,
direct toxic effect, digestive upset), nutritional deficiency (either a primary or secondary
deficiency), or nutritional imbalance.
Feed preparation and delivery are often as important in ensuring animal health and
productivity as the actual nutritional value of the ration itself. Inadequacies in nutritional delivery
can directly cause disease (eg, ruminal acidosis, laminitis) or increase susceptibility to disease
(eg, type D Clostridium perfringens enterotoxemia).
Nutritionally related diseases in companion animals include both diseases of excess (eg,
developmental orthopedic disease in dogs related to excess calcium and energy) and diseases of
deficiency (eg, blindness in cats related to taurine deficiency). Feeds and feeding management can
also influence animal health if feeding results in exposure to foodborne physical hazards (eg,
sharp objects), chemicals (eg, mycotoxins, toxic plants), allergens (eg, dust mites, mold spores),
or microbes (eg, molds, Salmonella spp).
Nutritional and waste management practices are also important in preventing and
controlling infectious diseases that are spread through fecal-oral transmission (eg, salmonellosis,
paratuberculosis in ruminants, toxoplasmosis in cats).
 16
CHAPTER III

CLASSIFICATION AND COMPOSITION OF FEED AND FODDERS

INCLUDING FOREST GRASSES

➢ Feeds can be classified based on their moisture content or based on their fibre
content.
➢ Feeds having high moisture are called high moisture or succulent feeds. Feeds
having below 15 % moisture are called dry feeds.
➢ Feeds having higher than 18 -20 % crude fibre are called roughages and feeds
having below 18 % crude fibre are called concentrates.
➢ Roughages can be succulent or dry based on moisture content
➢ Concentrates may be dry concentrates or high moisture concentrates (Molasses)
➢ Concentrates having high protein above 18 % are called protein supplements
➢ Concentrates having high energy (above 60% TDN) are called energy
supplements.
➢ Concentrates rich in minerals are called mineral supplements

ROUGHAGES

Feeds having higher than 18 -20 % crude fibre are called roughages

SUCCULENT ROUGHAGES

High moisture roughages are called succulent roughages.

FORAGE GRASSES - As bulk feed of the livestock, grasses are the best and cheapest.

CULTIVATED GRASSES

Guinea grass - Panicum maximum (Guinea pul) - Valuable grass for grazing, soiling,
hay and silage making. Nutritive value of guinea grass is quite high when leafy and
young (10% crude protein), but nutritive value falls rapidly with increasing maturity.
Para grass - Brachiaria mutica Water grass/ Buffalo grass - It can be used for green
soiling, hay or browse, and should be grazed rotationally as it will not withstand heavy
grazing.
CO 1, CO2, CO3, CO4, CO5 grasses - Cumbu napier hybrid grasses. Have a better
yield and nutritive value compared to other non hybrid grasses. Can be converted into
hay or silage.

PASTURE GRASSES
Cenchrus glaucous, C. ciliaries and C. setigerus - Excellent grazing grass for hot,
dry areas in tropics and sub-tropics.
Hariyali grass - Cynodon dactylon - A fine leafed perennial spreading and forming a
dense turf. A good fodder grass.
 17
FOREST GRASSES

• In India, grazing based livestock husbandry continues to play an important role in

rural economy of the country as around 50% animals depend on grazing in forests
and other grazing areas in many parts of the country.
• Total area available for grazing in the country is in the range of about 40% of the
land area. Pasturelands constitute the main grazing resources of the country,
available over an area of 12 million ha (3.94% of the geographical area).
• There is a lot of difference in the extent of grazing lands in various states. In some
states, namely Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Meghalaya, Nagaland and
Arunachal Pradesh, the grazing land availability is as high as 70%.
• A reconnaissance survey of grasslands of India conducted from 1954 to 1962
revealed 5 major grass covers based on distribution.
• The five grass covers identified are: Sehima-Dichanthium type, Dichanthium-
Cenchrus-Lasiurus type, Phragmites-Saccharum-Imperata type, Themeda-
Arundinella type, and Temperate Alpine type.

Sehima-Dichanthium type: This cover type is spread over the whole of Peninsular
India, including the central Indian plateau, the Chhota Nagpur Plateau and the Aravali
Ranges. Dominant perennial grass species are Dichanthium annulatum, Sehima
nervosum, Bothriochloa pertusa, Chrysopogon fulvus, Heteropogon contortus, Iseilema
laxum, Themeda triandra, Cynodon dactylon, Aristida setacea, Cymbopogon spp.etc.

Dichanthium-Cenchrus-Lasiurus type: This type is associated with sub-tropical arid

and semi-arid regions comprising the northern portion of Gujarat, the whole of Rajasthan,
excluding the Aravalli ranges in the south, western Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana and
Delhi State. The principal perennial grass species are Cenchrus ciliaris, C. setigerus, D.
annulatum, Cymbopogon jawarancusa, Cynodon dactylon, Eleusine compressa, Lasiurus
sindicus, Sporobolus marginatus, Dactyloctenium sindicum, Desmostachya bipinnata etc.

Phragmites-Saccharum-Imperata type: This grass cover occurs throughout the

Gangetic Plain, the Brahmaputra valley and extends westwards into the plains of Punjab
In north-eastern states, W Bengal, Bihar, UP, Punjab and Haryana. Principal perennials
species in drier regions are: Imperata cylindrica, Saccharum arundinaceum, S.
spontaneum, Phragmites karka, Desmostachya bipinnata.

Themeda-Arundinella type: This grass cover occurs in the entire northern and north
western mountain tract, in states, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana,
Himachal Preadesh and Jammu and Kashmir. This type is associated with
undifferentiated forest and hill soils, and also with undifferentiated forest sub-mountain
regional soils. The principal species of this grass cover are represented by Arundinella
benghalensis, A. nepaolensis, Bothriochloa intermedia, Chrysopogon fulvus,
Cymbopogon jwarancusa, Cynodon dactylon, Heteropogon contortus, Themeda
anathera, Euloliopsis binata, Ischaemum barbatum. Associated perennial species are:
Apluda mutica, Arundinella khaseana, Pennisetum flaccidum, Chloris, Desmostachya,
etc.
Temperate Alpine type: This cover type occurs on the high hills of Uttarakhand, Jammu
and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, West Bengal and North-eastern regions. It essentially
occurs at higher elevation, beyond timberline, approximately above 3,000 m in the west
and above 2,000 m in the east. The principal perennial species are: Agropyron
 18
conaliculatum, Chrysopogon gryllus, Dactylis glomerata, Danthonia cachemyriana,
Phleum alpinum, Carex nubigena, Poa pratensis, and Stipa concinna.

CULTIVATED CEREAL FODDERS

Fodder maize Zea mays (Makka cholam). Green maize is eaten fully by all kinds of
livestock if it is chaffed. It also makes excellent silage. Maximum yield and digestibility
are obtained when the crop is harvested at 50% flowering to dough stage.
Fodder finger millet Eleusine corocana Ragi It can be fed at any growth stage of the
crop without fear of any toxic principles.
Fodder pearl millet Pennisetum glaucum Cumbu / Fodder bajra / Indian millet - It
is a useful fodder crop in areas where irrigation facilities are inadequate. Bajra can be cut
and fed to livestock at any growth stage and it is completely free from toxic substances
like HCN.

CULTIVATED LEGUME FODDER CROPS

Among leguminous fodders, cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), cluster bean (Guar;
Cyamopsis psoraloides), Berseem (Trifolinm alexandrinum) and Lucerne (Medicago
sativa) are common leguminous fodder in India. Lucerne and berseem contain on an
average 2.5 to 3 per cent DCP and 12 per cent TDN on fresh basis. The phosphorus
content of these two forages are poor and thus have wide calcium to phosphorus ratio.

Per cent DCP and TDN of green roughages on DMB

GREEN ROUGHAGES DCP TDN

Napier grass 2.5 44.0
Para grass 3.5 59.0
Guinea grass 3.0 51.0
Cyanadon dactylon (arugam pull) 2.5 45.0
Fodder sorghum 2.5 50.0
Fodder maize 3.5 60.0
Cow pea 12.5 60.0
Leucerne 13.5 60.0
Soobabul 14.0 55.0
Sesbania (agathi) 15.0 50.0

CROP RESIDUES
The left-over portion of the crop after the main crop is harvested for human
consumption is called as crop residues. Crop residues may be grouped under the
following headings
Straws Stovers Aerial portion of Others
other crops
Wheat Maize Soyabean Corn cobs
Paddy Sorghum Groundnut Bagasse
Oats Sunflower Peanut hull
Barley Rice hull
Millets
 19
Nutritional quality of crop residues
➢ Low crude protein, calcium, carotene and available energy.
➢ High in cell wall constituents, lignin and silica
➢ Reduced palatability - low voluntary intake
➢ Low digestibility of dry matter and bioavailability of energy
➢ Bulky in nature

Straws and chaff: Straws consist of the stem and leaves of plants after the removal of
the ripe seeds by threshing and are produced from most cereal crops and from some
legumes chaff consists of the husk or glumes of the seed which are seperated from the
grain during threshing. These products are extremely fibrous, rich in lignin and of
extremely low nutritive value. They should not be used as pig or poultry food.
The poor nutritive values of straws may be attributed to the following facts.
1) The digestibility of straw is limited due to the formation of strong physical
and/or chemical bonds between lignin and the structural polysaccharides
(Hemi-cellulose).
2) Crystalline structure of cellulose is also responsible for low digestibility of
cellulose.
3) Highly deficient in other nutrients like minerals, vitamins, fatty acids and in
proteins.
4) High silica content of straw is known to depress organic matter digestibility.

Paddy straw: It has an exceptionally high ash content which consists mainly of silica.
The lignin content of this straw, is about 6-7% dry matter is however lower than that of
other cereals straw.
Other straws (Cereals) which are commonly fed to animals are: Wheat straw and Rye
straw, whereas in European Countries Oat straw.
Legume straws: After harvesting, seeds of pulses, the husks of the pods with leaves and
tender stems are left behind as by-products and can be utilised as fairly nutritious cattle
feeds. The energy value of these straws is comparable with those of cereal straws but they
are a fairly good source of digestible protein. They can as well meet the production
requirements of the animals to certain extent.

Per cent DCP and TDN of crop residues on DMB

CROP RESIDUES DCP TDN

Paddy straw 0 45
Wheat straw 0.3 50
Sorghum straw 1.5 55
Ragi straw 0.3 50
Ground nut haulms 12 50

SUCCULENT CROP RESIDUES

Tapioca Leaves: Cassava is a tuber crop extensively grown in Tamil Nadu and Kerala
State. At the time of harvest, the tuber is harvested and the leaves are thrown away.
Tapioca leaves are a rich source of protein having a DCP value of 8 and TDN value of 45
per cent of dry leaves. It contains ant nutritional factor HCN.
Groundnut haulms: Groundnut is the major oilseed produced in the country. At the
time of harvesting large quantities of leaves and stem become available for feeding of
 20
livestock. The DCP value of groundnut haulms is superior to that of non-leguminous
crops.
Sugarcane Tops - Sugarcane tops are important source as fodder during harvesting
season, which may last for four to ten months in a year. Sweetness makes it very
palatable and they are often fed hand chaffed green, which can easily provide the
animal’s maintenance ration. Leaves of cane tops are lower in digestibility than stalks and
its rate of digestion is also very low. Nutritive value of cane tops can be enhanced when
the chopped cane tops are mixed with legume and fed. Sugarcane tops can be ensiled
with 2% urea, 10% molasses, mineral mixture, 1% NaCl and 25g vitamin mixture and fed
to animals.

CONCENTRATES

HIGH MOISTURE CONCENTRATES

Roots and Tubers

Roots: A root crop consists of the under ground part of the harvested plant. The main
characteristic of roots are their high mixture content (75-94%) and low Crude fibre (4-
13%). The organic matter of root, consists mainly of sugars, roots are generally low in
crude protein ex.turnipe, beet, carrot etc.
Tubers: Tubers are short thickened, fleshy stems, usually formed underground such as
potatoes, cassava, sweet potatoes etc.
Potatoes: The crude protein content is approximately 11% about half of this being in the
form of non protein nitrogenous compounds, one of these compounds is the alkaloid
‘Solaridine’. Solanidine and its diravities are toxic to animals, causing gastroenteritis.
Cassava: Cassava tubers are used for production of tapioca starch for human
consumption, although tuber is also given to cattle, pig and poultry. Cassava tubers
contains two cyanogenetic glucosides (linamrin and lotaustralin), which readily break
down to give hydrocyanic acid. Boiling or grating and squeezing or grinding to a powder
reduces the toxicity.

Molasses
Molasses is a product of the sugar refining industry; it is a black syrupy sweet
solution. The principal types of molasses are cane and beet molasses.
Cane molasses
➢ Liquid molasses contain 20-25% water, 46% of sugars, 10-15% ash.
➢ Molasses can be used to a maximum of 30 percent of the diet, however to be on
the safe side it can be included up to 10 percent of ration.
➢ At higher inclusion levels it has a laxative effect due to the high mineral content.
➢ Molasses is used in compounded feeds up to 2-5%
➢ to improve palatability and prevent dustiness of feed.
➢ It is also used as a pellet binder.
➢ When included above 10% it may cause milling problems due to stickiness.
➢ Molasses is used in liquid feeding systems for ruminants along with urea or other
NPN sources.
➢ Molasses serves as readily available carbohydrate source during NPN
supplementation.
➢ In molasses based feeding systems molasses toxicity may occur which is
characterized by neurological symptoms such as in coordination and blindness.
➢ The other types of molasses are citrus and wood molasses, which are available to
a limited extent. Citrus molasses is a by product of citrus processing has a bitter
 21
taste due to its high organic acid content and is unpalatable. Wood molasses is
a mixture of hemicelluloses and soluble carbohydrates produced during the
process of manufacturing particle boards. It is primarily used as a pellet binder. It
contains pentose sugar xylose which is toxic to non ruminants. It causes poor
growth, diarrhoea and eye cataracts in pigs.

DRY CONCENTRATES

ENERGY FEEDS

Cereal grains:
The name cereal is given to those members of gramineae, which are cultivated for
their seeds. Cereal grains are essentially carbohydrate concentrates, the main component
of the dry matter being starch. The crude protein is the most variable component, usually
ranging from 8-12%, deficient in certain essential amino acids, particularly lysine and
methionine. The oil content varies from 2-5% cereal oils are unsaturated the main acids
being linolic and oleic and because of this they-tend to become rancid quickly and also
produce a soft body fat. The crude fibre content is highest in oats and rice, which
contains “husk or hull”, formed from the inner and outer palsae and is lowest in the
‘naked’ grains like wheat and maize.
The cereals are all deficient in calcium, containing less than 0.15%. The
phosphorus content is higher, being 0.3-0.5%, but part of this is present as phytates.
Cereal phytates have the property of being able to immobilize dietary calcium. The
cereal grains are deficient in vitamin D and with the exception of yellow maize, in pro-
vitamin A. They are good sources of vitamin E and thiamin, but have a low content in
riboflavin.
Commonly fed cereals are maize, barely, oats, wheat, rice etc.

Maize or Corn: (Zea maize)

Maize appears in a variety of colours, yellow, white or red. Yellow maize
contains a pigment, cryptoxanthin, which is a precursor of vitamin A. Though an
excellent source of digestible energy, maize is low in protein. Maize contains about 65%
starch, is low in fibre and has a high metabolisable energy value. The crude protein
content ranges from 8-13%. The maize kernel consists of two main types of protein.
Zein occurring in endosperm, is quantitatively the most important but this protein is
deficient in the essential amino acids, tryptophan and lysine. The other protein, maize
glutelin occurring in lesser amount in the endosperm and also in the germ, is a better
source of these two amino acids. Recently plant breeders have produced new varieties of
maize with amino acid components different from those present in normal maize; one
such variety is Opaque-2, which has high lysine content. The difference between this
variety and normal maize is primarily attributed to the zein: glutelin ratio. A newer
variety Floury-2 has both increased methionine and lysine content.
Maize is generally crushed or even roughly ground for feeding farm animals.
Flaked maize is prepared by cooking maize with steam and passing it through rollers,
thus producing a thin flake, which is then dried. Flaked maize decreased the proportion
of acetic to propionic acids in the rumen and thus depresses the butter fat content of milk
when fed in relatively large amount.

Barley (Hordeum vulgare)

A palatable, but fibrous feed. The crude protein of barley gain ranges from about
6-14% with average values of 9-10% with oil content less than 2%. Barley forms the
 22
main concentrate food for fattening pigs in the United Kingdom, producing a good
carcass with hard fat of high quality.
Barley is low in lysine, variety Notch I and Notch II are rich in lysine, but low in
yield. Barley should always have the awns removed before they are offered to Poultry or
swine. Barley is usually steam rolled (flaked), crimped or coarsely ground before
feeding.

Oats (Avena sativa)

Oats has the high crude fibre (10 – 18%) than maize and hence lower TDN. The
crude protein content ranges from 7-15%, deficient in methionine, histidine and
tryptophan. Glutamic acid is the most abundant amino acids. Oats are usually given
‘Crushed’ or ‘bruised’ to cattle and sheep by ground to pigs and poultry.

Wheat (Triticum aestivum)

The crude protein ranges from 6-12%, though it is normally between 8 and 14%.
The most important proteins present in the endosperm are a prolamin (gliadin) and
glutelin (Glutenin). The mixture of protein present in the endosperm is often referred to
as gluten. Glutenin contains about three times as much lysine that are present in gliadin.
The amino acids present in wheat gluten are the non-essential acids glutomic acid (33%)
and proline (12%). Wheat gluten varies in properties and it is mainly the properties of
the gluten, which decide whether the flour is suitable for bread or biscuit making. All
glutens posses the property of elasticity. Strong glutens are preferred for bread making
and form dough, which traps the gases produced during yeast fermentation. This
property of gluten is considered to be the main reason why finely ground wheat is
unpalatable to animals. Wheat if finely milled forms a pasty mass in the mouth, and may
lead to digestive upset.

Broken rice
Broken rice is a palatable, energy-rich and easily used feed. It is used for all
classes of livestock, but its high energy value and low fibre content make it especially
valuable in rations for growing chickens.

Millets
Millets are cereals, which produced small grain and have higher percentage of
fibre . e.g. Sorghum, Bajra, etc.

Sorghum (Sorghum Vulgare)

Sorghum is similar to maize is chemical composition except that sorghum is
slightly higher in protein and low in oil than maize. Whole grain can be given to sheep,
pig and poultry but are usually ground for cattle.

Bajra (Pennesetum typhoides)

It resembles to feeding value of sorghum containing 8-12% crude protein with
rich tannin content. As the seed are hard, they should be ground or crushed before being
fed to cattle.

Milling by-products:

Bran- Rice bran- Wheat bran- Flour- Germ- Gluten- Grain Screening- Hulls-
Middling- Polishing- Molasses- Malt sprout
 23
Bran:
It is the outer coarse coat of the grain, separated during processing e.g. Rice bran,
wheat bran, maize bran etc.

Rice bran: Rice bran is valuable product containing 12-14% protein and 11-18% oil.
The oil is particularly unsaturated and may become rancid very quickly. Presently the oil
is removed from the rice bran and a product known, as deoiled rice bran is available in
market for livestock feeding.

Wheat bran: Wheat bran is popular food for horses contain more fibre. Its popularity as
a food for ruminants and horses bring due to its well-known physical property. When
made into a mash with warm water, it acts as a laxative, but when given dry it tends to
counter act scouring. Because of the fibrous nature and low digestibility bran is not
commonly given to pig and poultry.

Flour: Soft, finely ground meal of the grains consists primarily of gluten and starch from
endosperm e.g. Corn flour, wheat flour and rice flour etc. Flour contains about 16%
protein and 1 – 1.5% crude fibre.

Germ: It is the embryo of any seed, rich in protein and fat.

Gluten: When flour is washed to remove the starch, a tough, substance remains, which
are known as gluten e.g., corn gluten. Gluten feed is generally not feed to non-ruminants
due to bulkiness, poor quality protein and unpalatability.

Grain Screening: Small imperfect grains, weed seeds and other foreign material of value
as a feed that is separated through the cleaning of grain with screen is called grain
screening. The nutritive value depends on the composition.

Hulls: Outer covering of the grain, generally not utilized as livestock feed.

Middling: A by-product of flour milling industry comprising several grades of granular

particles consisting of varying proportion of bran, endosperm and germ.

Polishing: By-product of rice, consisting of a fine residue that accumulates during

polishing of rice kernel contains about 10-15% protein, 12% fat and 3-4% crude fibre. It
is an excellent source of energy and vitamin B complex. Due to high fat content rancidity
can pose problem.

Protein Supplements

Protein supplements contains more than 18 % protein. They can be from animal
origin or plant origin.

Animal origin Plant origin

Mostly over 47% protein Mostly under 47% protein
Mostly over 1.0% Ca Mostly under 1.0% Ca
Mostly over 1.5% P Mostly under 1.5% P
Mostly under 2.5% fibre Mostly over 2.5% fibre

Other sources includes NPN compounds, single cell protein etc.

 24

Protein supplements of plant origin:

Oil seed cake/meal & Leguminous seed

Oil seed cake/meal:

A number of oil bearing seeds are grown for vegetable oil for human and for
paints and other industrial purposes. In processing these seeds, protein rich products od
great value as livestock feeds are obtained. The by products left after extraction of oil
from oil seeds are used for feeding of all kinds of livestock. According to the method of
processing, oil content and protein content varies.
Three main process are used for removing oil from oil seeds. Two employ
pressure to force out the oil, while the others uses an organic solvent to dissolve the oil
from the the seed. Only material with an oil content of less than 35% is suitable for
solvent extraction. If material of higher oil content is to be treated it first undergoes a
modified screw pressing to lower the oil content to a suitable level.

Nutritive value:
Protein: Some 95% of the nitrogen in oil seed meals is present as true protein. It usually
has a digestibility of 75-90% and is of good quality. In general, oil seed proteins have a
low cystine and methionine content, and a variable but usually low lysine content. As a
result they cannot provide adequate supplementation of the cereal proteins with which
they are commonly used and should be used in conjuction with an animal protein when
given to simple stomached animals.

Fat: The oil seed cakes may make a significant contribution to the energy content of the
diet, particularly where the oil content is high. This will depend upon the process
employed and its efficiency. Digestive disturbances, however, may result from
uncontrolled use of cakes rich in oil, and if the oil is unsaturated milk or body fat may be
soft and carcass quality lowered.

Micro-nutrients: The oil seed meals usually have a high phosphorus content, which tend
to aggravate their generally low calcium content. They may provide usefull amounts of
the B-vitamins but are poor sources of carotene and vitain E.

Commonly used oil cakes/meal in livestock feed are:

Groundnut or peanut oil meal
Soybean oil meal
Linseed Meal
Coconut meal
Cotton seed meal
Safflower Meal
Sunflower seed meal
Mustard cake
Sesame seed meal
Rape seed meal
Palm kernel meal,etc.,
Groundnut or peanut oil meal:
1) It is most widely used high protein feed that can be included upto 50% of the
ration
 25
2) It has about 45% protein and 10% oil in expeller variety
3) It is deficient in lysine, methionine and cystine
4) Particularly in warm rainy season liable to contain a toxic factor – Aflatoxin a
metabolite of fungus Aspergillus flavus.
Aflatoxin can be produced at any stage from growing crop to the formulated feed.
The greatest potential for mould spoilage and mycotoxin production is in the growing
crop or stored raw material. The stressing of the plant by drought often results in cracked
seeds favouring insect infestation. Thus the protective outer layer of the grain gets
damaged and endogenous mould spores present within the grain or kernels are given
access to oxygen, moisture and nutrients leading to mould growth. A wet period around
harvest may result in the crop being harvested at a high moisture favouring mould growth
and thereby toxin production. One of the greatest potential for mould growth and
mycotoxin production is the storage of inadequately dried products. Out of four
compounds designated aflatoxins B1, G1, B2, G2 of which B1 is the most toxic. There are
considerable species differences in the susceptibility to these toxins, turkey poults and
ducklings are highly susceptible, calves and pigs are susceptible while mice and sheep are
classed as resistant. Young animals are more susceptible than adults of the same species.
A common feature in affected animals is liver damage with marked bile duct
proliferation, liver necrosis and in many cases hepatic tumours. Gastritis and kidney
disfunction are the other symptoms.

Soybean oil meal:

1) The protein (44%) contains all the indispensable amino acids, but the
concentrations of cystine and methionine are sub-optimal.
2) The cake is used for all kinds of livestock including poultry upto 30% of the
ration.
3) As with most other oil seeds, soyabeans have a number of toxic, stimulatory
and inhibitory substances. For example
i) A goitrogenic material is found in the meal and its long term use
may result in goitre in some animal species.
ii) It also contains antigens, which are specially toxic to young pre-
ruminants
iii) Of particular importance in nutrition are the protease inhibitors of
which six have been identified. Two of these, the kunitz anti-trypsin
factor and the Bowman-Brik chymotrypsin inhibitor are of practical
significance. Trypsin inhibitor affects the digestibility of proteins
specially in monogastric animals. These inhibitors will interfere with
protein digestion, leading to poor growth rate, egg production and feed
efficiency. This interference with protein digestion, leads to
hypertrophy of pancrease and excess endogenous loss of essential
amino acids.

Since, the trypsin inhibitors can be destroyed by heat treatment, proper

heat treatment of the feed stuffs like soyabean is essential, before
feeding them to livestock and poultry.
iv) A haemogglutinin, agglutinates red blood cell in rats, rabbits and
human beings but not in sheep and calves.
Fortunately, these inhibitors and other factors like saponins are inactivated by
proper heat treatment during processing.
4) Soyabeans also contain genistein, a plant estrogen, which may account, in
some cases for part of the high growth inducing properties.
 26

Linseed Meal:
Linseed meal is unique among the oil seed residues in that it contains from 3-10%
of mucilage. It is readily dispersible in water, forming a viscous slime. Immature linseed
contains a small amount of a cyanogenetic glycoside, linamarin and an associate enzyme,
linase, which is capable of hydrolysing it with the evolution of hydrogen cyanide.
Normal processing conditions however, destroy linase and most of linamarin, and the
resultant meals are quite safe.
The cyanogenetic glycosides or cyanogens are compounds that yield hydrogen
cyanide (HCN) upon treatment with acid or hydrolytic enzymes. HCN is released when
tissues of plants are crushed or otherwise disrupted. HCN is a potent respiratory
inhibitor. The minimum lethal dose of HCN taken orally has been estimated between 0.5
to 3.5 mg/kg of body weight, depending on the species. Water washing, drying and
storage will reduce the level of glycosides in the feedstuffs.
It has been reported that linseed meal has a protective action against selenium
poisoning.
The protein of linseed meal is having a lower methionine and lysine content.
Linseed meal has only moderate calcium content but rich in phosphorus part of which is
present as phytase. It is a useful source of Vitamin, riboflavin, nicotinamide, pantothenic
acid and choline. Linseed meal can be included upto 10 % in poultry diet.

Coconut meal (Copra meal):

1. The crude protein content is low (20-26%) and poor in lysine and histidine.
2. The oil content of coconut meal various from 2.5 to 6.5% the higher oil meals
tends to get rancidity and thus will cause diarrhoea. Hence low oil content
type should be preferred.
3. Due to poor quality of protein and high fibre, its use should be restricted in
swine and poultry rations. If it is fed to monogastric, it should be
supplemented with lysine and methionine

Cotton seed meal:

The protein of cotton seed meal is of good quality, but has the common
disadvantage of oil seed residues of having a low content of cystine, methionine and
lysine. The calcium content is low and as the calcium to phosphorus ratio is about 1:6
deficiencies of calcium may easily arise. Pigs and poultry do not readily accept the meal
largely owing to its dry dusty nature. No such difficulty is encountered with lactating
cows but complicattions may arise where large amounts are given, since the milk fat
tends to become hard and firm and butter made from such fat is often difficult to churn
and tends to develop tallory taints.
Cotton seed may contain from 0.3 to 20g/kg dry matter of a yellow pigment
known as gossypol.
Gossypol is a polyphenolic aldehyde which is an antioxidant and polymerisation
inhibitor and is toxic to simple stomached animals. The general symptoms of gossypol
toxicity are depressed appetite and loss of weight, death usually results from circulatory
failure. Addition of one per cent calcium hydroxide or iron salts to the diet decreases the
Gossypol toxicity.

Safflower Meal
The meal is produced after removal of most of the hull and oil from safflower
seed. In decorticated form it has about 40-45 per cent protein while the value goes down
to about 18-20 if not decorticated. The 18-20 per cent protein safflower meals contain
 27
about 60 per cent hulls which limits its energy value and utilization in non-ruminants.
Even the decorticated type contains about 14 per cent fibre. Safflower meal is low in
lysine and methionine. It is always desirable that whenever safflower meal is fed to non-
ruminants like pigs, it should be used in conjunction with other lysine rich protein
concentrates.

Sunflower seed meal:

1) The meals are useful sources of protein (40%) which is low in lysine but has
about twice as much methionine as does soya protein.
2) The meal is palatable but is laxative and has a very short shelf life.
The expeller variety of sunflower meal or cake tends to produce soft pork and it
also makes the butter soft if fed in large amounts in cows because of the character of the
oil it contains. This can be used in cattle ration and safely included at 20 per cent level.

Mustard cake (Sarson)

1) Widely used in many parts of India for cattle feeding
2) Nutritive value is much less than that of ground nut cake. D.C.P. and T.D.N. values
are 27% and 74% respectively. It should preferably be mixed with other, more well-
liked feeds. The deoiled type can be used for poultry upto 10 per cent of the ration
and for pigs the amount may go as high as 20 per cent.
3) The calcium and phosphorus content are much higher, being about 0.6 per cent and
1.0 per cent.

Sesame seed meal ( Til Cake)

Sesame seed meal is produced from what remains following production of oil
from Sesame seed and the meal is extensively used for all classes of livestock including
poultry . Contains about 40% protein rich in leucine, arginine and methionine and low in
lysine. There are three varieties – white, black and red. Nutritive value is highest in white
while lowest in red varity.

Rape seed meal / Cannola seed meal

Contains more fibre (14%) with low ME Though low in protein content than
soyabean meal, the balance of essential amino acid, Calcium: Phosphorus are favourable.
Grown in Europe fed to pig and poultry, contains glucosinolates which may lead to
goitre, liver and kidney disfunction.

Palm kernel meal

Low in protein with poor amino acid balance. The ratio of Calcium to
Phosphorus is more favourable than any other oil seed meal. The meal is dry and gritty
and is not readly eaten. It has the reputation of increasing the milk fat content.

LEGUMINOUS SEED:

Beans:
Beans belong mainly to the vicieae and phaseoleae and are used as food for
humans and animals all over the world. Beans are regraded primarily as sources of
protein, which is of relatively good quality. This is a reflection of the amino acid
composition which is characterised by high lysine content, similar to that of fish meal
protein, but by a low level of cystine and methionine which is lower than in the common
animal and a vegetable protein sources.
 28
Peas:
Peas are basically similar to beans but bare lower contents of crude protein (26%
of dry matter) and crude fiber (<6% of dry matter.) The oil content is higher than that of
beans but the degree of saturation is similar. Like beans peas are regraded primarily as a
source of protein.

ANIMAL PROTEIN CONCENTRATES

1) Fish meal
2) Meat meal
3) Blood meal
4) Hatchery waste
5) Milk products

Fish meal:
Fish meal is the product obtained by drying and grinding whole fish or parts there
of various species. Fish meals are produced in two ways. The first is by charging in
steam jacketed vessels, which may be either a batch process carried out under vaccum or
a continuous process not employing reduced pressure. In both the cases heating is carried
out in steam jacketed vessels. In the flame drying process the meal is dried in a revolving
drum by hot air from a furnace at one end of the drum.
The quality of the protein in fish meal is high. Processing conditions, particularly
the degree and length of time of heating are probably the major dominant of protein
quality. Fish meal protein has a high content of lysine, methionine and tryptophon and is
a valuable supplement to cereal based diet. Fish meals has high mineral content (Ca 8%,
P 3.5%), good source of vitamin B complex and have an enhanced nutritional value
because of their content of growth factor known collectively as the Animal protein factor
(APF). Fish meal should be tested for salt content, as excessive salt may lead to salt
toxicity in monogastric animals and birds. Fish meal should have minimum amount of
scales, as their nitrogen content is of little value, since the scales are keratinised tissue.
Fish meal should be tested for E. coli bacteria.
The current trend in marketing of fish meal is towards specialised products
tailored to suit particular species. Thus special low temperature meals are produced for
aquaculture and for early weaned pigs, and ruminant grade products have strictly
controlled levels of soluble nitrogen.
Fish meals find their greatest use with simple-stomached animals. They are used
mostly in diets for young animals whose demand for protein and the indispensable amino
acids is particularly high and for whom the growth-promoting effects of APF are
valuable. Such diets may include up to 15% of fish meal. With older animals, which
need less protein, the level of fish meal in the diet is brought down to about 5% and it
may be eliminated entirely from diets for those in the last stages of fattening. This is
partly for economic reasons since the protein needs of such animals are small, and partly
to remove any possibility of a fishy taint development. Fully ruminant animals are able
to obtain amino acids and B-vitamins by microbial synthesis and the importance of fish
meal for such animals is as a source of undegradable protein. This is of particular
importance for activily growing and pregnant animals. Rates of inclusion in the diet are
usually about 5%. For lactating cows the daily intake of fish meal should be limited to
not more than 1 kg. Above this the intake of oil could exceed 100 g/d resulting in
detrimental effects on fermentation in the rumen.
 29
Squilla Meal:
It is obtained from the fisheries industries and appears to be one of the promising
by - products. This product is very rich in protein. Calcium content is very high, about
10 per cent while comparatively it contains low phosphorus, being 2.0 per cent only.

Meat meal:
It is the product obtained by drying and grinding carcasses and parts of carcasses
of warm blooded land animals. It should be free from hair, feathers, horn, hoof and skin
and contents of stomach and viscera.
Meat meal contains 60-70% protein with 9% fat, various unidentified beneficial
factors have been claimed to be present in meat meal, among them. The entiric growth
factor from the intestinal track of swine, the ‘Ackerman’ factor and a growth factor
located in ash are important.
However, the low methionine and tryptophan levels in meals affect their protein
quality.

Liver Residue Meal:

This can profitably be used as animal protein supplement in place of fish meal.
Liver residue can be favourably introduced in poultry rations at 10 per cent level or at 5
per cent level along with the same level of fish as an animal protein supplement. A good
quality of liver residue meal should contain about 65 per cent protein, 5 per cent lysine,
1.2 per cent methionine and 1 per cent cystine apart from other amino acids

Blood meal:
Blood meal is a product obtained by drying the blood of slaughtered animals and
poultry. Blood meal is a dark chocolate coloured powder with a characteristic smell
contains about 80% protein, rich in lysine, arginine, methionine, cystine and leucine.
The meal is unpalatable and its use has resulted in reduced growth rates in poultry
so that it is not recommended for young stock. For older birds, rates of inclusion are
limited to about 1 to 2 % of the diet. It should not be included in creep foods for pigs.
Normal levels of inclusion for older animals are of the order of 5% of diet and it is
usually used along with a high quality protein source. At levels over 10 % of the diet it
tends to cause scouring and is best regarded as a food for boosting dietary lysine levels.

Hatchery Waste:

Incubator waste or Hatchery By-product Meal (HBPM):

It is a mixture of eggshells, infertile and unhatched eggs which have been cooked,
dried and powdered.
Broiler chicks when fed at levels of 3 or 6 per cent of the total ration with dried
incubator waste proved a satisfactory substitute for fish meal or soya bean oil meal.
Properly processed HBPM containing infertile eggs and eggs with dead embryos is found
to replace 33 per cent fish meal and is a good supplement for increasing body weight of
chicks.

Hydrolysed feather meal:

Product obtained by hydrolysing, drying and grinding poultry feathers is called as
Hydrolysed feather meal.
The meal is of low palatability and must be introduced into the diet gradually.
Dietary rates of inclusion are generally low, being of the order of 2.5 to 3.0 % of the total
ration for adult ruminants, 2.5 % for layers, broilers and turkeys, and 1.0 % for calves,
 30
lambs, sows and growing and finishing pigs. The meal is not used for weaner and
creep-fed pigs or chicks.
There is a risk of contamination of the base material with Salmonella and it is
important that strict control of processing conditions should be maintained in order to
minimize the risk of this in the finished product.

Milk products:

Skim Milk:
Skim Milk is a residue after the cream has been separated from milk has low fat
content. Skim milk finds its main use as a protein supplement in the diet of simple
stomach animals.

Whey:
When milk is treated with rennet in the process of cheese making, casein is
precipitates and the remaning serum is known as whey. Whey has most of the 
lactoglobulin. Whey find their main use as constituents of proprietary milk replacers for
young calves.

Non Protein Nitrogen compounds as protein sources (NPN):

Non-protein nitrogen compounds are recognised as useful sources of nitrogen for
ruminant animals. Their use depends upon the ability of the rumen microorganisms to use
them in the synthesis of their own cellular tissues and they are thus able to satisfy the
microbial portion of the animal’s demand for nitrogen and, by way of the microbial
protein, at least part of its nitrogen demand at tissue level.

Urea:
It is a white, crystalline, deliquescent solid with the following formula:
NH2

C=0

NH2
Pure urea has nitrogen content of 46.6% which is equivalent to a crude protein content of
46.6 x 6.25 = 291%
Urea is hydrolysed by the urease activity of the rumen micro organisms with the
production of ammonia. The ease and speed with which this reaction occurs when urea
enters the ruminant gives rise to two major problems owing to excessive absorption of
ammonia from the rumen. Thus wastage of nitrogen may occur and there may be a
danger of ammonia toxicity. This is diagnosed by muscular twitching, ataxia, excessive
salivation, tetany, bloat and respiration defects.
Urea should be given in such a way as to slow down its rate of breakdown and
encourage ammonia utilisation for protein synthesis. The diet should also contain a
source of readily available energy so that the microbial protein synthesis in enhanced and
wastage reduced.
Urea, like other non-protein nitrogen sources, will not be used efficiently by the
ruminant animal unless the diet does not contain sufficient degradable protein to satisfy
the needs of its rumen microorganisms.
Although urea provides an acceptable protein source, there is evidence that where
it forms a major part of dietary nitrogen, deficiencies of the sulfur-containing amino acids
 31
may occur. In such cases supplementation of the diet with a sulfur source may be
necessary. An allowance of 0.13 g of anhydrous sodium sulfate/per gram of urea is
generally considered to be optimal. Urea does not provide energy, minerals or vitamins
for the animal, and when it is used to replace conventional protein sources care must be
taken to ensure that satisfactory dietary levels of these nutrients are maintained by
adequate supplementation.
To avoid the danger of toxicity, not more than one third of dietary nitrogen should
be provided as urea, and where possible this should be in the form of frequent and small
intakes.

Urea mixed in concentrates:

Most of the urea fed to growing and lactating dairy cattle is incorporated into the
concentrate protein of the ration. Generally speaking, urea is employed in amounts not
higher than 3% of the total concentrate fed or 1% of the total dry matter in the ration.
The maximum safe limit is 136g of urea per animal over 260 kg body weights.
Supplementation of the diet with a sulphur source may be necessary. Achieve a
nitrogen, sulphur ratio not wider than 15:1. An allowance of 0.13g anhydrous sodium
sulphate/g. of urea is generally considered to be optimal.
Urea is available in proprietary foods in several forms. It may be include in solid
blocks which also provide vitamin and mineral supplementation and contain a readily
available source of energy, usually starch. Animals are allowed free access to the blocks,
intake. Intake being restricted by the blocks having to be licked and by their high salt
content. There is some danger of excessive urea intakes, should the block crumble or
should there be readily available source of water allowing the animal to cope with the
high salt intakes. Solution of urea, containing molasses as the energy source and carrying
a variable amount of mineral and vitamin supplementation are also in use. Like the
blocks they contain 5-6% urea and about 25% sugar and are supplied in special feeders in
which the animal licks a ball floating in the solution the animal thus has no direct access
to the solution. Where urea is include in the concentrate diet thorough mixing is essential
to prevent localised concentrations which may have toxic effects.

Biuret:
Biuret is produced by heating urea. It is a colourless, crystalline compound with
the following formula.
NH2-Co-NH-Co-NH2
It contains 40.8% nitrogen, equivalent to 255% of crude protein. Biuret nitrogen
is not as efficiently utilised as that of urea, and it is very much more expensive.

Poultry Litters:
Despite aesthetic objections, dried poultry excreta have been successfully used for
feeding ruminants. Poultry manures vary considerably in composition, depending upon
their origins.

Single-cell protein:
In recent years there has been considerable interest in exploiting microbial
fermentation for the production of protein. Single-cell organisms such as yeast and
bacteria grow very quickly and can double their cell mass, even in large scale industrial
fermentors, in three to four hours. A range of nutrient substrates can be used including
cereal grains, sugar beet, sugar cane and its by-products, hydrolysates from wood and
plants, and waste products from food manufacture. Bacteria such as Pseudomonas sp.
can be grown.
 32
The protein content of bacteria is higher than that of yeast and contains higher
concentrations of the sulfur-containing amino acids but a lower concentration of lysine.
Single-cell protein (SCP) contains unusually high levels of nucleic acids, ranging from
5.0 to 12.0 % DM in yeast and 8.0 to 16.0 % DM in bacteria. Some of the purine and
pyrimidine bases in these acids can be used for nucleic acid biosynthesis. Large amounts
of uric acid or allantoin, the end - products of nucleic acid catabolism, are excreted in the
urine of animals consuming SCP. The oils themselves are rich in unsaturated fatty acids.
Although SCP does contain a crude fiber fraction, and this can be quite high in some
yeast, it is not composed of cellulose, hemi-cellulose and lignin as in foods of plant
origin; it consists chiefly of glucans, mannans and chitin.
In the case of poultry, dietary SCP concentrations of 2.0 to 5.0 % have proved
optimal for broilers and 10.0 % has been suggested for diets for laying hens.

MARINE WASTES AND BY-PRODUCTS

Many countries have a long coastal belt and consequently many by-products are
available from sea animals and weed industries. India has a long coastal belt, stretching
5,000km.Various by-products have recently been made available from fish / prawn / frog
/ shrimp industries.

Fish wastes:
The main types and quantity of the waste material available from fishing and fish
processing industry (approximate quantity in tonnage) are: prawn shell and head wastes,
40,000; lobster wastes, 800; fish wastes, 3000; frog wastes, 5,000; shark-liver residue,
2,000; and squilla (caught in trawl nets along with prawn and fishes), 1,00,000.
In the seafood canning industry, prawns and shrimps are utilised for
manufacturing frozen headless fish, peeled and deveined fish, cooked/frozen and
semidried fish, dry fish pulp, etc. In processing, large quantities of shells are left out as
wastes. A scientifically processed shrimp-meal has an average of 47 per cent protein and
27 per cent ash. A process of fish ensiling using surplus fish as animal feed has been
developed.

Frog-meal:
Frog-meal is the leftover of the frog leg industry. About 1,000 tonnes of this by-
product is available annually in Kerala State. It can replace fish-meal twice by weight in
poultry rations for growth and egg production. It contains about 60 per cent protein.

Prawn wastes:
Shrimp shell powder, a waste product of the shrimp processing industry, consists
largely of discarded portions of shrimps like heads and crustacean stills. These wastes
can be incorporated up to 15 per cent in the broiler ration when fish-meal is not available.

MISCELLANEOUS AGROINDUSTRIAL BY-PRODUCTS

A number of agro- industrial by-products are being used as livestock feeds. Eg.
Tea wastes, coffee wastes, oat and peanuts.

Brewery waste:
Brewery waste is mostly the brewer's grains left after the extraction of malt
required for the production of beer. One quintal of barley produces about 170 kg of wet
brewer's grains. Dried brewer's grain is a very good source of protein and energy for the
livestock. Various reports have recommended to include not more than 10 per cent dried
brewer's grain in poultry mash. It is a good feed for the ruminants.
 33
It has 20 to 23 per cent dry matter, about 19 per cent protein, 3.5 per cent ether
extract, 9.5 per cent crude fibre, 65.5 per cent NFE and 4.5 per cent ash. The calcium
content is 0.26 per cent and phosphorus content 0.31 per cent on dry matter basis. The
dried brewer's grain has 60 per cent TDN for cattle. The energy value for buffaloes is 55
per cent.
Coffee waste:
Coffee beans consist of about 70 per cent pulpy mass. India produces about
70,000 tonnes of coffee which yield about 45,000 tonnes of coffee husk. The use of
coffee waste becomes important when sufficiently large quantities are available at any
one spot.
Date stones:
The work in India and Egypt has shown that date stones can be used as one of the
feed ingredients of the ruminant ration.
Maize gluten-feed:
Maize gluten-feed is a by-product obtained after the removal of most of the starch
and germ from maize in wet milling manufacture of maize starch and their maize
products. This material may or may not contain maize-soluble and maize germ oil cake.
Maize gluten is obtained in the manufacturing process as a thick slurry. It is generally
blended with maize bran to obtain the material for feeding livestock. Maize gluten meal
generally contains 45 to 48 per cent protein. It is fed to cattle and poultry as a protein
supplement.
Panewar seeds:
The panewar plant (Cassia tora) grows abundantly during the monsoon in
uncultivated and barren lands. Seeds as sole concentrate portion of the ration are
unpalatable to livestock. They become acceptable to the ruminants if mixed with other
conventional energy or protein-rich concentrates. Boiled Cassia tora seeds can be
incorporated at a level of 15 per cent of concentrate mixture in lactating cows without
any detrimental effect on the yield and chemical composition of milk.
Silkworm pupae-meal:
Silk is being manufactured on a large scale in Assam, Karnataka, orissa and
Kashmir. Large quantities of silkworm pupae are available after the silk thread is
removed from the cotton. A good quality silkworm pupae meal containing 55 per cent
crude protein and 25 to 27 per cent oil can be prepared. Its keeping quality can be
improved by de-oiling. Silkworm pupae meal has found its way in poultry feeds as an
excellent source of animal protein. It can replace whole of the fish meal in poultry
rations.
Tea industry wastes:
India and Sri Lanka are the latest tea producing nations. India produces nearly
350 million kg and Sri Lanka 206 million kg of tea every year. Tea wastes in the form of
fluffs, stalks and sweepings become available during production, storage and handling of
tea garden factories, warehouses, packing factories and shipment sheds at ports. About 2-
3 per cent tea is wasted. This amounts to 10,000 tonnes in India and 5,160 tonnes in Sri
Lanka. Although caffeine can be isolated from waste tea leaves, these can be used as a
feed ingredient. It contains about 18 per cent of crude protein.
Spent tea leaves (STL), available from the instant tea manufacture, can also be
used as feed ingredient. It contains 25 per cent crude protein on dry matter basis. The
STL contain about 60 per cent moisture and it is better to use them as such rather than on
drying which becomes expensive. STL can be used up to 20 per cent in the concentrate
mixture.
 34
Tamarind seeds hulls:
Tamarind seeds are available commercially in India. The seeds contain about 30-
45 per cent red hulls and 60-70 per cent white kernels. The hulls and kernels have about
2 and 1.5 per cent crude fibre respectively.
The hulls are available commercially and can replace 10-15 per cent of maize in
concentrate mixture of crossbred calves. They are rich in tannins (13-14 per cent) which
help in the better utilisation of the protein. Kernels can replace about 95 per cent of the
maize component of concentrate mixture in growing crossbred calves. Crossbred
bullocks can be fed with 1.5 kg tamarind seed powder as a sole source of concentrate. It
contains 1.3 per cent DCP and 64 per cent TDN.
 35
CHAPTER IV

ANTINUTRITIONAL FACTORS AND TOXINS IN FEEDS AND FODDERS

Animal feeds are routinely subject to contamination from diverse sources,

including environmental pollution and activities of insects and microbes.

Environmental contaminants A wide range of organic and inorganic compounds may

occur in feedstuffs, including pesticides, industrial pollutants, radionuclide and heavy
metals.
Fungal contaminants Aspergillus is the predominant genus in dairy and other feeds.
Other species include Penicillium, Fusarium and Alternaria, which are also important
contaminants of cereal grains Fungal contamination is undesirable because of the
potential for mycotoxin production.
Mycotoxins - Mycotoxins are those secondary metabolites of fungi that have the capacity
to impair animal health and productivity.
Aflatoxin - Aflatoxins are the most potent toxic, mutagenic, teratogenic and carcinogenic
metabolities produced by the species of Aspergillus flavus and A.parasiticus on food and
feed materials. Aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 produce liver cancer in cats. The occurrence of
these toxins in food and feed materials and their consumption has caused not only health
hazards in animals and humans, but also resulted in economic losses, especially to the
exporting countries.

Type of naturally occurring toxins / anti nutritional factors

On the basis of the type of nutrient affected and the biological response produced
in the animal of the toxic factors can be classified into five major groups as follows:
1) Substance depressing digestion or metabolic utilization of protein:
a) Protease inhibitors
b) Lectins or Ricin (hemagglutinins)
c) Saponins
d) Polyphenolic compounds (TANNINS)
2) Substance reducing the solubility or interfering with the utilization of mineral
elements:
a) Phytic acid
b) Oxalic acid
c) Glucosinolates
d) Gossypol
3) Substance inactivating or increasing the requirements of certain vitamins and
hormones:
a) Antivitamins A, D, E, K and anti-pyridoxine
b) Minosine (Anti hormone)
4) Cyanogens
5) Nitrate and Nitrate
6) Moulds and mycotoxins in animal feedstuffs
 36

Substance depressing digestion or metabolic utilization of proteins:

Protease inhibitors:
Substance that inhibit proteolytic enzymes and thereby growth and non-ruminants
are distributed throughout the plant kingdom but are particularly abundant in seeds and
legumes. In the case of soyabeans identification of two main groups or protease inhibitors
have recently been made namely: (1) Kumitz inhibitors have few disulphide bonds and a
specificity towards trypsin (2) Bowman-Brik inhibitors have a high proportion of
disulphide bonds, inhibiting both trypsin and chymotrypsin. The inhibitory substances are
mostly heat labile and thus before feeding any leguminous grain to non-ruminants, the
situation is generally corrected by proper heat treatment.

Lectins or ricin (hamagglutinins):

This important group of anti-nutritional factor are found in both plant and animal
tissue. A toxic fraction capable of agglutinating human red blood cells. Lectin are protein
in nature, resistant to digestion by pancreatic juice. Although very resistant to destruction
by dry heat, lectins are destroyed by the same conditions as those used to inactive
protease inhibitors.

Saponins
The important common forages which have caused saponin poisoning of livestock
are Lucerne, White clover, red clover and soyabean. Saponins or Sapogenins are either
steroids or triterpenoids, which are the break down products of certain glycosides. They
are bitter in taste, lather forming and inhibit the action of proteolytic enzymes and
cholinesterase. They also causes haemolysis of red blood cells. Water soaking and
rinsing will remove them components in the feedstuffs. In ruminant saponins have been
suggested as being involved in formation of bloat by altering the surface tension of the
ruminant contents due to entrapment of countless bubbles of fermentation gases
throughout the ingesta.

Polyphenolic compounds (tannins):

Also known as tannic acid, gallotannin and gallotannic acid. It is now defined to
include those naturally occurring compounds having high molecular weight (500-3000)
and containing a sufficiently large number of phenolic hydroxyl groups (1 to 2 per 100
molecular weight) to enable them to form effective cross-links between proteins and
other macromolecules. Chemically tannins may be grouped two broad categories:
(1) Hydrolysable tannin and (2) Condenced tannins.

Properties of Tannins:
1. The most important property of tannins is undoubtedly their capacity to bind
proteins; they are thus inhibitors of enzymes.
2. They cause low palatability of some herbage plants
3. They are also markedly astringent - that is they cause a dry or puckery
sensation in the mouth, probably by reducing the lubricant action of the
glycoproteins in the saliva.
 37
Substance reducing the solubility or interfering with the utilization of mineral
elements:
a) Phytic acid:
Phytates are the salts of phytic acid. Phytic acid is formed due to combination of
six phosphate molecules with Inositol, a cylic alcohol with six hydroxy redicals like that
of hexose sugar.
About half of more of the phosphorus in cereal grains is in the form of phytin.
The availability of phytin phosphorus to all non-ruminants is influenced by the level of
vitamin D, calcium, the calcium to phosphorus ratio, amount of zinc in the feed,
alimentary tract pH and other factors.

b) Oxalic acid:
In both the vegetable and animal kingdoms oxalic is found as free and in salt
forms. Plants which are particularly rich in oxalates include beet, spinach and a number
of agro-industrial by-products used as livestock feed ingredient. The excess oxalate
combine with feed calcium to form insoluble calcium oxalate and then become
unavailable for absorption or excess oxalate (20-30 mg per cent) may be absorbed from
the rumen into the blood stream where it can combine with calcium to produce
hypocalcomia. The insoluble calcium oxalate may then crystalise in various tissue,
specially kidneys and rumen wall.

c) Glucosinolates (Thioglucosides):
Glucosinolates are responsible for the pungent flavour found in some cultivated
plants belonging to the Cruciferae, specially the genus Brassica, which includes cabbage,
turnips, rapseed, mustered seed. Their main biological effect is to depress the synthesis
of the thyroid hormine (Tryroxine and Triiodothyronine), thus producing goitre. An
adequate supply of iodized salt in another preventive measure specifically in areas where
non-ruminants consume goitrogenic substances in a large dose. For treatment a daily
injection of thyroxide @ 0.1 to 0.3 mg is advocated.

d) Gossypol
Gossypol pigments are polyphenolic compounds found exclusively in the pigment
glands of cottonseed. The physiological effects of free gossypol. In addition to reduced
appetite and loss or body weight, include accumulation of fluid in the body cavities,
cardiac irregularity, reduced oxygen carrying capacity of the blood and an adverse effect
on certain liver enzymes. Causes olive green discolouration of egg yolk.

Substance inactivating or increasing the requirements of certain vitamins and

hormones:

Cyanogens
Cyanide in trace amount is fairly widespread in the form of glucosides and
relatively high levels can be found in certain grasses such as ‘jowar (sorghum) and sudan
grass, linseed maize and cassava root. In plants the glucoside is non-toxic in the intact
issues and as stated earlier, when the plants are damaged or begin to decay, hydrolytic
enzyme from the same plant is released liberating HCN. This reaction can take place in
the rumen by microbial activity. The HCN is rapidly absorbed and some is eliminated
through the lungs, but the greater part is rapidly detoxified in the liver by conversion to
thiocyanate.
 38
Nitrates and nitrites
Forages and drinking water when contaminated with inorganic nitrates and nitrites
cause an acute toxicosis in cattle resulting from formation of methemoglobin (a true
oxidation product of haemoglobin) which is unable to transport oxygen because the iron
is in the ferric (Fe+++) rather than the usual ferrous (Fe++) state. The situation is more
common in forages where either nitrogenous fertilizers have been used at a very high
dose or the forages have been harvested at a very early stage of their growth. Symptoms
seen in acute toxicity include laboured breathing (dyspena), grinding of the teeth,
uneasiness and excessive salivation.

Mimosine
Mimosine is a toxic amino acid, also called as ‘leucenine’ found in the plants
belonging to the genus Leucaena like subabul. This toxic substance mimosine can cause
problems when the forage is eaten in large quantities for a long period. Mimosine is a
powerful depilatory agent that cannot be degraded after absorption. But it can be
extensively degraded to Dihydroxy pyridone (DHP) in the rumen. Excess DHP is
absorbed into the blood stream, reaches thyroid gland and inhibits biosynthes of the
hormone thyroxine. Acceptable safe daily intake of mimosine was calculated to be 0.14%
g/kg body weight.
The main symptoms are reduced growth and weight loss, excessive salivation,
loss of hair, eroded gums, enlarged thyroid gland and poor reproductive efficiency,

Substance inactivating or increasing the requirements of certain vitamins:

Anti Vitamin A: Raw soyabean contain an enzyme Lipoxygenase, which catalysis
oxidation of carotene, the precoursor of vitamin A
Anti-Vitamin D: Rachitogenic activity of isolated soya protein (unheated) has been
founded with chicks and pigs.
Anti-Vitamin K:“Sweet clover disease” is characterized by a fatal haemorragic condition
in cattle The active principle reasonable for this disease is dicoumarol, which reduces the
prothrombin level of the blood, thus interfering with the blood clothing mechanism.

ADULTERANTS
Undesirable substances getting incorporated in the feed intentionally or
accidentally
Accidental adulterants
Most of the feed ingredients for livestock are agricultural or allied products / by-
products. During the course of their processing many unwanted materials such as husk,
cobs, hulls, stones, mud, pebbles, sand and weed seeds can get accidentally incorporated.
These are called as accidental adulterants. The presence of these adulterants may
increase the crude fibre / silica contents of the ingredient and thereby reduce the
digestibility and nutritive value of the ingredient. Some weed seeds may also contain
deleterious principles, which may cause harm to the animals.
Intentional adulterants
As a fraudulent practice in order to make more profit the wholesale dealers/
retailers may intentionally add husk, cobs, hulls, stones, mud, pebbles, sand, weed seeds
and also some chemical substances like urea to increase the weight or nutritive value by
default. The presence of these may cause harm to the animals or alter the nutritive value.
 39
CHAPTER V

FEEDING STANDARDS AND NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF DIFFERENT

CATEGORIES OF LIVESTOCK / POULTRY AND COMPUTATION OF
RATIONS.

Feedings standards are the tables which indicate the quantities of nutrients to be
fed to the various classes of livestock for different physiological functions like growth,
maintenance, lactation, egg production and wool growth. The nutrient requirements are
generally expressed separately for each function or an overall figure for the combined
functions may also be expressed. In the case dairy animals nutrient requirements are
generally expressed for the separate body functions but in case of poultry and pigs
combined requirements of maintenance and other body functions are given.
There are two terms which has been used in the feeding standards. One is the
nutrient allowance and another is the nutrient requirements. The former gives an extra
allowance of nutrient over the requirement which gives a margin of safety whereas latter
term gives the requirement for optimum production.

Feeding standards

A. Comparative type B. Digestible- Nutrient system C. Production-value type

1. Hay standard 1. Grouven’s Feeding system 1. Kellner-feeding
2. Scandinavian“feed unit” 2. Wolff’s feeding standard standard
Standard 3. Wolff’s Lehmann feeding standard 2. Armsby feeding
4. Haeckers’s Feeding standard std
5. Savage feeding standard 3. Agricultural
6. Morrison standard Research Council
7. National Research Council Standard.
standard
8. Japanese feeding standard
9. Indian standard

A. COMPARATIVE TYPE
1. Hay standard
In 1810 German scientist Thaer suggested that different feeds should be
compared using meadow hay as a unit. This standard provided that 100 lbs. of meadow
hay was equal in nutritive value to 91 lbs. of clover hay or 200 lbs. of potatoes, 625 lbs.
of mangels. Nothing was known of the chemical value of these feeds and the
physiological requirements of the animals. The only measure was the practical feeding
experience.

2. Scandinavian “feed unit” standard

In 1884, Professor Fjord formulated the Scandinavian feeding standard. In
this system only one factor, namely, the feed unit was taken into account. The value of
one pound of common grain such as corn, barley or wheat, is given as one unit value and
the value of all other foods is based upon this. According to this standard one feed unit is
required for each 150 lbs. of body weight and an additional unit for every three pounds of
milk production.
 40
As the grains are of different types in different countries, the feed units
should also be different. Hence the Scandinavian units are not applicable in our country
unless experiments are conducted here with our own grains.

B. DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENT SYSTEM

1. Grouven’s Feeding standard
In 1859 Grouven, a German chemist published his feeding standard with
crude protein, carbohydrates and fat contained in the feed as the basis of the standard.
According to this standard a cow weighing 1,000 lbs. should be fed 28.7 lbs. of dry
matter containing 2.67 lbs. of crude protein 0.6 lb. of crude fat and 14.55 lbs. of crude
carbohydrates.
Very soon after standard of Grouven, Henneberg and Stohaan found that
the total nutrient contained in a feed did not from an accurate guide to its value. The
proportion of digestible parts varied with different feeds and hence the digestible nutrient
would be more valuable. So due to this defect Grouven’s feeding standard is now
abandoned.

2. Wolff’s feeding standard

In 1864 Dr.Emil Von Wolff proposed a standard on digestible protein,
digestible carbohydrates and digestible fats contained in a feeding stuff. His standard for
dairy cows weighing 1,000 lbs. was 24.5 lbs. of dry matter containing 2.5 lbs. of
digestible carbohydrates and 0.4 lb. of digestible fats. This as a nutritive ratio 1:5.4. This
standard through an improvement over the standard of Grouven, yet it does not consider
the quantity and quality of milk produced.

3. Wolff’s Lehmann feeding standard

Dr.V.Lehmann of Berlin modified Wolff’s standard in 1896. Till then
Wolff’s standard was in use. He took into account the quantity of milk produced, but he
failed to take into account the quality of milk.

4. Haecker’s feeding standard

Haecker an American worker who for the first time considered quality as
well as the quality of milk produced in formulating a milk standard. He was also the first
to separate requirements for maintenance form the requirements of production. His
standard included digestible crude protein, carbohydrates and fats. Later it was expressed
in digestible crude protein and total digestible nutrients.

5. Savage feeding standard

Another American scientist Savage came to the conclusion that the
Haecker standard was too low especially in protein. He suggested that in case of milking
cows at least 24 lbs. of dry matter should be provided for an average cow. The nutritive
ratio should not be wider than 1:6 or narrow than 1:4.5. About two-thirds of the dry
matter should be from the roughages and one-third from the concentrates. Therefore, the
protein requirement was increased about 20 percent above the standard of Haecker.

6. Morrison feeding standard

Morrison F.B. observed that stockmen are spending large sums of money
for entirely unnecessary amounts on protein supplement, thus considerably reducing their
profits. He therefore, endeavoured to combine in one set of standards what seem in the
judgement to be the best guide available in computation of rations for the various classes
of stock. These standards were first presented in the 15th edition of “Feeds and Feedings”
 41
published in 1915 and where then called “Modified Wolff and Lehmann standard”.
They soon came to be known as the “Morrison Feeding Standard”. These standards have
expressed in terms of Dry Matter (D.M.), Digestible Protein (D.P.) and Total Digestible
Nutrients (T.D.N.)

7. National Research Council (N.R.C.) standard

On animal nutrition of the National Research Council recommended a
nutrient allowance. The standard includes digestible protein and total digestible nutrients
and also includes the recommended requirements for calcium, phosphorus, carotene and
vitamin D for dairy cattle, beef cattle, pigs, poultry, sheep dogs, horses, laboratory
animals etc. It is believed that these N.R.C. reports representing in each case are the
pooled judgement of a group of experts in the field of species in question. Today in a
number of countries N.R.C. standards are followed where they use ME for poultry, DE
for swine and horses, De, ME and TDN for sheep, ME, TDN and NEm and NEg for beef
cattle and for dairy cattle, values are given for DE, ME, TDN, NEm and NEg for growing
animals with additional values as NEl for lactating cows. From time to time, the NRC
revises these feeding standards in keeping with new information and changing feeding
practices.

8. Japanese feeding standards for dairy cattle

Maintenance requirements based on live weight raised to the 0.75 power
of Maintenance = 37.37 g TDN/kg or 116.3 kcal ME/kg (equivalent to 0.58 lb dig.
Protein. 8.1. lb TDN of 11.4 Mcal ME per 1,000 lb cow). For milk production, nutrient
requirements were calculated on the basis of 154 parts dig. Protein per 100 parts milk
protein and 1,444 kcal ME per 1,000 kcal milk energy.

9. Indian standards
Considering the fact that nutrient needs of livestock and poultry breeds
under tropical environments are different from those developed in temperate climate, the
Indian Council of Agricultural Research draw suitable feeding standards for the Indian
livestock and poultry.

C. PRODUCTION VALUE TYPE

1. Kellner feeding standard
In 1907 Kellner, a German scientist, investigated a feeding standard based
upon “Starch” as the unit of measurement. He took into account not only the digestibility
of the feeds as calculated from the amount lost in faeces and urine but also the entire loss
from the body including energy expended in digestion and passing the food inside the
body (chewing, etc.). For measuring the amount of energy lost from the body as heat,
Kellner devised a respiration apparatus. Here heat in determined indirectly by finding the
amount of carbon dioxide gas liberated or by measuring the amount of oxygen gas used
up in oxidation which take place in the body. The animal breathes through an airtight
mask placed over its nose and mouth.
According to this system, a 1,000 lbs. animal needs 0.6 lb. of digestible
protein and 6.35 lbs. of starch equivalent. This starch equivalent in turn can be converted
into energy by a method worked out by Armsby and Kellner.
 42
Any of the feeds the composition of which known be converted to starch
equivalent by using the following factors:
Dig Protein X 0.94 = S.E.
Fat from coarse fodder X 2.1 = S.E.
Fat from cereal grain X 2.1 = S.E.
Fat from oil seeds X 2.4 = S.E.
Dig. Carbohydrates and fibre X 1.0 = S.E.

2. Armsby feeding standard

Armsby standard is based on true protein and net energy values. By
means of the respiration calorimeter, Armsby detemined the net energy required for
mastication, digestion, assimilation and also the amount of heat and gases given off
through the excretory channels. Thus after considering the various losses of energy such
as in urine, faeces, gases and in the work of digestion, he was able to estimate the amount
of net energy available for productive purposes. Armsby expresses his standard in two
factors, that is true protein and therms of net energy.
A common criticism of the Armsby standard is that the expense of
determining requirements of the animals and the net energy in the various feeds is
excessively high. The net energy values of only a very few feeds had actually been
determined and most of the values have been computed from the Table of Morrison’s
digestible nutrients. Armsby standard is not as widely used as are the standards based on
digestible nutrients.

3. Agricultural Research Council (A.R.C.) standard

The nutritive requirement of various livestock in the United Kingdom
have been presented in Ministry of Agriculture’s Bulletins. These are prepared by the
Technical Committee of the Agricultural Research Council of Britain. Requirements are
set forth in three separate reports dealing with poultry, ruminants and pigs, each of these
reports extensive summaries of the literature upon which the requirements are based. The
most attractive feature of the British Feeding Standards is that the unit of energy
requirements has been expressed in terms of Starch equivalent instead of T.D.N. or ME
of NE are in Morrison and in N.R.C. standards.

FEEDING STANDARD
Nutritive requirements are the statements of the amount of nutrients
required by animals that should support normal function. A rough distinction between
requirement and allowance is that the allowance is greater than the requirement by a
safety margin designed principally to allow variations in requirement among the
individual animals.
Requirements may be expressed in quantities of nutrients or in dietary
proportions. Thus the phosphorus requirement of a 50 kg pig might be expressed as ii g.
phosphorus per day or as 0.5% phosphorus in the diet. The exact amount of nutrient
requirement is used mainly for animals given exact quantities of feed, the expression as
per cent of the diet is used for animals feed appetite.
When the standard is set to represent the needs of the average in a
population, many will require more than the figure stated, and many will require less the
individual stockman does not know whether the average requirements are below or above
the requirements of his animals. For this reason feeding standards should be considered
as guides to feeding practice and the stockman should make finer adjustment of food
intake to animal performance.
 43
FEEDING STANDARDS FOR MAINTENANCE
An animal is in a state of maintenance when the amount of nutrients in the feed
will maintain the animal in equilibrium i.e., its body composition remains constant and is
not growing, not working or giving no product as milk or mutton or egg. This minimum
demand of feed is referred to as the maintenance requirement. If this need is not met,
animals are forced to draw upon their body reserves to meet their nutrient requirements
for maintenance, commonly revealed by a loss in weight and to various other undesirable
consequences. The knowledge of this maintenance requirement of farm animals is of
utmost importance to find out the total requirements of feed for animals under various
conditions such as pregnancy or yielding certain quantity of milk or doing certain amount
of work. The procedure involves the summing up of the requirements of each function
on top of maintenance requirement. The starting point of finding maintenance
requirement is the fasting catabolism.

A. ENERGY REQUIREMENTS FOR MAINTENANCE

(1) BASAL AND FINDING MATABOLISM
The term Basal Metabolism or Basal Metabolic rate refer to the heat
production of an animal resting in a thermally neutral environment (temperature range in
which environmental temperature does not stimulate normal metabolism, approximately
25oC) and in a past-absorptive state (that is after the digestion and absorption of the last
food ingested has stopped). During this rest period although the animal will be doing no
external or digestive work nor will it have any emotional excitement, still it will carry on
a variety of internal processes which are essential to life. These processes include
respiration, circulation, maintenance of muscular tonus, production of internal secretions,
etc. In the absence of feed, the nutrients required to support these activities must come
from the break-down of body tissues itself.
The heat production can be determined by direct calorimetry, or by
indirect calorimetry. The conditions of the animals which are essential for measuring
metabolic rate are as follow:
1. Good nutritive conditions – this implies that the previous diet of the
subject has been adequate, especially as regards to energy and protein.
Poor state or previous nutrition tends to decrease of basal neat production.
2. Environmental temperature – temperature or about 25oC specified as one
which is above the critical and below the point of hyperthermal rise, thus
avoids tissue breakdown.
3. Relaxation on bed prior to and during measurement - by this way the
minimum muscular activity can be achieved. This is very difficult for any
kind of animal other than man.
4. Post-absorptive state – state when the process or digestion or absorption
disappears. It is reached by an overnight starvation in case of human, but
for ruminants it may require about three or four days. This condition can
hardly be fulfilled by any ruminants, hence it is measured after a
starvation period of about 5 hours. Because of the fact that the last two
conditions cannot be fulfilled and a modification is recommended for
ruminant animals, hence the term resting metabolism is used in place of
basal metabolism.
An animal in the resting state accomplishes little or no work in the physical sense
of the word. All of the energy released, even that needed to carry out vital functions of
the body is degraded to heat and lost to the environment. Under these circumstances the
intensity of energy metabolism can be estimated either by calculating heat production
from the exchange of respiratory gases (indirect calorimetry) or by measuring the heat
 44
which is lost from the body by radiation, conduction, convection and evaporation
(direct calorimetry).

DIRECT CALORIMETRY
This is simple in theory, difficult in practice, sensible heat loss (heat of radiation
conduction) from the animal body can be measured with two general types of
calorimeters, adiabatic and gradient. The insensible heat (latent heat of water vapourized
from the skin and the respiratory passages) is estimated by determining in some way the
amount of water vapour added to the air which flows through the calorimeter. For this,
rate of air flow and change in humidity is measured.

1. ADIABATIC CALORIMETERS
In this type an animal is confined in a chamber constructed in such a way that heat
loss through the walls of the chamber is reduced to near zero. This is attained by a box
within a box. When the outer box or wall is electrically heated to the same temperature
as the inner wall, heat loss from the inner wall to the outer wall is impossible. Water
circulating in a coil in such a chamber absorbs the heat collected by the inner wall; the
volume and change in temperature of the water can be used to calculate sensible heat loss
from animal body. The construction and operation are complicated and very expensive.
Animal Calorimeter
2. GRADIENT CALORIMETERS
Calorimeters of this type allow the loss
of heat through the walls of the animal
chamber. The outer surface of the wall of the
calorimeter is maintained at a constant
temperature with a water jacket; the
temperature gradient is measured with
thermocouples which line the innerand outer
surfaces of the wall. By the use of appropriate
techniques it is possible to measure separately the radiation component of the sensible
heat loss.
INDIRECT CALORIMETRY
Because the animal body ultimately derives all of its energy from oxidation, the
magnitude of energy metabolism can be estimated from the exchange of respiratory
gases. Such measurements of heat production are more readily accomplished than are
measurements of heat dissipation by direct calorimetry. A variety of techniques is
available for measuring the respiratory exchange; all ultimately seek to measure oxygen
consumption and CO2 production per unit of time.

1. OPEN CIRCUIT SYSTEM

Devices allow the animal to breath
atmospheric air of determined composition; the
exhaust air from a chamber or expired air from a
mask or cannula, is either collected or else
metered and sampled and then analysed for O2
and CO2 content. Analysis of gases has been accomplished with chemical and volumetric
or manometric techniques.

2. CLOSED CIRCUIT SYSTEM

Devices require the animal to rebreathe
the same air. CO2 is removed with a suitable
 45
absorbed which may be weighed before and after use to determine its rate of
production. The use of oxygen by the animal body decreases the volume of the
respriratory gas mixture, and this change in volume is used as a measure of the rate of
oxygen consumption. Oxygen used by the animal is then replaced by a metered supply of
the pure gas. Both O2 consumption and CO2 production must be corrected for any
differences in the amounts present in the circuit air at the beginning and end of the
experiment. Methane is allowed to accumulate in the circuit air, and the amount present
is determined at the end of the experiment.

2) ENERGY REQUIREMENT BY FEEDING TRAILS.

In this method an attempt is made to determine the amount of feed in terms of
energy which is sufficient to maintain constant weight for an extended period. The value
so obtained may be expressed in terms of TDN by inclusion of a digestion trial or may be
calculated from the average digestion coefficients. The inclusion of metabolic trial helps
to calculate the results in terms of ME. As live weight is the sole criterion of exactness of
this method, it should be noted that the weight should remain constant over an extended
period for direct application into practice. If for any reason there be gain in weight or
loss, necessary correction in intake should accordingly be made for such loss or gain in
weight. Correction figures are shown below:
Pounds gained x 3.53 = TDN required for gain
Pounds lost x 2.73 = TDN equivalent to loss.
Such correction are, however, only approximate since the nature of tissue gained
or lost is difficult to assess, eg., if the accumulation of water, which has no feed
equivalent, be responsible for weight gain, then the use of the above correction factor
form gain will be meaningless. The object, therefore, is to use these correction factors as
minimum as possible for reasons as already stated above. Another defect of this method
is that constancy of weight does not necessarily mean the integrity of body tissue or in
other words the weight maintenance does not mean the energy maintenance. This defect,
however, can be eliminated by inclusion of slaughter test which, however, adds to the
cost experiment and at the same time may not be practicable for all classes of stock.

B. PROTEIN REQUIREMENTS FOR MAINTENANCE:

Loss of protein continuously occurs through wear and tear of body tissue, for
renewal of hairs, nails, feathers, etc., and if the losses are not completed promptly by
proper amount of protein either in the form of tissue protein or NPN substance, the
animal will rundown in condition and its reproducing ability of productivity will be
adversely affected. The losses of body protein in the animal when kept on a protein free
ration occurs through urine and faeces in negligible amount, through shedding of hairs,
loss of nail, skin etc. The loss which occurs through urine is known as EUN or
endogenous urinary nitrogen loss and loss which occurs through faeces is called MFN or
Metabolic faecal nitrogen loss.

Urinary nitrogen:
EUN: Here the loss of nitrogen is due to the catabolism incidental to maintenance
of the vital tissues of the body, which can be measured at the minimum urinary excretion
on a nitrogen free otherwise adequate (particularly energy adequacy) diet. It is so likely
that the quantity of nitrogen thus lost through urine will be dependent on the body size.
However, this loss like energy loss is not directly proportional to body weight but to
W0.75 where W is the body weight in kg.
 46
Faecal nitrogen:
Faecal nitrogen consists of two parts; undigested food nitrogen and another part
known as MFN which comprises residues originated from the body, eg. residues of bile
digestive enzymes, epithelial cells derived from the alimentary tract and undigested
bacteria.
MFN: Metabolic faecal nitrogen unlike EUN is not proportional to body weight
but rather this value is dependent on the amount of feed ingested. There is also species
difference. The value will be lower with rations low in roughage and higher where
roughage alone will be fed.

1. ESTIMATION OF PEOTEIN REQUIREMENT FOR MAINTENANCE FROM

ENDOGENOUS URINARY METABOLIC FAECAL NITROGEN (THE FACTORIAL
METHOD)
From the above discussion it is evident that the minimum protein
requirement of an adult for maintenance must be met by supplying digestible protein
required to compensate losses through EUN and MFN plus losses for adult growth in an
otherwise adequate diet. In practice, however, a larger amount is given to afford a
margin of safety for variation of requirement from animal to animal arising out of
variable wastage in metabolism like loss of nitrogen in hair etc., which being very
negligible can also be omitted for all practical purposes or an account may be taken from
an estimate of 0.02 W0.73gm nitrogen loss per day in cattle.

2. NITROGEN BALANCE METHOD AS MEASURE OF PROTEIN

MAINTENANCE:
The protein requirement as determined by nitrogen balance studies is a
satisfactory and reliable measure. In this method, rations containing different levels of
protein but adequate in all other respects are fed to the animals and the minimum protein
intake capable of enforcing nitrogen equilibrium in well-nourished animal is said to be
the maintenance requirement of protein it is important that animals chosen for such
determination must be in a good state of protein nutrition at the start. Minimum intake
capable of maintaining nitrogen equilibrium is also very important.

3. FEEDING TRIAL TO DETERMINE MAINTENANCE REQUIREMENT OF

PROTEIN:
Rations containing different levels of protein but otherwise adequate in
energy and other nutrients are fed to determine the amount of intake capable of
maintaining an audit non-producing animal in sufficiently good condition for an extended
period without loss of weight or otherwise. Data obtained from slaughter tests (although
very difficult to perform in adult cattle) are very helpful to determine the integrity of the
nitrogenous tissues.
COMPUTATION OF RATIONS

GENERAL PRINCIPLES

Ration formulation is a process by which different feed ingredients are combined

in a proportion necessary to provide the animal with proper amount of nutrients needed at
a particular stage of production.
It requires the knowledge about nutrients, feedstuffs and animal in the
development of nutritionally adequate rations that will be eaten in sufficient amounts to
provide the level of production at a reasonable cost.
 47
The ration should be palatable and should not cause any serious digestive
disturbance or toxic effects to the animal.
1. The nutrient requirements can be arrived using feeding standards.
2. The list of commonly available feeds in that region is prepared
3. The nutritional value of the feeds is obtained from any standard source
such as NRC

Using the above information rations can be prepared by several methods that
include
Trial and error Method. This is the most popular method of formulating rations.
As the name implies, the formulation is manipulated until the nutrient requirements of the
animal are met. This method makes possible the formulation of a ration that meets all the
nutrient requirements of the animal.
The Pearson square or box method of balancing rations is a simple procedure
that has been used for many years. It is of greatest value when only two ingredients are to
be mixed. The nutrient requirement is noted in the middle of the square this value in the
middle of the square must be intermediate between the two values that are used on the
left side of the square which are actually the nutrient content of the two ingredients that
are to be used. For example, the 22 percent crude protein requirement has to be
intermediate between the soybean meal that has 45 percent crude protein or the maize
that has 9 percent crude protein. Subtract the nutrient value from the nutritional
requirement on the diagonal and arrive at a numerical value and note it down on the right
side of the square. Two sets of values will be got. By summing those parts and dividing
by the total, you can determine the percent of the ration that each ingredient should
represent in order to provide a specific nutrient level.
Simultaneous Equation Method. This is an alternative method for the square
method using a simple algebraic equation. Here, a particular nutrient requirement is
satisfied using a combination of two feed ingredients.
Two-by-two Matrix Method. This method solves two nutrient requirements
using two different feed ingredients. A 2 x 2 matrix is set and a series of equations are
done to come up with the solution to the problem.
Linear Programming (LP). This is a method of determining the least-cost
combination of ingredients using a series of mathematical equations. There are many
possible solutions to each series of equations, but when the factor of cost is applied, there
can only be one least cost combination. An electronic computer is capable of making
thousands of calculations in a very short time. However, the machine is incapable of
correcting errors resulting from incorrect data and errors in setting up of the program.
Therefore, the resultant rations obtained from linear programming will be no better than
the information and values which are entered into the
 48
Feeds / fodders used in ruminant ration formulation
Roughages
Dry roughages
➢ Crop residues – Straws or stover from cereal crops
➢ Hay made from fodder grasses

CROP RESIDUES DCP TDN

Paddy straw 0 45
Wheat straw 0.3 50
Sorghum straw 1.5 55
Ragi 0.3 50
Hay 3 50

Succulent roughages
Non leguminous
➢ Cereal fodders, grasses
Leguminous
➢ Berseem, Desmanthus, Cow pea, etc

GREEN ROUGHAGES DCP TDN

NON LEGUMINOUS
Napier grass 2.5 44.0
Para grass 3.5 59.0
Guinea grass 3.0 51.0
Cyanadon dactylon (arugam 2.5 45.0
pull)
Fodder sorghum 2.5 50.0
Fodder maize 3.5 60.0
LEGUMINOUS
Cow pea 12.5 60.0
Leucerne 13.5 60.0
Soobabul 14.0 55.0
Sesbania (agathi) 15.0 50.0
Concentrates
➢ Energy supplements
o Cereal grains (Maize, sorghum, bajra, ragi, broken rice) and brans (rice
bran, wheat bran)
➢ Protein supplements
• Oil cakes ( ground nut oil cake, soya bean meal, cotton seed meal, sesame
oil cake, mustard oil cake, sunflower oil cake, coconut oil cake)

Concentrate DCP TDN

Cereal grains
Bajra 4.5 85.0
Jowar 7.5 85.0
Maize 7.5 88.0
Coconut oil cake 20.0 72.0
Cotton seed cake 32.0 72.0
Protein supplements
 49
Soya bean meal 40.0 72.0
Ground nut cake 42.0 70.0
Seasame cake 38.0 70.0
Milling by products
Gram husk 0 55
Wheat bran 10.5 67.0
Rice bran 8.5 60.0

➢ Mineral supplements
o Common salt, mineral mixture

FORMULATION OF RATIONS - CATTLE AND BUFFALOES

Calculation of dry matter requirement:
Dry matter requirement for crossbred heavy yielders is 2.5 to 3.0% of its body
weight.
For an animal weighing 400 kg. It is 400 x 2.5/100 = 10 kg or 400 x 3/100 = 12
kgs.
TDN requirement for maintenance cattle: 34g TDN/kg W0.75
DCP requirement for maintenance cattle: 2.84 g DCP/kg W0.75
TDN requirement for milk production cattle: 330 g TDN/kg 4% fat corrected milk.
Formula for fat correction of milk (per Kg) is 0.4 + 0.15F, where F is % of fat in
milk
DCP requirement for milk production cattle: The protein content of milk can be
calculated by using the following formula.
Percentage of protein = 1.9 + 0.4F, where F is percentage of fat.
Then the DCP requirement is calculated by assuming that the Biological value of
microbial protein in Cattle as 70%
Eg. The DCP requirement of 1 kg of milk with 5% fat
Percentage of protein = 1.9 + (0.4 x 5) = 3.9% or 39 g in 1 kg.
Quantity of DCP required is (39/70) x 100 = 55.7 or 56 g of DCP
for 1 kg of milk with 5% fat.
Example for calculating requirement for 400 Kg cow yielding 10 kg milk with 5% fat
TDN requirement:
For maintenance: 34 x 89.44 = 3040g
For milk production: 330g TDN/kg FCM (Fat corrected milk)
FCM = 0.4 + 0.15F
0.4 + (0.15 x 5) = 1.15
1 kg of milk with 5% fat = 1.15 kg of milk with 4% fat.
For 10 kg = 11.5 x 330 = 3795 g
Total TDN required = for maintenance = 3040 g
for Lactation = 3795 g
6835 g
 50
DCP requirement:
For maintenance 2.84 x 89.44 = 254 g.
For milk production:
10 kg of milk with 5% fat.
Percentage of protein = 1.9 + 0.4 F
= 1.9 + (0.4 x 5) = 3.9
DCP required = 3.9 x 100 = 5.6g/100g.
70
56g for 1 kg. milk.
560g DCP for10 kg. milk.
Total DCP required = Maintenance 254g
Lactation 560g
814g
Partitioning of dry matter

The dry matter requirement for crossbred heavy yielder is 2.5 to 3.0% of its body
weight. For an animal weighing 400 kg: It is 400 x 2.5/100 = 10 kg or 400 x 3/100 = 12
kgs. The dry matter requirement is 10 to 12 kg.
1/3 of dry matter from concentrate.
10 x 1/3 = 3.3 kg. }
3 to 4 kg dry matter from concentrate
12 x 1/3 = 4.0 kg
7 to 8 kg from roughage.
1/3 from green roughage = 2 to 3 kg.
2/3 from dry roughage = 4 to 5 kg.
 51
➢ Select out the various roughage fraction of the ration.
➢ List them out
➢ Calculate the nutrient contributed by each one of them according to their inclusion
level. Sum up the total nutrients contributed by roughages.
➢ Arrive at what is the deficit of nutrients by subtracting the total nutrient
requirement of animal from that contributed by roughages.
➢ To meet out this deficit formulate a concentrate mixture either by trial and error
method or by algebraic method.
➢ Compare the nutritive value of formulated ration with that of requirement and
check whether it is balanced or not. If not balanced make alterations.

Ration formulation for poultry - Pearson square method

• Draw a square
• Write the percentage of nutrient required in the final mixture in the center of the
square.
• Choose the two ingredients you desire to mix
• Write the nutrient content of ingredient 1 in upper left corner of square
• Write the nutrient content of ingredient 2 in lower left corner of square
• Subtract nutrient content of ingredient 1 from desired nutrient content written in
centre of square and write it diagonally opposite to nutrient content of ingredient 1
• Repeat the same with ingredient 2
• Sum up the values on right side and convert the values to percentage.
• This will provide you information on the percent addition of ingredient 1 and
ingredient 2 to arrive at desired nutrient level.
• The pearson square method can also be used when more number of feeds are also
involved.
• In such case the feeds are grouped in two groups. Within the groups the ingredients
are partitioned in some fixed ratios and according to these ratios the nutrient content
is calculated and the other steps followed are the same
 52

• DM, Protein and energy levels in different rations for goats

Goats DM % body Percent Percent

weight Protein Energy
(CP) % (TDN) %
Bucks 4 11 60
Dry Doe 4 10 55
Late Gestation 5 11 60
Lactation 6
Avg. Milk 11 60
High Milk 14 65
Weanling 4 14 68
Yearlings 4 12 65
(Female does selected for breeding
purpose)

• DM, Protein and energy levels in different rations for sheep

Goats DM % Percent Protein Percent Energy

body (CP) % (TDN) %
weight
Rams 3.5 11 60
Dry Ewe 3.0 10 55
Late Gestation Ewe 3.5 11 60
Lactation Ewe 3.5
Avg. Milk 11 60
High Milk 14 65
Weanling 3.0 14 68
Yearlings (Female ewes selected 3.0 12 65
for breeding purpose)

Ration formulation for poultry - Algebraic method

1. Fix the nutrient requirements for the feed to be formulated
2. Slack space for additives 0.5%
3. Slack space for lysine – 0.05
4. Slack space for methionine – 0.15
5. Slack space for common salt if fish meal not included – 0.4
6. Slack space for calcium and phosphorus. Chicks 3, growers 2, layers 10 -12
7. Fix level of animal origin protein source if it is going to be included max 10%
8. Fix level of cereal milling byproducts to be included (refer maxi. inclusion level)
9. Calculate the total of the ingredients so far added.
10. Assuming that the following is the list of ingredients selected
Ingredients Inclusion level CP ME Kcal/Kg
Maize
Soya bean meal
Fish meal 8 4 224
Rice polish 5 0.55 150
Lysine 0.05
Methionine 0.15
Additives 0.5
Mineral mixture (Ca, P etc) 2
4.55 324
 53
Total of ingredients other than Maize and Soya bean meal = 15.70
Balance from maize and Soya bean meal = 100 – 15.70 = 84.30
Total Protein requirement = 20 %
Protein already supplied = 4.55
Balance protein required = 15.45
Let X = Maize and Y = Soya bean meal
X + Y = 84.3
0.09 X + 0.50 Y = 15.45
Multiplying Equation 1 with 0.50
0.50 X + 0.50 Y = 42.15
Subtracting equation 2 from equation 3
0.41 X = 26.7
X = 65.12 = 65
Y = 84.3 – 65.12 = 19.18 = 19.2
Ingredients Inclusion level CP ME Kcal/Kg
Maize 65 5.85 2145
Soya bean meal 19.2 9.6 518
Fish meal 8 4 224
Rice bran 5 0.55 135
Lysine 0.05
Methionine 0.15
Additives 0.5
Mineral mixture (Calcium, P etc) 2
Extra rice bran 0.1 0.011 2.7
Total 100 20.07 3024.7

Ration formulation for poultry - Trial and error method

• Fix the nutrient requirements for the feed to be formulated
• Slack space for additives 0.5%
• Slack space for lysine – 0.05%
• Slack space for methionine – 0.15%
• Slack space for common salt if fish meal not included – 0.4%
• Slack space for calcium and phosphorus. Chicks 3, growers 2, layers 8 -10%
• Fix level of animal origin protein source if it is going to be included max 10%
• Fix level of cereal milling byproducts to be included (refer maximum inclusion
level)
• Calculate the ME, CP, ca, P, Lysine and methionine contribution from ingredients
included in steps 7 and 8.
• Subtract Values arrived in step 9 from total requirement of feed.
 54
• This gives you quantity of nutrients that has to be met from cereal grains and oil
cakes.
• Calculate the level of addition of cereal grains and oilcakes by trial and error
method or by Pearson’s square or by algebraic method.
• Calculate the total nutrients supplied (ME, CP, Ca, P, Lysine and methionine)
• Make minor adjustments
• Calculate the deficit of Ca and P
• Supplement deficit through supplementation of limestone or dicalcium phosphate

Ration formulation for poultry - using computers

Computerized least cost rations are balanced rations with respect to nutritional
adequacy using the most economical, satisfactory sources available for supplying the
various critical nutrients in the amounts needed. The advantage of the computer is that it
will do almost instantly what could other wise be a long laborious process. The principle
tool used is linear programming. It can be used to find the combination of feedstuffs that
meets certain specification (mainly nutrient requirements) at the lowest cost. There are
several software packages available for computerized feed formulations.
Basic requisites are
• Computer facilities
• Trained personnel
• Information on nutritional requirements
• Information on feed suitability
• Information on feed composition
• Maximum and minimum inclusion levels of nutrients
• Information on prevailing prices of available feeds
• Formulating concentrate mixture/complete feed using Pearson square method.
 55
CHAPTER VI

NUTRITIONAL DEFICIENCY AND ITS INFLUENCE ON LIVESTOCK

PERFORMANCE

CALCIUM DEFICIENCY
If calcium is deficient in the diet of young growing animals, then satisfactory bone
formation cannot occur and the condition known as rickets is produced. The symptoms
of rickets are misshapen bones, enlargement of the joints, lameness and stiffness.
Enlargement of the osteochondral joints in the ribs produces a condition called as
Rickety Rosary. Pigeon chested appearance is also another symptom due to
enlargement of sternum. In adult animals calcium deficiency produces osteomalacia, in
which the calcium in the bone is withdrawn and not replaced. In osteomalacia the bones
become weak, fragile and are easily broken. In hens, deficiency symptoms are soft beak
and bones, retarded growth and bowed legs, the eggs have thin shells or there is
production of leathery eggs.
Milk fever (parturient paresis) is a condition, which most commonly occurs, in dairy
cows shortly after calving. It is characterized by a lowering of the serum calcium level,
muscular spasms, and in extreme case paralysis and unconsciousness. The exact cause of
hypocalcaemia associated with milk fever is obscure, but it is generally considered that,
with the onset of lactation, the parathyroid gland is unable to respond rapidly enough to
increase calcium absorption from the intestine to meet the extra demand. Normal levels
of blood calcium can be restored by intravenous injections of calcium gluconate, but this
may not always have a permanent effect. It has been shown that avoiding excessive
intakes of calcium while maintaining adequate dietary levels of phosphorus during the
dry period reduces the incidence of milk fever. Deliberate use of low calcium diets to
increase calcium absorption in the practical prevention of milk fever requires a good
estimate of calving date, or calcium deficiency may occur. Administration of large doses
of vitamin D3 for a short period prior to parturition has also proved beneficial.
Calcium: Phosphorus ratio: The calcium phosphorus ratio considered most suitable for
farm animals other than poultry is generally within the range 1:1 to 2:1, The proportion of
calcium for laying hens is much larger, since they require great amounts of the element
for eggshell production. An excess of dietary phosphorus in relation to calcium may
result in a bone disorder called nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism. An excess
of phosphorus depresses calcium absorption and leads to decrease in blood calcium level
which stimulates the release of PTH which mobilizes calcium from the bone. The
demineralised bone is replaced by fibrous connective tissue. Nutritional secondary
hyperparathyroidism occurs in horses fed large amount of grains or their by products
without calcium supplementation. The condition is also referred to as miller’s disease or
bran disease or big head disease.
PHOSPHORUS DEFICIENCY
Like calcium, phosphorus is required for bone formation and a deficiency can also cause
rickets or osteomalacia. 'Pica' or depraved appetite has been noted in cattle when
there is a deficiency of phosphorus in their diet; the affected animals have abnormal
appetites and chew wood, bones, rags and other foreign materials. Pica is not specifically
a sign of phosphorus deficiency since it may be caused by other factors. In chronic
phosphorus deficiency animals may have stiff joints and muscular weakness.
 56
Low dietary intakes of phosphorus have also been associated with poor fertility,
apparent dysfunction of the ovaries causing inhibition or depression and irregularity of
oestrus. There are many examples, were phosphorus supplementation increases fertility
in gazing cattle. In cows a deficiency of this element may also reduce milk yield.
Subnormal growth in young animals and low live weight gains in mature animals are
characteristic symptoms of phosphorus deficiency in all species.
POTASSIUM DEFICIENCY
Is rare in farm animals kept under natural conditions. There are certain areas in the world
where soil potassium levels are naturally low. Deficiency symptoms have been produced
in chicks given experimental diets low in potassium. They include retarded growth,
weakness and tetany, followed by death. Deficiency symptoms, including severe
paralysis, have also been recorded for calves given synthetic milk diets low in potassium.

SODIUM DEFICIENCY
A deficiency of sodium in the diet leads to a lowering of the osmotic pressure, which
results in dehydration of the body. Symptoms of sodium deficiency include poor growth
and reduced utilization of digested proteins and energy. In hens, egg production and
growth are adversely affected.

SALT TOXICITY
Too much salt in the diet is definitely harmful and causes excessive thirst, muscular
weakness and oedema. Salt poisoning is quite common in pigs and poultry, especially
where fresh drinking water is limited. When the concentration of salt in the diet of hens
exceeds 40 g/kg DM and the supply of drinking water is limited, then death may occur.
Hens can tolerate larger amounts of salt if plenty of water is available. Chicks cannot
tolerate salt as well as adults, and 20g/kg DM in the diet should be regarded as the
absolute maximum. This value should also not be exceeded in the diets of pigs. Turkey
poults are even less tolerant, and 120g/kg of salt in the diet should not be exceeded.

MAGNESIUM DEFICIENCY
Symptoms due to a simple deficiency of magnesium in the diet have been reported for a
number of animals. In adult ruminants a condition known as hypomagnesaemic tetany
associated with low blood levels of magnesium (hypomagnesaemia) has been known
under a variety of names including magnesium tetany, lactation tetany and grass
staggers, but most of these terms have been discarded because the disease is not always
associated with lactation or with grazing animals. Because the tetany can develop within
a day or two of animals being turned out to graze, the condition has been referred to as
the acute form. In this acute type, blood magnesium levels fall so rapidly enough. In the
chronic form of the disease plasma magnesium levels fall over a period of time to low
concentrations.
Clinical signs of the disease are often brought on by stress factors such as cold,
wet and windy weather. The normal magnesium content of blood serum in cattle is
within the range of 17 to 40 mg magnesium/l blood serum, but levels below 17 frequently
occur without clinical symptoms of disease. Subcutaneous injections of magnesium
sulphate, or preferably magnesium lactate, can generally be expected to cure the animal if
given early.
Typical symptoms of tetany are nervousness, tremors, twitching of the facial
muscles, staggering gait and convulsions. Some research workers consider the condition
to be caused by a cation-anion imbalance in the diet and there is evidence of a positive
 57
relationship between tetany and heavy dressing of pasture with nitrogenous and
potassic fertilizers.
A high degree of success in preventing hypomagnesaemia may be obtained by
increasing the magnesium intake. Feeding with magnesium-rich mineral mixtures, or
alternatively by increasing the magnesium content of pasture can affect this by the
application of magnesium fertilizers.

IRON DEFICIENCY
Since more than half the iron present in the body occurs as haemoglobin, a dietary
deficiency of iron would clearly be expected to affect the formation of this compound.
The red blood corpuscles contain haemoglobin, and these cells are continually being
produced in the bone marrow to replace those red cells destroyed in the animal body as a
result of catabolism. Although the haemoglobin molecule is destroyed in the catabolism
of these red blood corpuscles, the iron liberated is made use of in the resynthesis of
haemoglobin, and because of this the daily requirement of iron by a healthy animal is
usually small. If the need for iron increases, as it would after prolonged haemorrhage or
during pregnancy, then haemoglobin synthesis may be affected and anaemia will result.
Anaemia due to iron deficiency occurs most commonly in rapidly growing suckling
animals, since the iron content of milk is usually very low. This can occur in piglets
housed in pens without access to soil. The piglet is born with very limited iron reserves
and sow's milk provides only about 1mg per day. The rapidly growing piglet's
requirement is 125mg per day, which, in extensive systems, could be obtained by
ingestion of soil. Providing the sow with supplementary iron in gestation does not
increase the foetal piglets liver iron or the amount in the milk. Therefore, it is routinely
supplied by intramuscular injection as a dextran complex by 3 days of age. Usually 200
mg of iron is injected. Alternatively oral iron supplements are available in the form of a
paste of the citrate or fumarate or granules of iron dextran but these may not be eaten or
the iron may be lost if diarrhoea occurs. Anemia in piglets is characterized by poor
appetite and growth. Breathing becomes labored and spasmodic-hence the descriptive
term 'thumps' for the condition.
Although iron deficiency is not common in older animals, increased supplementation is
required when high levels of cropper are used for growth promotion. Iron deficiency
anemia is not common in lambs and calves because in practice it is unusual to restrict
them to a milk diet without supplementary feeding. It does, however, sometimes occur in
laying hens, since egg production represents a considerable drain on the body reserves.

COPPER DEFICIENCY
Since copper performs many functions in the animal body there are a variety of
deficiency symptoms. These include anaemia, poor growth, bone disorders, scouring,
infertility, depigmentation of hair and wool, gastro-intestinal disturbances and lesions
in the brain stem and spinal cord. The lesions are associated with muscular inco-
ordination, and occur especially in young lambs - swayback condition also known as
'enzootic ataxia' or neonatal ataxia has been known for some time in Australia. The
signs range from complete paralysis of the newborn lamb to a swaying staggering gait,
which affects, in particular, the hind limbs. The condition can occur in two forms, one
congenital, in which the signs are apparent at birth and are due to the failure of the myelin
sheath of nerves to develop, and the other in which the onset of the clinical disease is
delayed for several weeks. The congenital form of the condition is irreversible and can
only be prevented by ensuring that the ewe receives an adequate level of copper in her
diet. Delayed swayback can be prevented or retarded in copper deficient lambs by
parenteral injection of small doses of copper complexes. Copper plays an important role
 58
in the production of 'crimp' in wool. The element is present in an enzyme, which is
responsible for the disulphide bridge in two adjacent cysteine molecules. In the absence
of the enzyme the protein molecules of the wool do not form their bridge and the wool,
which lacks crimp, is referred to as 'stringy' or 'steely'. Nutritional anaemia resulting
from copper deficiency has been produced experimentally in young pigs by diets very
low in the element and this type of anaemia could easily arise in such animals fed solely
on milk. In older animals copper deficiency is unlikely to occur and copper
supplementation of practical rations is generally considered unnecessary. There are,
however, certain areas in the world where copper deficiency in cattle occurs. A condition
in Australia known locally as 'falling disease' was found to be related to a progressive
degeneration of the myocardium of animals grazing on copper deficient pastures. Copper
deficiency also leads to reproductive problems in cattle.
Cu S Mo interrelationship
Sulphide is formed by ruminal microorganisms from dietary sulphate or organic sulphur
compounds; the sulphide then reacts with molybdate to form thiomolybdate which in turn
combines with copper to form an insoluble copper thiomolybdate (CuMoS4) thereby
limiting the absorption of dietary copper. In addition it is considered likely that it
thiomolybdate is formed in excess; it may be absorbed from the digestive tract and exert
a systemic effect on copper metabolism in the animal.
COBALT DEFICIENCY
Pining is therefore regarded as being due to a deficiency of vitamin B12. When ruminants
are confined to cobalt-deficient pasture it may be several months before any
manifestations of pining occur because of body reserves of vitamin B12 in the liver and
kidneys. When these are depleted there is a gradual decrease in appetite with consequent
loss of weight followed by muscular wasting, pica, severe anemia and eventually death.
If the deficiency is less severe then a vague unthriftiness, difficult to diagnose, may be
the only sign. Deficiency symptoms are likely to occur where levels of cobalt in the
herbage are below 0.1 mg/kg DM. Under grazing conditions, lambs are the most
sensitive to cobalt deficiency followed by mature sheep, calves and mature cattle in that
order.
IODINE DEFICIENCY
When the diet contains insufficient iodine the production of thyroxine is decreased. The
main indication of such a deficiency is an enlargement of the thyroid gland, termed
endemic goitre, and is caused by compensatory hypertrophy of the gland. The thyroid
being situated in the neck, the deficiency condition in farm animals manifests itself as a
swelling of the neck, 'big neck'. Reproductive abnormalities are one of the most
outstanding consequences of reduced thyroid function; breeding animals deficient in
iodine give birth to hairless, weak or dead young.
MANGANESE DEFICIENCY
Low manganese diets for cows and goats have been reported to depress or delay oestrus
and conception, and to increase abortion. Manganese is an important element in the diet
of young chicks, a deficiency leading to perosis or 'slipped tendon', a malformation of
the leg bones. There is enlargement of the hock joint thickening and shortening of the
tibia which causes Achilles tendon to slip from its condyle causing the leg of the bird to
be pulled sideward and backward. Manganese deficiency in breeding birds reduces
hatchability and shell thickness, and causes head retraction in chicks, causes a condition
called as nutritional chondrodystrophy which is characterized by the shortening of the
bones of the wings and legs, shortening of the lower mandible leads to parrot beak
condition. In pigs lameness is a symptom due thickening and shortening of bones of the
legs. Other abnormalities associated with deficiency include impaired glucose utilization
and a reduced vitamin K induced blood clotting response.
 59

ZINC DEFICIENCY
Subnormal growth, depressed appetite, poor feed conversion and parakeratosis
characterize zinc deficiency in pigs. The latter is a reddening of the skin followed by
eruptions, which develop, into scabs. A deficiency of this element is particularly liable to
occur in young, intensively housed pigs offered a dry diet ad labium, though a similar
diet given wet may not cause the condition. It is aggravated by high calcium levels in the
diet and reduced by decreased calcium and increased phosphorus levels. Pigs given diets
supplemented with high levels of copper, for growth promotion, have an increased
requirement for zinc. Gross signs of zinc deficiency in chicks are retarded growth, foot
abnormalities, 'frizzled' feathers, parakeratosis and a bone abnormality referred to as the
'swollen hock syndrome'. Symptoms of zinc deficiency, in calves include inflammation of
the nose and mouth, stiffness of the joints, swollen feet and parakeratosis. The response
of severely zinc-deficient calves to supplemental zinc is rapid and dramatic.
Improvements in skin condition are usually noted within 2 to 3 days.Zinc deficiency als
leads to reproductive disorders in farm animals.

MOLYBDENUM DEFICIENCY
Low- Molybdenum diets resulted in reduced levels of xanthine oxidase, but did not
affect growth or purine metabolism. Molybdenum deficiency has not observed under
natural conditions in any species.

SELENIUM TOXICITY
Some species of plants that grow in seleniferous areas contain very high levels of
selenium. One such plant, Astragalus racemosa. Alkali disease and blind staggers are
localized names for chronic diseases of animals grazing certain seleniferous areas in the
USA. Symptoms include dullness, stiffness of the joints, loss of hair from mane or tail
and hoof deforrmities. Acute poisoning, which results in death from respiratory failure,
can arise from sudden exposure to high selenium intakes.

VITAMIN A DEFICIENCY

Cattle: Roughened hair, scaly skin, and excessive watering, softening, cloudiness of the
cornea leading to xerophthalmia. In calves constriction of the optic nerve canal leads to
blindness. In breeding animal's it leads to infertility.
Sheep: Deficiency is not common because of adequate intake. In addition to night
blindness severe cases of deficiency may result in lambs being born weak or dead.
Pigs: Night blindness and Xeropthalmia may occur. Deficiency in pregnant animals may
result in the production of blind deformed litters. In less severe cases appetite is impaired
and growth retarded.
Poultry: Nutritional Roup - Mortality rate is high. Early symptoms include retarded
growth, weakness, ruffled plumage and a staggering gait. Egg production and hatchability
are reduced. Nasal and ocular discharge, drowsiness, pale comb and wattles, eyelids stuck
shut with thick exudates.

VITAMIN D DEFICIENCY
In young animal's deficiency of vitamin D causes rickets and in adults it causes
Osteomalacia.
Rickets: Calcium and Phosphorus deposition in bones is affected and the bones are
weak, more prone to fractures and deformities. The conditions commonly seen are
bowing of legs, swollen knees and hock and arching of back. Occasionally there is
 60
paralysis. Rickety Rosary – enlargement of Osteochondral junction in ribs are also
noticed
Osteomalacia : Resorption of the bone already laid down. Bones become weak, more
prone to fractures and deformities. It can occur in pregnant and lactating animals, which
require increased amount of calcium and phosphorus.
In poultry bones and beak become soft and rubbery legs become weak. Egg production
is reduced and eggshell quality deteriorates

VITAMIN E DEFICIENCY
The most frequent and the most important manifestation of vitamin E deficiency
in farm animals is muscle degeneration (myopathy). Nutritional myopathy, also known
as muscular dystrophy, frequently occurs in cattle, particularly calves. The myopathy
primarily affects the skeletal muscles and the affected animals have weak leg muscles, a
condition manifested by difficulty in standing and, after standing, a trembling and
staggering gait. Eventually, the animals are unable to rise and weakness of the neck
muscles prevents them from raising their heads. A popular descriptive name for this
condition is white muscle disease. The heart muscle may also be affected and death may
result. Nutritional myopathy also occurs in lambs, with similar symptoms to those of
calves. The condition is frequently referred to as stiff lamb disease.
In pigs, the two main diseases associated with vitamin E and selenium
deficiency are myopathy and cardiac disease. The pigs demonstrate an uncoordinated
staggering gait, or are unable to rise. The pigs heart muscle is more commonly affected.
Sudden cardiac failure occurs and on post-mortem examination the lesions of the cardiac
muscles are seen as pale patches or white streaks. This condition is commonly known as
mulberry heart disease.
Vitamin E deficiency in chicks may lead to a number of distinct diseases:
nutritional myopathy, encephalomalacia and exudative diathesis.
In nutritional myopathy the main muscles affected are the pectorals although
the leg muscles also may be involved.
Nutritional encephalomalacia or crazy chick disease is a condition in which
the chick is unable to walk or stand, and is accompanied by hemorrhages and necrosis of
brain cells.
Exudative diathesis is a vascular disease of chicks characterized by a
generalized oedema of the subcutaneous fatty tissues, associated with an abnormal
permeability of the capillary walls.
Both selenium and vitamin E appear to be involved in nutrition myopathy and in
exudative diathesis but selenium does not seem to be important in nutritional
encephalomacia.

VITAMIN K DEFICIENCY
Low Prothrombin level in blood leads to haemorrhagic conditions. Deficiency is rare in
ruminants. In cattle sweet clover disease is associated with Vitamin K. Sweet clover that is
spoiled contains a compound dicoumarol, which lowers prothrombin content of blood. In
chicks Vitamin K deficiency causes anemia and delayed clotting time of blood.

VITAMIN C DEFICIENCY
Scurvy in adults: Weakness, bleeding, loosens teeth, swollen joints hemorrhages.
Infantile scurvy: Anorexia, Listlessness, Leg drawn up to abdomen swelling at ends of
long bone. Gums swollen, dyspnoea, cyanosis, convulsions and death if not treated. Delay
in wound healing.
Stress increases the requirement of this vitamin.
 61

THIAMINE DEFICIENCY
Early symptoms: anorexia, emaciation, muscular weakness and progressive dysfunction of
the nervous system.
Chicks: anorexia, emaciation, polyneuritis characterized by head retraction, nerve
degeneration and paralysis star gazing posture.
➢ Thiamine deficiency leads to a deficiency of TPP.
➢ Oxidative de carboxylation of pyruvic acid does not take place and there is
accumulation of pyruvic acid, which undergoes reduction to form lactic acid,
which in turn causes muscular weakness.
➢ Nerve cells are also dependent on carbohydrate as source of energy.
➢ Thiamine deficiency leads to improper utilization of carbohydrate causing
nervous lesions.
Ruminant's
➢ Thiamine deficiency is not common because of synthesis of in the rumen by
certain bacteria.
➢ However certain bacteria are capable of synthesizing thiaminase which destroys
the vitamin causing thiamine deficiency.
➢ It is characterized by circular movements, head pressing, muscular tremors and
blindness.
➢ Lactic acidosis caused by the feeding of rapidly soluble carbohydrate may
predispose to the production of thiaminases.

RIBOFLAVIN DEFICIENCY
➢ Poor appetite, retarded growth, vomiting, skin eruptions and eye abnormalities.
➢ In sows riboflavin is necessary to maintain normal oestrous activity and prevent
premature parturition.
➢ In chicks riboflavin deficiency causes curled toe paralysis caused due to
peripheral nerve degeneration, in which the chicks walk on their hocks with the
toes curled inwards.
➢ In breeding hens deficiency causes decreased hatchability. Embryonic
abnormalities occur including the clubbed down condition in which the down
feather continues to grow within the follicle leading to curled feather.
NIACIN DEFICIENCY

In pigs, deficiency symptoms include poor growth, anorexia, enteritis, vomiting and
dermatitis. In fowls a deficiency of the vitamin causes bone disorders, feathering
abnormalities and inflammation of the mouth and upper part of the oesophagus.
Deficiency symptoms are particularly likely in pigs and poultry if diets with a high maize
content are used, since maize contains very little of the vitamin or of tryptophan.

PYRIDOXINE DEFICIENCY

Affects the animal's growth rate. Convulsions may also occur, possibly because a
reduction in the activity of glutamic acid decarboxylase results in an accumulation of
glutamic acid. In addition, pigs exhibit a reduced appetite and may develop anemia.
Chicks on a deficient diet show jerky movements, while in adult birds hatchability and
egg production are adversely affected. In practice, vitamin B6 deficiency is unlikely to
occur in farm animals because of the vitamins wide distribution.
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PANTOTHENIC ACID DEFICIENCY
Deficiency of pantothenic acid in pigs causes slow growth, diarrhoea, loss of hair,
scaliness of the skin and a characteristic 'goose-stepping' gait; in severe cases animals
are unable to stand. In the chick, growth is retarded and dermatitis occurs. In mature
birds, hatchability is reduced. Rumen microorganisms can synthesize pantothenic acid,
like the entire B-complex vitamin. Escherichia coli, for example, is known to produce
this vitamin. Pantothenic acid deficiencies are considered to be rare in practice because
of the wide distribution of the vitamin, although deficiency symptoms have been
reported in commercial herds of Landrace pigs.

FOLIC ACID DEFICIENCY

A variety of deficiency symptoms in chicks and young turkeys have been reported,
including poor growth, anaemia, poor bone development and poor egg hatchability.
Folic acid deficiency symptoms rareely occur in other farm animals because of synthesis
by intestinal bacteria.

BIOTIN DEFICIENCY
In pigs, biotin deficiency causes foot lesions, alopecia (hair loss) and a dry scaly skin. In
growing pigs, both growth rate and food utilization is adversely affected. In breeding
sows, a deficiency of the vitamin can adversely influence reproductive performance.
In poultry, biotin deficiency causes reduced growth, dermatitis, leg bone abnormalities,
cracked feet, poor feathering and fatty liver and kidney syndrome (FLKS). The last
condition, which mainly affects two-to five-week-old chicks, is characterized by a
lethargic state with death frequently following within a few hours. On autopsy, the liver
and kidneys, which are pale and swollen, contain abnormal depositions of lipid.
Giving animal's avidin, a protein present in the raw white of eggs can induce biotin
deficiency, which combines with the vitamin and prevents its absorption from the
intestine. Certain streptomyces spp. Bacteria present in soil and manure produce
streptavidin and stravidin, which have a similar action to the egg white protein. Heating
inactivates these antagonist proteins.

CHOLINE DEFICIENCY
Deficiency symptoms, including slow growth and fatty infiltration of the liver, have been
produced in chicks and pigs. Chorine is also concerned with the prevention of perosis or
slipped tendon in chicks. The choline requirement of animals is unusually large for the
vitamin, but in spite of this, deficiency symptoms are not common in farm animals
because of its wide distribution, its high concentrations in foods and because it can be
readily derived from methionine.

VITAMIN B12 DEFICIENCY

Poor growth, poor feathering, decreased hatchability, dermatitis and rough coat. In
poultry housed with access to litter, majority, if of the vitamin requirements can be
obtained from the litter. Microorganisms in the rumen synthesize however, if levels of
cobalt in the diet are low, a deficiency of the vitamin can arise and cause reduced
appetite, emaciation and anemia.
 63

CHAPTER VII

FEED SUPPLEMENTS AND ADDITIVES

For Feed supplements refer to energy and protein supplements

Feed additives
An additive is a substance that is added to a basic feed, usually in small quantities,
for the purpose of fortifying it with certain nutrients, stimulants or medicines other than
as a direct source of nutrient.
In general, the term “feed additive” refers to a non-nutritive product that affects
utilisation of the feed or productive performance of the animal. Feed additives and
implants can be classed according to their mode of action.

1. Additives that enhance feed intake

(a) Antioxidants: Antioxidants are compounds that prevent oxidative rancidity of

polyunsaturated fats. Rancidity once develops, may cause destruction of vitamins
A, D and E and several of the B complex vitamins. Breakdown products of
rancidity may react with lysine and thus affects the protein value of the ration.
Ethoxyquin or BHT (butylated hydroxytoluene) can serve as antioxidant in feed.
(b) Flavouring Agent: Flavouring agents are feed additives that are supposed to
increase palatability and feed intake. There is need for flavouring agents that will
help to keep up feed intake
1. when highly unpalatable medicants are being mixed
2. During attacks of diseases
3. When animals are under stress, and
4. When less palatable feedstuffs is being fed either as such or being
incorporated in the ration.
Ruminants prefer sweet compounds. Additionally cattle and goats
respond positively to salts of volatile fatty acids. Horses will often refuse
musty feed when there is so little mould that the owner fails to detect it.
2. Additives that enhance the colour or quality of the marketed product
Poultry man will often enhance the yellow colour by incorporating xanthophylls
into broiler feed. Among various additives, arsanilic acid, sodium arsanilate and
roxarsone are added for the purpose.
3. Additives that facilitate digestion and absorption
a. Grit: Poultry do not have teeth to grind any hard grain, most grinding takes place
in the thick musculated gizzard. The more thoroughly feed is ground, the more
surface area is created for digestion and subsequent absorption. Hence, when hard,
coarse or fibrous feeds are fed to poultry, grit is sometimes added to supply
additional surface for grinding within gizzard. When mash or finely ground feeds
are fed, the value of grit becomes less. Oyster shells, coquina shells and limestone
are used as grit.
b. Buffers and Neutralisers: During maximum production stage ruminants are given
high doses of concentrate feeds for meeting demands for extra energy and protein
requirement of the animal. The condition on the other hand lowers the pH of the
rumen. Since, many of the rumen microbes cannot tolerate low pH environment,
the normally heterogeneous balanced population of microbes become skewed,
favouring the acidophilic (acid-loving) bacteria. The condition often leads to
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acidosis and thereby upsets normal digestion. The addition of feed buffers and
neutralisers, such as carbonates, bicarbonates, hydroxides, oxides, salts of VFA,
phosphate salts, ammonium chloride and sodium sulphate have been shown to have
beneficial effects. Recently the use of baking soda (NaHCO3) has been shown to
increase average daily gain by about 10 per cent, feed efficiency by 5 to 10 per cent,
and milk production by about 0.5 liter per head per day.

c. Chelates: Ethylene diamine tetracetic acid (EDTA) and other similar synthetic
ligands also may improve the availability of zinc and other minerals.

d. Enzymes:
Enzymes are protein which have the property of catalysing specific biochemical
reactions. They are found in all plants and animals and are responsible for growth and
the maintenance of health.
Microorganism also produce enzymes and in recent years it has been possible to
produce enzymes using microorganism on an industrial scale, extract and use these
enzymes in a wide range of processes for the production of feed and natural products.
Poultry feeds are largely composed or plant and vegetables materials and there are
enzymes developed to degrade, modify or extract the plant polymers found in some of the
cereals and their by-products. The enzymes can be used to improve the feeding of
poultry in the following way:
1. By improving the efficiency of the utilisation of the feed.
2. By upgrading cereals by-products or feed components that are poorly digested
3. By providing additional digestive enzymes to help poultry to withstand stress
conditions eg. Hot climates.
4. Additives that promotes growth and production
a. Antibiotics: These are substances which are produced by living organisms (mould,
bacteria or green plants) and which in small concentration have bacteriostatic or
bactericidal properties. They were originally developed for medical and veterinary
purposes to control specific pathogenic organisms. Mode of Action of Antibiotics
1. Antibiotics “spare” protein, amino acids and vitamin on diets Under hygienic
conditions growth increases are small.
2. Intestinal wall of animals fed antibiotics is thinner than that of untreated animals
which might explain the enhanced absorption of calcium shown for chicks.
3. Reduce or eliminate the activity of pathogens causing “subclinical infection.”
4. Reduce the growth of micro-organisms that compete with the host for supplies of
nutrients.
5. Antibiotics alter intestinal bacteria so that less urease is produced and thus less
ammonia is formed. Ammonia is highly toxic and suppresses growth in non-
ruminants.
6. Stimulate the growth of micro-organisms that synthesise known or unidentified
nutrients.

Following points should be kept in mind while using antibiotics for animal feeding:
1. Antibiotics should be used only for (a) growing and fattening pigs for slaughter as
pork or bacon; (b) growing chicks and turkey poults for killing as table poultry.
2. Antibiotics should not be used in the feed of ruminant animals (cattle, sheep and
goats), breeding pigs and breeding and laying poultry stock.
3. While adding antibiotics at the recommended level, care should be taken that they are
thoroughly and evenly mixed with the feed.
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4. For best results, antibiotics should be used with properly balanced feeds. Also, the
feeds containing antibiotics should be fed only to the type of stock for which they are
intended.
5. Antibiotics are not a substitute for good management and healthy living conditions, or
for properly balanced rations.

b. Probiotics: is defined as a live microbial feed supplement, which beneficially affects

the host animals by improving its intestinal microbial balance. The probiotic preparation
are generally composed of organisms of lactobacilli and/or streptococci species, few
many contain yeast colonies.
They benefit the host by:
1. Having a direct antagonistic effect against specific group of undesirable or harmful
organism through production of antibacterial compounds, elementary or minimising
their competition of nutrients.
2. Altering the pattern of microbial metabolism in the gastro intentional tract.
3. Stimulation of immunity.
4. Neutralisation of entrotoxins formed by pathogenic organism.
Thus resulting in increased growth rate, improved feed efficiency

5. Additives that alter metabolism

(a) Hormones: These are chemicals released by a specific area of the body (ductless
glands) and are transported to another region within the animal where they elicit a
physiological response.
Extensive use is being made of synthetic and purified estrogens, androgens,
progestogens, growth hormones and thyroxine or thyroprotein (iodinated casein) to
stimulate the growth and fattening of meat producing animals. There is concern,
however, about possible harmful effects of any residues of these materials in the meat or
milk for the consumers.
(b) Implants: Implants are hormone or hormone like products that are designed to
release slowly, but constantly, the active chemicals for absorption into the
bloodstream. These are implanted subcutaneously in the ear.(eg.) diethylstilbesterol
(DES).
6. Additives that affect the health status of livestock
a. Antibloat compounds: Surfactants such as poloxalene is used as a preventive for
pasture bloat,several other products have been shown to be highly effective to
prevent bloat are also available in the market.
b. Antifungal additives: Mould inhibitors are added to feed liable to be
contaminated with various types of fungi such as Aspergillus flavus, Penicillium
cyclopium etc. Before adding commercial inhibitors all feedstuff should be dried
below 12 cent moisture. Propionic, acetic acid and sodium propionate are added
in high moisture grain to inhibit mould growth. Antifungals such as Nystatin and
copper sulphate preparations are also in use to concentrate feeds to prevent
moulds.
c. Anticoccidials: Various brands of anticocidials are now available in the country
to prevent the growth of coccidia which are protozoa and live inside the cells of
the intestinal lining of livestock.
d. Antihelmintics: Under some practical feeding conditions anthelmintics have also
been used. The compounds act by reducing parasitic infections.
 66
Anticaking agents: Anticaking agents are anhydrous substance that can pick up
moisture without themselves becoming wet. They are added to dry mixes to prevent the
particles clumping together and so keep the product free flowing.
They are either anhydrous salts or substance that hold water by surface adhesion
yet themselves remain free flowing:
1. Salt or long chain fatty acids.
2. Calcium phosphate
3. Potassium and sodium ferryocyanide
4. Magnesium oxide
5. Salts silicic acid – Al, Mg, Ca, Salt.
Sodium aluminium silicate
Sodium calcium aluminium silicate
Calcium aluminium silicate
Humectants: These are substance which are required to keep the product moist, as for
example, bread and cakes. Anticaking agents immobilise moisture that was picked up.
Humectants are not or much use in poultry feed.
Firming and crisping agents: These are substance that preserve the texture or vegetable
tissues and by maintaining the water pressure inside them, keep them turgid. It prevents
a loss of water from the tissues.
Sequestrants: Certain metals – copper, iron can act as pro-oxidant catalytic and there
fore need to the immobilised. Sequestrants are compounds added to do this.
These compounds should have affinity to metal ions and should prevent the metal
in becoming engaged in oxidative action. Most effective sequestrants EDTA.
Ethylene Diamine Tetraacetic Acid.
Calcium salt of EDTA works satisfactorily as a sequestrants without interferring
with trace mineral metabolism.
Sweeteners: It is common constitution of food but yet used as additives. Eg. Sugar
Some are poorly digestible, may cause digestive upsets.
Saccharin – extensively used during World War I. It is a compound without any
calorific value.
Additives such as humectants, firming and crisping agents, sweeteners, emulsifiers,
stabilisers, acid, buffers are not commonly used in poultry feeds.
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CHAPTER VIII

CONSERVATION AND PRESERVATION OF FEED AND FODDERS

SILAGE

Silage is the material produced by the controlled fermentation of a crop of high

moisture content. Ensilage is the name given to the process. Silo is the container used to
prepare silage.

Procedure involved in silage making

➢ Selection of crop
➢ Harvesting of crop (50% of the crop must be in ear emergence stage)
➢ Wilting of the crop – to reduce moisture percentage in order to reduce effluent loss
➢ Chaffing of the crop – To facilitate compression in silo and prevent the development
of air pockets thus create complete anaerobic condition in silo.
➢ Preperation of the silo
➢ Filling up of the silo
➢ Compaction of the filled material to remove any air pockets
➢ Sealing of the silo to prevent the entry of air or water

Fermentation in silo
The process of fermentation can be divided into four phases
Phase I: Aerobic phase, plant enzymes continue their action utilising soluble
carbohydrates and breaking it down to CO2 andH2O.
Phase II: Action of Enterobactor species of bacteria on soluble carbohydrates
producing acetic acid. Lowering the pH marginally
Phase III: Action of lactic acid producing bacteria (Lactobacillus and Streptococcus
spp) fermentation of soluble carbohydrates present in the plant material to lactic acid,
resulting in a lowering of pH .
Phase IV: Lactic acid production reaches a peak and stabilises to within the region of
3.8 – 4.2. At this pH the crop is preserved.
Phase V: Due to unfavourable conditions or if rain is allowed to enter the silage (or) if
lactic acid concentration is inadequate, then a secondary clostridial fermentation is likely
to occur. The lactate fermenting clostridia cause a break down of the lactic acid with the
production of butyric acid. Proteolytic clostridia attack amino acids, with the formation of
ammonia, organic acids, amines and Co2.

An entriely different process of silage making involves the sterilisation of the

mass in the silo by adding chemical sterilisation agents such as formaldehyde, sulphur
dioxide or sodium metabisulphate. The success of this method depends largely upon
ensuring adequate mixing with the crop, which may often be difficult in practice. If
satisfactory sterilisation is achieved and provided effluent production is not great, the
nutritive value of the preserved material should be very similar to that of the original
herbage.
Another method of preserving herbage is by the direct acidification of the crop,
and one such system is the finished A.I.V. process, named after originator A.I.vittanen.
The mixture of acids used in this process varies, but generally consists of Hcl & H 2SO4.
These acids are added to material during ensiling in sufficient quanity to lower the pH
value below pH4. The resultant product may appear to be a very unnatural food for farm
 68
animals, but provided the correct amount of acids is properly, distributed through out
the ensiled material no free mineral acids occur. A.I.V. silage has been shown to be
palatable and harmless to ruminants even when as the sole item of diet.
Factors affecting the nutritive value of silage
Chemical changes:
1) Plant enzymes:
In the first category the main changes are caused by aerobic respiration, which
will continue, as long as oxygen is present, until the plant sugars are depleted. Sugars are
oxidised to carbondioxide and water, with the production of heat causing a considerable
rise in temperature of the mass.
Apart from carbohydrate break down, proteolysis also occurs immediately after
the herbage is cut. Protein is rapidly broken down to simpler substances mainly amino
acids.
2) Microorgnisms:
After aerobic respiration has ceased, microbial changes continue. Fresh
herbage contains bacteria on its surface, and these organisms multiply, using the contents
of a cell as medium. As a result of this activity many chemical components of the grass
are broken down. Where conditions are favourable for bacteria which produce lactic
acid, the acidity of the mass increases until, at about pH 4.0 – 4.2 organisms other than
the aciduric lactic acid bacteria are inhibited as long as conditions remain anaerobic.

Nature of crop:
In order to obtain silage of high nutritive value, grass should be cut shortly after,
the ear emergence stage of growth as digestibility falls rapidly with increasing herbage
maturity.
High protein grass crops and legumes are difficult to ensile satisfactory, because
of low soluble carbohydrate content and because of their high buffering capacity. If the
soluble carbohydrate content of the crop is known to be a limiting factor, then a sugar
additive, such as molasses, may be sprayed on to the crop at the time of filling the silo.
The physical nature of the crop at the time of ensiling is important factor in the
fermentation process, and it is known their chopping or brushing tends to produce more
favourable condition for microorganism activity than leaving the material long.

Losses of Nutrients during ensilage:

i) Field losses: With crops cut and ensiled the same day, nutrient losses are negligible
and even over a 24 hours wilting period losses of not more than 1 or 2% dry matter
can be expected. Dry matter losses as high as 6% after 5 days and 10% after 8 days
wilting in the field have been reported. The main nutrients affected are the water
soluble carbohydrates and protein which are hydrolysed to amino acids.
ii) Oxidation losses: These result from the action of plant and microbial enzymes on
substrates such as sugars in the presence of oxygen,leading to the formation of Co2
and water.
iii) Effluent losses: In most silos, free drainage occurs and the liquid (or) effluent carries
with it soluble nutrients. The amount of effluent produced depends largely upon the
initial moisture content of the crop, but it will obviously be increased if the silo is left
uncovered so that rain enters. Effluent contain sugars, soluble nitrogenous
compounds, minerals and fermentation acids all of which are of high nutritional
value. Crops ensiled with a dry matter content of 15% may result in effluent dry
matter losses as higher 10%, where as crops wilted to about 30% dry matter produce
little, if any, effluent.
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Silos and other containers:
The container in which the silage made is of greatest importance and will
determine to a large extent the nature and quality of the final product. The size of the
container will generally depend upon the number and kind of animals to be fed from it,
and its height on the length of the feeding different types of silos have been designed.
Clamp silo: In silo, greater part of crop remains above ground and the rest remains in
slight excavated trench or pit. In addition the clamp will be long and narrow, and low in
relative to length.
Pit silo: The pit silo is cylindrical or rectangular and its shape is like that of clamp silo,
but extends below ground. The pit can be excavated in any suitable soil, not subjected to
waterlogging. If silage is to be made annually, it better to have a concrete floor, making
provision for effluent to escape. The dimension of the pit various with circumstances and
the number of stock to be fed. A pit of average width of 4m and with silage settled to a
depth of 2m will held 1½ m tonnes of silage for each 30 cm length.
Advantages of pit silo:
1) A pit silo is very economical to build
2) Owing to its depth and shape, the pit silo has a large capacity for its size
3) Less power is required for filling
4) The smooth plastered walls allows the silage to settle and retain the juices
5) Pit silo if kept in good condition will last indefinitely.
Disadvantage of pit silo:
1) It is inconvenient to take out the feed
2) The pit silo occupies farm land which is permenently inaccess for cultivation,
and requires lot of labour.
3) The main difficulty is to ensure adequate compression, since depth of the
silage is always out of proportion to the area cover in strong contrast to the
tower silo.
Trench silo:
The difference between the pit and the trench silo is merely one of size, the latter
usually brawing greater length in relation to breadth. The process of ensiling is more or
less similarly to that for pit silo.
Advantages of trench silo:
1) Horses, cows (or) tractors can be used to pack the silage
2) Power required for filling the trench silo is less
3) It is well adopted to the ensilage of immature corn and emergency feeds
4) The major part of the material conserved will settle into the trench below
ground level, the chance of air getting in is reduced to a minimum.
5) Unloading and carrying of silage are much easier.
Disadvantages of trench silo:
i) Once constructed, it is not easy to abandoned
ii) More silage is spoilt
iii) The trench silo must be trimmed upon the edges and clean up if the silage
is to be kept best.

Tower silo: It is round, cylindrical and is placed above the ground the height varies from
6 to 10m or more with a varying diameter (6 to 10m). The erection of such a silo is
expensive. The material used include wood, reinforced concrete or sheet metal. Use
wood is of much advantage is that it is not affected by silage acids, on the other hand
wood tends to preserve it. For filling up the silo a chopper blower is necessary. In this
types 3 types of silage are found
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(a) in the bottom third it will be over compressed sour and will give out smell
of butyric acid
(b) In the centre it will be good, not too tightly packed and yet compressed well
enough to give well-preserved material.
(c) In the top third it is often dark and over heated, near the surface it will be of
low value, perhaps with some moulds. In the tower, silo, the sealing is not
much important as the pit silo.
Advantages:
i) Material can be well preserved, with no wastage due to air leakage
ii) Wilting of crop and the sealing of silo are not as important as in pit silo,
because the mass itself applies pressure and and acts as an air seal to the
lower layer.
iii) The loss of dry matter is minimal
Disadvantages:
i) It is very expeenside to make
ii) Chopper blower is needed for filling up of the silo
iii) Emptying is very laborious
iv) In dry hot places the silage gets dehydrated

Tube Silo:
The grass is filled in plastic cyndrical tubes of varing capacity.

Advantages:
Does not occupy permanent location, can be shifted to various location with ease.
Disadvantages:
Requires machinery to fill as well as to evacuvate the silo.

Additives used in silage making

Inorder to regulate the microbial activity various additives can be used during
ensiling. They may be grouped as
Fermentation stimulants – Culture of lactic acid producing bacteria, soluble carbohydrate
sources.
Fermentation inhibitors – Inorganic acids, sterilants ( antibiotics, Sodium metabisulphite,
Formaldehyde), and organic acids.
Others – Urea, limestone, poultry manure etc.

HAYLAGES
Haylages, sometimes called low moisture silage It is a preserved forage with
characteristics between those of hay and silage. It is made from grass and/or legume to a
moisture level of about 45-55% when harvested (or) wilted to this level. If the harvested
forage is having higher moisture percent, it should be brought down before ensiling. It
must be preserved by processes some what different from those for wilted or unwilted
silage. The silos shoud be well constructed and as airtight as possible so the oxygen
present is soon used up, the Co2 that is producted is trapped and held within the silo.
These conditions prevent the forage from spoiling by moulding, oxidising, heating etc.
Air, exclusion likely to the success or failure of making low moisture silage.
Advantages:
i) Properly made haylage, has a pleasant aroma palatable high quality feed. Animals
usually received more dry matter and feed value than silage made from the same
cut.
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ii) If forage is moved, with the intention of making hay and weather becomes
unfavourable for drying, the partially dried forage can be made into haylage.
Disadvantages:
• With haylage, fine chopping, good packing and complete sealing against
air entrance inside the silo is a must and more critical than with silage.
• The danger of excessive heating which lowers protein digestibility is more
acute in haylages than silages.
Characteristics of a good silage
1. VERY GOOD SILAGE
It is clean, the taste is acidic, and has no butyric acid, no moulds, no sliminess nor
proteolysis. The pH is between 3.5 and 4.2. The amount of ammoniacal nitrogen
should be less than 10 per cent of the total nitrogen. Uniform in moisture and green
or borwnish in colour. Taste is pleasing, not bitter or sharp.
2. GOOD SILAGE
The taste is acidic. There may be traces of butyric acid. The pH is between 4.2 and
4.5. The amount of ammoniacal nitrogen is 10-15 per cent of the total nitrogen.
Other points same as of very good silage.
3. FAIR SILAGE
The silage is mixed with a little amount of butyric acid. There may be slight
proteolysis along with some mould. The pH is between 4.5 and 4.8. ammoniacal
nitrogen is 15-20 per cent of the total nitrogen. Colour of silage varies between
tobacco brown to dark brown.
4. POOR SILAGE
It has a bad smell due to high butyric acid and high proteolysis. The silage may be
infested with moulds. Les acidity, pH is above 4.8. The amount of ammoniacal
nitrogen is more than 20 per cent. Colour tends to be backish and should not be fed.

HAY
The aim in hay making is to reduce the moisture content of the green crop to a
level low enough to inhibit the action of plant and microbial enzymes. In order that a
green crop may be stored satisfactorily in a stack or bale, the moisture content must be
reduced to 15-20%.
Process of hay making in steps
Selection of crop – Soft pliable stem
Harvesting of crop – Preflowering stage
Drying of crop – Natural drying or artificial drying
Schedule for harvesting and curing of hay:
For efficient production of good quality hay the crop should be harvested early in
the morning and left in the field as such for curring. Drying the harvested crop in the field
is continued until the moisture content is reduced to about 40%. During the process of
drying frequent turning is necessary to facilitate uniform drying. Usually in autumn it
may take 2 to 3 days for field airing but in dry summer months the duration can be still
less. At the end of 1st day, turn the grass with the side rake into small fluffy windrows.
On the 2nd day, turn the windrows and watch it’s state of drying to note it’s readyness for
staking or fit to be baled straight from the windrows. Caution is needed to store them in
well ventilated place as otherwise, possibility of catching fire exist. In case, if the
windrows require still more drying they may be placed over tripods or tetrapods or over
the fence.
Characteristics of good hay:
➢ Hay must be leafy and green and have soft and piable stems.
➢ It should be free from mustiness or mould and be palatable.
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➢ It should be free from any weeds and should have the aroma of the original crop. Hay
should be prepared out of herbage, cut at a stage nearing maturity, preferably at the
flowering stage when it has the maximum of nutrients. Delay in cutting would mean
losses of a part of nutrients which would be used up by the plant in seed formation.
➢ Hay should be green in colour.The green colour of leaves indicates the amount of
carotene which is a precursor of vitamin A.
➢ Hay of average quality will usually run from 25-30 per cent crude fibre and 45-60 per
cent TDN.
Factors influencing the nutritive value of Hay:

Chemical Plant Stage of Mechanical Changes in

Changes Species cutting Damage Stack

Plant & microbial Oxidation Leaching Microbial
Enzymes action

Chemical Changes:
Plant & microbial enzymes:
As a result of respiration, sugars and oxidised to Co and H2O with the result
increase in concentration of cell wall constituents especially cellulose and lignin. Protein
are also altered by the action of plant enzymes. Due to proteolysis free amino acids are
formed and can be lost due to leaching.
Oxidation:
When herbage is dried in the field a certain amount of oxidation occurs. The
visual effect of this can be seen in the pigments many of which are destroyed ex.
Carotene. On the other hand sunlight has a beneficial effect on vitamin D content in the
hay, because of irradiation of ergosterol present in green plant.
Leaching:
It causes loss of soluble minerals, sugars and Nitrogenous constituents. It may
also encourage the growth of moulds.
Microbial action:
If drying is prolonged because of bad weather conditions, changes brought about
by the activity of bacteria and fungi may occur. Mouldy hay is unpalatable, and may be
harmful to farm an animals and man because of the presence of mycotoxins. Such hay
may also contain actnomycetes which are responsible for the allergic diseases affecting
man known as farmers lung.
Plant species:
Hay made from legumes are generally rich in protein and minerals than grass hay.
Non legume hay has more corbohydrate but is less palatable. The other advantage being
high yielding quality of these crops. The quality of mixed hay depends on the species
and proportion of the mixture of leguminous crop in the hay.
Stage of growth/cutting:
The stage of growth of the crop at the time of cutting is the most important factor
determining the nutritive value of the conserved product. The latter the date of cutting
the larger will be the yield, the lower the digestibility and net energy value and the lower
the voluntary intake of dry matter by animals. It follows that if the drying conditions are
similar hays made from early crops will be of higher nutritive value than hays made from
mature crops.
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Mechanical damage:
During the drying process the leaves lose moisture more rapidly than the stems, so
becoming brittle and easily shattered by handling, handling of the hay during early
morning minimized the loss of leafs.
Another way to reduce shattering of leaves is by brushing or flatening of the
herbage through which uniform drying is possible.
Changes during storage:
At a higher moisture level during stacking, chemical changes brought about by
the action of plant enzymes and micro organism are likely to occur. There may be
oxidative degradation of sugars, although hexoses may also combine with amino acids or
proteins. This chemical combination is probably partly responsible for dark brown
colour observed in overheated hays. Browning has been observed at temperature as low
as 32 oC.

Dried grass/Artificially dried forages

The process of artificial drying is a very efficient, though expensive, method of
conserving forage crops. The drying is brought about by allowing the herbage to meet
gases at a high temperature which varies with the type of drier used. In the ‘low-
temperature’ type equipment, the hot gases usually at a temperature of about 150 oC, the
drying time varies from about 20 to 50 minutes depening upon the drier design and the
moisture content of the crop. With high temperature design the temperature of gases is
initially within the range of 500-1000 oC, the time taken to pass through the drier varies
from about 0.5 to 2 minutes.
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CHAPTER IX
ECONOMIC UTILIZATION OF AGRO BY-PRODUCTS FOR FEEDING
LIVESTOCK
(Refer to oil cakes, milling by prducts, Molasses)
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CHAPTER X

UTILISATION OF UNCONVENTIONAL FEEDS

In India, huge quantities of vegetable and fruit wastes are available at processing
factories. When India as a whole is taken into consideration, the supply of these waste
products would be considerable. It is found that fruit wastes are high in soluble sugars
and vegetable wastes are high in crude protein. The detailed chemical composition of
these wastes, that can be used as cattle feeds have been documented.
1) Tomato pomace: It contains 14.3% digestible crude protein and 4.10% TDN. After
drying and grinding it can be used as one of the ingredients of concentrate mixture.
It can be used in the concentrate mixture up to 35% level.
2) Citrus peels: Thee work conducted at IVRI showed that lemon peels can
conveniently replace one third of a concentrate mixture without any ill effects on
the health and utilisation of nutrients in buffalo bulls. Orange peels also contain
high contents of soluble sugars.
3) Pine apple wastes: The pine apple industry is well organised in Kerala. Durring the
canning operation 50 to 60% of pine apple fruit goes waste.
4) Cashew apple wastes: Around 250,000 tonnes of cashew fruits are wasted every
year. Dried cashew fruit contains about 9.5 per cent protein and 68.5 percent
soluble sugars. Thus it can replace some of the grains in the ruminant or Poultry
rations.
5) Feather meal: If properly processed it can apparently replace part of the ordinary
protein supplement in rations. Satisfactory results have been reported with 2 to 5
per cent in the broiler mash.
The agro-industrial by-products which could be used as livestock feed are listed below:
1) Mango seed kernel
2) Babul (Acacia arabica) pods
3) Tamarind seed (Tamarindus indicus)
4) Rain tree (Entire lopeium saim) pods
5) Sun hemp (Crotolaria juncea) seeds
6) Tobacco seed cake
7) Silk cotton seed
8) Rubber seed cake
9) Tapioca waste
10) Processed chicken excreta from batteries
11) Neem cake
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CHAPTER XI

WILDLIFE NUTRITION

Wild animals in wild or in captivity can be classified based on their feeding habits as
follows.
1. Herbivore – feed only on plant origin feed.
2. Carnivore – feed only on animal origin feed
3. Omnivore – feed on both plant or animal origin feed.

HERBIVORES

Herbivores can in turn be sub classified as

1. Mono gastric herbivoes eg. zebra, wild boar, wild rabbit, elephant etc
2. Psuedo ruminant herbivore eg. Camel,
3. Ruminant herbivores eg Deer, antelope, bison etc

Another means of classifying herbivores are

1. Bulk and roughage eaters (grazers) - characterized by capacious stomachs normally
filled to capacity with relatively low-quality feed composed mostly of grass.
Eg. Rhinocerous, Hippopotamus, Wild bison
2. Selectors of juicy, concentrated herbage (browsers) - characterized by small
stomachs normally filled to only 50-60% of their capacity, but with concentrated
food composed mostly of leaves, flowers and fruits of forbs, shrubs and trees.
Eg. Deers, some monkeys.
3. Intermediate feeders (herbivores that eat both grass and leaves) - which are not
strictly intermediate between the previous two groups but have the ability to adapt in
different seasons and places towards one or the other of the above two feeding types,
i.e. they have greater ability to tolerate variations in the quality of their diet.
Bulk grazers are defined as large, essentially grazing animals which normally do not
excercise a high degree of selection. Concentrate grazers are generally small animals
(less than 200 kg mean individual liveweight) which are predominantly grazers.
However, they may include any grazing animal which excercises some or other form of
extreme selective defoliation (white rhino - area selection). Browsers are animals which
feed mostly on the leaves, flowers and fruits of woody plants and forbs.
Specialised Herbivores
1. Frugivore – eats only fruits Eg. Ruffed Lemur
2. Granivores – eats only grains. Eg. Sparrows
3. Folivores – eats only leaves. Eg. Koala
4. Nectarivores – eats only nectar. Eg. Humming bird

CARNIVORES
A carnivore diet consists mainly or exclusively of animal tissue, whether through
predation or scavenging. Animals that depend solely on animal flesh for their nutrient
requirements are considered obligate carnivores while those that also consume non-
animal food are considered facultative carnivores. A carnivore that sits at the top of the
food chain is an apex predator.
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List of carnivores
➢ All feliforms, such as domestic cats, big cats, hyenas, mongooses, civets
➢ Most caniforms, such as the dogs, wolves, foxes, ferrets, seals and walruses
➢ All cetaceans, such as dolphins, whales and porpoises
➢ All bats (except fruitbats)
➢ The carnivorous marsupials, such as the Tasmanian devil
➢ All birds of prey, such as hawks, eagles, falcons and owls
➢ All vultures, both old world and new
➢ Some waterfowl, such as gulls, penguins, pelicans, storks, and herons

Specialised Carnivores –
• Lepidophagy - eating fish scales eg Buck fish
• Man-eater - eating humans eg Tiger
• Molluscivore - eating molluscs eg American large oyster catcher
• Mucophagy - eating mucus
• Ophiophagy - eating snakes
• Piscivore - eating fish
• Avivore - eating birds
• Hematophagy - eating blood
• Insectivore - eating insects
• Myrmecophagy - eating ants and/or termites

OMNIVORES
Omnivores consume both animal and non-animal food. Eg. Certain monkeys and
bears

UNUSUAL FEEDING HABITS

• Cannibalism - feeding on members of the same species
• Self-cannibalism - feeding on parts of one's own body (see also
autophagy)
• Sexual cannibalism - cannibalism after mating
• Kleptoparasitism - stealing food from another animal
• Trophallaxis - eating food regurgitated by another animal
• Oophagy - eating eggs
• Ovophagy - eating embryos
• Paedophagy - eating young animals
• Placentophagy - eating placenta
Some animals eat non living decaying matter
• Coprophagy - eating feces
• Detritivore - eating decomposing material
• Geophagy - eating inorganic earth
• Osteophagy - eating bones
• Scavenger - eating carrion
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FOOD / FEED FOR WILD ANIMALS
Food Chain
The source of all food is from autotrophs (photosynthetic plants). They are called
producers because only they can manufacture food from inorganic raw materials. This
food is fed by herbivores, called primary consumers. Carnivores that feed on herbivores
are called secondary consumers. Carnivores that feed on other carnivores are tertiary (or
higher) consumers. Such a path of food consumption is called a food chain. Each level of
consumption in a food chain is called a trophic level.

The table gives one example of a food chain and the trophic levels represented in it.
Grass Grasshopper Toad Snake Hawk Bacteria of
→ → → → → decay
In general,
Autotrophs Herbivores Carnivores
(Producers) (Primary Consumers) (Secondary, tertiary, etc. consumers) Decomposers
→ → →

There are two kinds of food chains - grazing food chains and detritus food chains.
Grazing food chains derive their energy directly from the sun.. Detritus food chains
derive their nutrients and energy from organic waste (detritus) as opposed to the sun. All
the organisms feeding on the detritus are part of the detritus food chain. Those feeding
directly on the detritus are primary detritus feeders and those preying on these organisms
are secondary detritus feeders. In nature, the two types of food chains mix as organisms
from one chain feed on those from the other food chain.

Food Webs
Most food chains are interconnected. Animals typically consume a varied diet and, in
turn, serve as food for a variety of other creatures that prey on them. These
interconnections create food webs. Rarely do organisms just eat one type of food.
Carnivores eat other carnivores, as well as herbivores. Some may even eat both animals
and plants and are called omnivores. If we listed every species that occurred in an
ecosystem and then drew arrows connecting them to each of their food sources, we would
see so many crisscrossing arrows that it would give the appearance of a spider web.
Therefore, we call the entire complex array of feeding relationships in an ecosystem a
food web. Food webs more accurately describe the feeding relationships that exist in an
ecosystem than do simple food chains.
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NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS WILD ANIMALS

Nutrient requirements of wild animals can be determined by
• Extrapolating requirements from domestic animal models
Canines – dog
Felines – cat
Deer – goat
Elephant , zebra – horse
Wild bison – cow
• Finding requirement under captive condition
• Using Equations
The nutritionist is often required to estimate energy and protein requirements of
wildlife as a prelude to estimating necessary food intake. For the captive animal in which
the ingested food can be easily measured, changes in tissue balance relative to feed intake
can be used to estimate requirements for many whole body processes. Intake per animal
is often expressed as a function of body weight and provides a means for extrapolating or
comparing the results to other animals of the same or differing species. Additional
productive requirements can be determined by feeding at differing levels and measuring
the rate (milk production) or success (reproduction) of the specific process being
examined. Therefore the requirements can be estimated by a direct feeding trial approach,
although such estimates may be applicable only to the conditions in which the
measurement occurred.
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The use of captive animal feeding trials to estimate the requirements of the free-
ranging animal poses many questions. For example, the maintenance energy requirements
of captive animals are often below what might be expected under free-ranging conditions
since activity and thermoregulatory requirements may be minimized. Free-ranging wild
and domestic ungulates may expend 25-100% more energy than confined animals. The
expenditure by wild herbivores may be even higher in heavily grazed areas requiring
extensive food searching activities, in areas where disturbance by human beings or
predators is extensive, or in severe continental climates requiring an increased
thermoregulatory expenditure. Due to the number of different biotic and abiotic variables
affecting the animal's daily existence, the complexity of predicting requirements can be
formidable.
A useful approach when formulating diets for wild animals is to consider dietary
habits in the wild, oral and gastrointestinal morphology and physiology, needs of similar
species whose requirements are known, and environmental features that affect energy and
nutrient need. Collection of information on natural food preference provides an indication
as to nutrient intakes and whether the diets are high or low in protein, fibre or secondry
plant metabolites which may influence acceptability, digestibility or metabolism. Oral
anatomy and gastrointestinal tract morphology have a high correlation with natural diet.
The presence of a rumino-reticulum suggests that qualitive nutrient requirements are
similar to those of cattle and sheep, with significant syntheses of amino acids and B-
vitamins. If the gut has a cecum and sacculated colon, capacious enough to support
microbial fermentation, nutrient needs are likly to be similar to those of the horse. A
simple stomach with limited lower gut space for microbial activity is similar to that of the
pig. Thus, one can extrapolate nutrient requirements from domestic species with known
needs to wild species with known needs to wild species that are similar in dietary habits
and gastrointestinal structure and function.
FEEDING SCHEDULE WILD ANIMALS IN CAPTIVITY
Guidelines for feeding captive wild animals
• Aim to provide a nutritionally balanced diet.
• Provide a diet that reasonably stimulates natural feeding behaviours.
• Provide a nutritionally balanced diet that the animal consumes consistently.
• Provide a diet that is practical and economical to feed.
• Keep detailed records of both the feeding practice and animal welfare.
SNAKE FEEDING
Feeding schedules for captive snakes vary with the age, species, size, condition and
specific requirements. Generally snakes are usually fed once every 1-2 weeks. Juvenile
and adults for which a relatively rapid growth rate is desired can be fed more frequently,
providing that the environmental temperatures are warm enough to allow complete and
thorough digestion. Older snakes are usually fed less frequently, often once every 3-6
weeks. Overfeeding should be avoided due to the risk of obesity.
Specific Dietary Recommendations
Boa constrictors
Warm blooded prey is preferred. Juveniles should be fed very
Pythons
small prey.
Rat snakes
They may also consume very small lizards and snakes.
Gopher or bull
Some tree boas and pythons prefer lizards to mammals.
snakes
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Fish, frogs, salamanders, toads, earthworms, slugs and carrion
Garter snakes
are preferred.
Ribbon snakes
May accept dead mice if they are covered with the external
Water snakes, etc.
mucous of frogs or fish before they are offered.
Warm blooded (mice, etc.) and cold-blooded prey (other
Indigo snakes
snakes, lizards, etc.) are preferred.
King snakes
The indigo snake prefers frogs but may eat anything when
and many racers.
hungry.
Ring-neck or brown
snakes Salamanders, earthworms, very small snakes and lizards.
and their relatives.
Racers Lizards are preferred. Racers also eat mice.
Vine snakes The young of the snakes eat large insects, such as crickets and
Coachwhips grasshoppers.

TURTLES AND TORTOISES FEEDING

There are hundreds of different species of turtles and tortoises, each with different
nutritional requirements. To provide a nutritional diet, you must first determine if your
turtle or tortoise is an herbivore, an omnivore, or a carnivore.
Tortoise Tortoises are almost always exclusively herbivores. Their diets usually
consist of 100% plant origin. While some feeding programs call for the
addition of some animal protein to their diet, this is controversial, and not
necessary if a good balanced plant diet is fed.
Aquatic Most aquatic turtles are primarily carnivores, and depending on the
Turtle species, require a diet that contains from 65% to 90% meat. The
remaining 10% to 35% is vegetable-based.
Semi Most semi aquatic turtles are omnivores, and their nutritional
Aquatic requirements are usually met with a diet that is 50% meat and 50%
Turtle vegetable-based. Depending on the species and their habitat, these
percentages will vary slightly.
FEEDING OF CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS
Crocodiles are opportunistic - that is, they'll eat a wide variety of different prey items as
they become available during different seasons. The size of prey items depends on the
size of the caiman, with hatchlings eating small insects, fish, amphibians and reptiles, and
larger caimans eating larger versions of these prey. As they grow, caimans include
mammals, birds and larger reptiles in their diet. Adults also include a fair number of
crustaceans and molluscs (e.g. freshwater crayfish, snails) in their diet, which their broad,
powerful jaws are especially adept at crushing. In many crocodilian species, adults will
readily cannibalise young crocodiles.
Slender-snouted species tend to eat more fish, and broad-snouted species often include
hard-shelled prey in their diet.
As crocodilians tend to eat whole animals, they often get the complete package deal in
one meal - protein from muscle, calcium from bones, etc. It's a good idea to follow this
formula in captive animals. Many owners have a habit of feeding pieces of lean meat to
their animals. Whilst lean meat is perfectly ok as part of a varied diet, it should be
supplemented with additional calcium from other sources to avoid calcium deficiency.
Calcium deficiency can take months to show itself as a problem.
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Crocodilians will readily take a variety of insects when younger. Mice also make good
food items, Rats are also suitable Other food items which can be fed to add variety
include pieces of meat (pork, chicken, beef - which can be fed on the bone in larger
adults), earth worms , snails, freshwater crayfish, spiders, even frogs and small lizards.
Crocodiles should be fed approximately three to four times a week, or once every two
days while they're young. As they get older, and the food they're given gets larger, the
frequency of feeding can drop to two or three times a week. Temperature can also
influence both the crocodiles desire to eat and its overall digestion rate. It is rare for a
crocodile to refuse any food that is offered, except for breeding animals during short
periods in the year. Females full of eggs, for example, will eat much less simply because
there's little room left in the abdomen for food
It is possible to over feed a crocodileas well, with gout being the typical result due to
excessive protein intake. Dehydration and low temperatures also exacerbate gout. Excess
fat in the diet will result in extensive subcutaneous and intramuscular fatty deposits. It is
therefore important to monitor the animal's general body condition and alter your feeding
schedule accordingly.
All crocodilians eat stones and rocks in the wild - they're referred to as "gastroliths", and
the process is called "geophagy". These stones sit in the animal's stomach, probably for
many years, and help to break down food by a mechanical grinding action - a little like a
bird's crop. They may also help to weigh down the caiman a little more in the water and
therefore act as ballast. In captivity, crocodilians should benefit from the presence of
stones in their guts - it will help them to digest their food a little better if you feed whole
animals, especially those with hard bones or shells.
FEEDING CAPTIVE CARNIVORE
Feeding cubs
1) You can give the cubs a colostrum supplement produced in goat or cattle.
2) During the cub’s first 24-48 hours, you can give it an oral preparation made from
the blood serum of the mother or another (0.5 – 5.0 ml/feeding).
3) If 48 hours has already passed, you can have the same serum injected sterilely
into the cubs abdomen or given subcutaneously (5 - 8ml/ 1000grams body weight)
on two consecutive days
4) You can give weak newborn cubs antibiotic (protection to try to compensate for
their low antibody level).

Leopard cubs: 180 ml cow’s milk, 3ml powdered dextrose, 2 egg yolks, 20 ml
gelatin powder
Cougar cubs: 168 ml cow’s milk, 10 ml heavy whipping cream, 1 egg yolk, 25 ml
gelatin powder, 2ml powdered dextrose and 30 ml sunflower oil.
Cheetah cubs: 185 ml cow’s milk, 20 ml water, 1 egg yolk, 15ml gelatin powder,
25ml sunflower oil.
Feeding adults
Adults can be fed with
• Whole live prey
• Meat with bone
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• Prepared food
On average, an adult feline like lion or tiger needs to eat about 5 kg of meat daily.

Feeding Herbivores in captivity

Camel – DMI 1.5 to 3.5% body weight. Roughage source can be straws or hay forming
60 to 70 % of DMI. Concentrate can be fed at the level of 2 Kg / animal /day.
Hippopotamus – DMI – 1.3% body weight. Can be fed with succulent green grasses
ad libidum and 1 to 2 Kg concentrate.
Rhinoceros - Can be fed green grasses and leguminous forages ad libidum.
Giraffee - Can be fed with tree fodder ad libidum
Zebra - Can be fed green grasses and leguminous forages ad libidum.
Deers - DMI 3 to 4 % body weight. Tree and shrub fodder can be fed ad libidum.

Elephant – An Asian elephant consumes around 1.2 to 1.7 kg dry matter per 100 kg body
weight. Some free ranging elephants can consume upto 1.9 kg dry matter per 100 kg
body weight during rainy seasons. An adult elephant in maintenance requires 140 kcal of
metabolisable energy / w0.75. Lactation, gestation and growth increase the energy
requirement by 25-50 percent. Protein requirement as digestible protein is 6 g per
metabolic body size in an adult elephant. Five to six percent digestible protein in the diet
will meet out the maintenance requirement of adult elephant. An elephant drinks over 100
liters of water at one time and up to 225 liters in a day. The following nutritional
guidelines can be followed to offer a balanced feed for an adult captive elephant.

Nutritional content of feed - ME = 2400 Kcal / kg feed, Crude protein = 7 to 10%, Fibre
= maximum 36%, Fat = maximum 3%, Ca:P ratio = 2:1
Forages
Sugarcane / green fodder (grasses) – 150 to 200 kg
Dried fodder (hay) - 15 kg
Tree fodder / palm leaves - 60 kg
Concentrate feed
Adult
Ingredients Work Rest Calves
Wheat / rice / ragi 9 kg 5kg 2.5kg
Horse gram / oilcake 1 kg 1kg 500g
Jaggery 500g 300g 500g
Salt 200g 100g 100g
Concentrate feeding should be done in 2-3 portions in a day to prevent acidosis.
Feeding Omnivores in captivity
Feeding Bears
• Most bears are omnivorous, meaning they can eat both plant and animal matter.
The exceptions are the panda, who specialize in bamboo, and the polar bear, who
has no access to any vegetable matter and eats mostly seals, though they do
sometimes eat kelp.
• American black bears are omnivorous, but the majority of their diet is comprised
of vegetation. Generally speaking, about 80% of their diet is comprised of
grasses, herbs, berries, roots, fungus, fruits and nuts. Insects comprise another
10%, and the other 10% is human refuse.
 84
• The Asiatic black bear is primarily herbivorous. They feed on different parts of
plants at different times of the year to extract the most nutrients from those parts.
They feed on various nuts, fruits, berries, and bamboo shoots.
• Brown bears eat just about anything vegetable matter, such as roots, tubers,
grasses, herbaceous plants, corns, berries, fruits, and nuts comprise 60 - 90 % of
their diet. Common animal matter consumed is insects, rodents, hoofed mammals,
fish and carcasses of dead sea mammals.
• Pandas feed entirely on the leaves of 30 or more species of bamboo. They will eat
from 12 - 15 kg of leaves and stems of bamboo a day.
• Polar bears are the most carnivorous of all the bears and feed entirely on seals
• The sloth bear feeds mainly on ants and termites, but also feed on eggs, insects,
honeycombs, carrion, vegetation and fruits.

Feeding Monkeys
Feeding of monkeys should be based on their feeding behaviour in the wild.
• Folivore monkeys – eg langur and gorilla should be fed tree or shrub leaves.
• Insectivore monkeys – eg squirrell and chimpanzees should be fed small insects
• Gummivores monkeys – eg bush baby and marmoset should be fed tree barks
with gum
• Frugivores monkeys – eg owl monkey is to be fed small fruits.
• Chimpanzees should be fed a diet that includes a mixture of vegetables, fruits,
cereals, and nutritionally complete dry food. Some of the food items should be fed
in a manner that requires preparation and/or search and location by the
chimpanzees.
• Gorillas are primarily herbivorous. Adult male gorillas eat about 32 kg of food per
day. Females eat about two-thirds of that amount. They can be fed leaves, fruits,
grains, nutritionally complete dry food.
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CHAPTER XII

QUALITY CONTROL OF FEED

Feed quality can be assessed through physical and / chemical evaluation.

Physical evaluation

Physical evaluation is easy but rough in nature. One must be highly trained to identify the
changes in the nature of the raw materials/ feeds. The various physical parameters
assessed are given below.
Colour - The appearance of the ingredient will reveal its quality. Any change in the
colour of the feed ingredients give an indication of the maturity of the grain, storage
conditions, presence of toxins, contamination due to sand, possible use of insecticides/
fungicides which gives dull and dusty appearance. Orange to red colour of sorghum
indicates high tannin content. Browning or blackening due to heat on improper storage
reduces nutritive value.
Size - Size of the grains governs its energy value due to the proportional
decrease/increase in seed and its coat. Smaller the grain, lower will be the metabolizable
energy (ME) value due to more proportion of coater hulls. To evaluate the cereals, weight
of a fixed number of grains usually 100 grains or fixed volume is taken. Higher weight
indicates a higher ME value. This technique is called Test Weight.
Homogeneity - The presence of contaminants like other grains, husk, broken grains, weed
seeds, infected seeds is viewed. In the oil seed cakes closer observation will reveal the
presence of fibrous material, especially in de-oiled groundnut cake. Rice polish is
contaminated with husk. Clumps in mineral ingredients are not suitable for premixing.
Smell - Smell is the next best indicator. Just standing near the stock itself will
immediately indicate any difference in the normal smell. The plant manager should
familiarize himself with the normal smell of the ingredients; any change in the normal
smell of the ingredients should be viewed with suspicion. Musty odour indicates the
beginning of fungal contamination or boring insects. To detect rancidity in oil rich feed
ingredients this is the best method. Odour of petroleum products is suggestive of
excessive pesticide or fungicides.
Taste - Each ingredient has a different taste, any change in the taste like bitterness in
grains, soya, sunflower oil meal and groundnut cake indicates the presence of
mycotoxins. The level of salt can be detected by tasting the ingredient and the feed.
Bitter taste of rice polish indicates rancidity of fatty acids.
Touch - Feeling the raw material will indicate dryness. Chilliness indicates high moisture
content. Clumps can be detected by inserting a hand inside the bag. Clumps may be
formed due to high moisture content, improper storage, packing of fresh warm solvent
extracted meal, which crumbles on application of light pressure. Clumps formed due to
excess of moisture will be very hard. To evaluate rice polish, place about 25g of rice
polish on the palm and close the fingers tightly and then open the fingers, the rice polish
will become like a solid mass if the crude fibre level is below 12 per cent. If the fibre
level is high, the mass will disintegrate once the fingers are opened. Further pressure will
be felt when the hand is closed in high fibre rice polish.
Sound - Dry grains on pouring down or biting will produce sound of spilling coins.
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Chemical evaluation

An analytical laboratory for precise estimation of nutrient contents and contaminant is of

utmost important. Analyze the feeds for proximate principles. This indicates possible
constraints on usage due to the presence of excessive content of crude fibre, fat or total
ash. Low crude protein (CP) and high crude fibre (CF) of oil seed meals indicates
adulteration with fibrous materials. The high CP alone is indicative of adulteration with
urea and or some inferior quality oil seed meals like mahua, castor or karanj cake. The
amount of acid insoluble ash is a good guide to the amount of sand or other dirt which
may be present. It is also desirable to determine free fatty acid content of oily materials as
this will affect palatability due to rancidity of oils. The specifications of various feeds and
feed ingredients are laid down by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) which acts as
guidelines for the supplier, buyers and the users.

Ingredient specifications

Ingredient specifications are essential in feed quality assurance programme.

Specifications serve as the basis from which purchasing agreements are written, feeds are
formulated and ingredient inspections are performed. Ingredient description and general
nutritional specifications may be found in BIS specifications for feeds and feed
ingredients in India. Specifications of the feeds must be as comprehensive as possible,
realistic and transmitted to the seller.

Analysis of feed and feed ingredients

Quality control laboratory should be well equipped for analysis of feed and feed
ingredients. Since purchase and feed formulations are based on the analysis of raw
materials, the highest degree of accuracy in analysis is desirable. All the samples should
be analyzed in duplicate to minimize experimental error. The variation limit between
duplication samples should be kept to minimum. In case of considerable variation, the
samples should be re- analyzed. Accuracy of estimation can only be relied upon when
pure reagents and precision instruments are used. The staff conducting analysis work
should be qualified, experienced and efficient so that the analysis is completed as quickly
as possible to facilitate prompt payment to the suppliers, usage of consignment and
marketing of finished feed.

Finished product quality control

All measures which are concerned with the quality control of finished product should be
carefully reviewed to maintain high standards. The finished product should be examined
for color, texture, pellet size, strength, aroma, palatability and chemical composition
before delivery (Fig. 1.3). Periodical evaluation is also necessary to examine the health of
the animals and effect of feed on their productivity through field survey. There may be
seasonal variations in the standards or the basis of availability of basal diet and its quality
and quantity during different seasons. The product manufactured should be analyzed and
compared with set standards. The finished product lot should be cleared for marketing
only after the approval of the animal nutrition officer. Besides quality, the net
weight, proper packaging and safe transport to the retail sale outlets may also be ensured.
It is of utmost importance for the production unit to take adequate care in compounding
of the feed as per formula prescribed by the animal nutrition officer.
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CHAPTER XIII

FEED BLOCK/BALING

COMPLETE FEED BLOCK

In a country like India, where the animals are maintained mainly on crop remains
or residues, it is important to see that the ration given to the dairy animals are complete in
all sense. The complete feed block (CBF) technology helps the dairy farmers in providing
a balanced feed to the animals, thus increasing milk production and profit incurred from
dairy farming. Apart from being an economically feasible technique, the feed block
technology offers many other benefits like easy transportation, cheaper storage, easy
handling, correcting multi-nutritional shortage and reduced cost. The complete feed block
technology actually comprises of forage, concentrate and other essential supplements in
appropriate quantity to fulfill the nutrient requirements of animals. CBF is an intimate
combination of processed ingredients that includes roughage and concentrate parts
designed to be the only source of feed in compressed form. It can be of any shape –
square, circular or quadrangular, depending on the kind of dye used in the machine.
Addition of tree leaves along with locally available agro-industrial-by-products in
complete feeds lessens the dependence on costly concentrates. In addition, feeding crop
residues in block form proves helpful for efficient utilization.

BALE
A baler, most often called a hay baler is a piece of farm machinery used to
compress a cut and raked crop (such as hay, cotton, flax straw, salt marsh hay, or silage)
into compact bales that are easy to handle, transport, and store. Often, bales are
configured to dry and preserve some intrinsic (e.g. The nutritional) value of the plants
bundled. Different types of balers are commonly used, each producing a different type of
bale – rectangular or cylindrical, of various sizes, bound with twine, strapping, netting, or
wire.
Forage may be stored as hay. Hay is the most popular storage method since it
stores well for long periods and is better suited to cash sale and transportation than silage.
However, silage may be more suitable in some situations where hay curing is difficult. It
is possible to make high quality silage or haylage using long (unchopped) forage crops
baled with large round balers, although balers may need modification to handle wet
material. Round bale silage (or balage) is the product of cutting forage crops with
conventional hay harvest equipment, allowing the forage to wilt to between 40 and 60
percent dry matter, baling the forage into tight bales, and quickly wrapping the bales in
plastic so that oxygen is excluded. The forage in the bale then goes through the ensiling
process. The wrap keeps out air, allowing anaerobic microorganisms to ferment
carbohydrates to lactic acid which inhibits the growth of other detrimental
microorganisms. The ensiling process uses some dry matter or energy, but this loss is
small compared to dry matter losses that result from raking, baling, tedding, and,
particularly, storing round bales outside as hay.
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CHAPTER XIV

BY-PASS PROTEINS AND BY-PASS FAT

Protected protein / bypasss protein feeding

➢ Ruminant animals require two types of digestible protein.
➢ The first is a degradable protein in the rumen which is used by the micro-
organisms to produce microbial protein.
➢ The second is the bypass protein which is digested in the small intestine and used
by animals itself.
➢ Rumen degradable protein is used to synthesize microbial protein. Metabolizable
protein consists of bypass protein and microbial protein.
➢ Although the microbial protein alone is likely sufficient to meet the needs of
cattle at or near maintenance young growing cattle and lactating cows need
bypass protein in addition to microbial protein to meet their metabolizable
protein.
➢ Extensive degradation of valuable protein in the rumen by the microorganisms
results in some losses of nitrogen as urea in the urine. The reason behind the
attempts to protect dietary protein is to avoid the degradation of high quality
proteins and to further reduce wasteful ammonia production in the rumen.
➢ To protect protein degradation in the rumen by micro-organisms several
procedures such as heat treatment, chemical treatment/modification, inhibition of
proteolytic activity and identification of naturally protected protein were widely
used.
➢ The most limiting amino acids for synthesis of milk and milk protein have been
reported to be Methionine and Lysine.
➢ Feeding these amino acids in an unprotected form to dairy cows results in their
degradation by microbes in the rumen before they pass to the absorption sites in
the small intestine.
➢ To supply additional Methionine and Lysine for production of milk and milk
protein, methods have been developed to protect these amino acids from
microbial degradation resulting in the Rumen protected amino acids passing to the
abomasum and small intestine where they are released and absorbed.

Protected fat or bypass fat feeding

During early lactation especially in high yielders, when demands on Cow’s
energy reserves are high and appetite is low, energy requirements can reach extremely
high levels owing to the intensive onset of milk production. In such condition fat can be
used as an energy source. A limitation to an extensive use of fat in ruminant diets is the
subsequent disturbance of carbohydrate ruminal digestion. In order to overcome this
problem, different kinds of protection of lipids have been proposed. In lactating cattle
rations include tallow (animal fat), blends of animal and vegetable oils are used, these fat
sources, are protected from rumen degradation and are termed as protected or "rumen
bypass" fats. Protected indicates that the fat is inert or bypasses the rumen and as such
does not interfere with rumen metabolism. Some of the protected fats include Calcium
Soaps Protected Fats
 89
CHAPTER XV

FEEDING LIVESTOCK DURING SCARCITY

Livestock producers generally have three main options for meeting the nutrient
requirements of animals during drought or fodder scarcity periods.
➢ The first is to provide supplemental feed to ensure that the animals have
adequate energy, protein, vitamins, and minerals.
➢ The second is to reduce the nutrient requirements of the animal to a point
where the requirements can be met with available feed.
➢ Reductions in stocking rate.

PROVIDING SUPPLEMENTAL FEEDS DURING A DROUGHT

Energy: During drought conditions, energy may be the most limiting nutrient for
grazing animals. Several options are available for supplying energy to animals on drought
stressed pasture. Hay, grain, and crop processing byproducts such as molasses can be
used to supply energy. Low quality forages can be processed suitably increase their
digestibility and protein content.
Protein: Pastures under drought conditions may be deficient in protein. If these
conditions occur during the breeding season, reductions in pregnancy rate can occur. This
can be corrected by providing supplemental crude protein in the form of soybean meal,
sunflower meal, safflower meal, ground nut oil cake or NPN sources.
Minerals: The same salt and mineral mixture should be provided during drought as
during normal conditions. However, during drought phosphorus supplementation is even
more critical. A mixture of 50 percent trace mineralized salt and 50 percent dicalcium
phosphate supplied free choice to the herd will meet the phosphorus requirement. The salt
mixture should be placed close to stock watering locations.
Vitamin A: Lack of vitamin A may become a problem when animals are grazed on
drought-affected pastures during the summer. Vitamin A is lacking in forages growing
under drought conditions. Animals should receive vitamin A and D supplements.

Available crop residues such as straws, stovers, and other byproducts of crop production
can be used for stretching tight feed supplies during drought conditions. Top feed
resources such as tree leaves, pods, bark etc play an important role during drought
conditions.

REDUCING NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF THE HERD

Lactation represents the greatest nutrient demand for animals during a production
cycle. Lactation increases demand for energy, protein, and other nutrients. One of the
simplest ways to reduce nutrient requirements is to wean the young ones. This
practice can cut nutrient requirements by one-third to one-half depending on milk
production of the animal. Early weaned animals can achieve adequate rates of growth
if given access to a high quality ration. Dry animals will eat less than lactating
animal’s further reducing demand on feed. By removing the nutrient requirements for
lactation, growth and reproduction will receive a greater proportion of the nutrients
available.

Dry lot Feeding: If pasture conditions are extremely poor, producers may consider
feeding animals in dry lot. This may be more cost effective than supplementation.
 90

UREA MOLASSES LIQUID FEED

Liquid molasses containing 2 to 3 % uniformly mixed urea fortified with minerals
and vitamins is called as urea molasses liquid feed.

Preparation procedure:
Ingredients Parts
Urea 2.5
Water 2.5
Mineral mixture 2
Salt 1
Sugarcane molasses 92
Vitamin a and D3 25 g / 100 Kg
feed
Urea is completely dissolved in water
Molasses is taken in a wooden container
Urea solution is poured with simultaneous mixing into the container containing
molasses
Salt and mineral mixture are sprinkled over the molasses and mixed thoroughly to
ensure uniform mixing.
During winter heating of this liquid is required prior to feeding

Undiluted urea molasses liquid feed contains 65 % and more of dry matter and can be
stored for quite a long period.

Example of rations for feeding during scarcity

Ingredient Growing Adult non
animal producing cattle
(150 – 300 Kg)
Bagasse (Kg) 2 2
Molasses (Kg) 0.4 0.8
Sugar cane tops 8 3
chaffed (Kg)
Urea (g) 22 40
Common salt 30 20
Sterilized bone meal 20 20
Trace element mixture 0.5 g / animal 0.5 g / animal
twice a week. twice a week.
 91
CHAPTER XVI

METABOLIC DISORDERS IN LIVESTOCK AND POULTRY,

These are diseases of livestock caused by productivity practices when the body
reserves on calcium, magnesium or energy cannot meet the metabolic needs. They are
very important in places where high producing animals are required, e.g. in diary
industry. In cattle, metabolic diseases include ketosis, milk fever, fat cow syndrome, and
hypomagnesaemia. All these can produce an acute, temporary, but potentially fatal
deficiency. Correcting the diet for cows during the period from late pregnancy to peak
lactation is crucial in preventing these diseases.
KETOSIS
Clinical signs: Ketosis usually occurs within a few days to a few weeks after calving. It
is characterized by a sudden drop in appetite and milk yield, constipation, mucus covered
faeces, depression, a staring expression, loss of weight, and a humped back suggesting
mild abdominal pain. Some animals may develop nervous signs such as salivation,
chewing, incoordination, blindness and aggression.
Treatment: Effective treatment can be achieved if it is administered in time. Ketosis can
be treated by intravenously injecting 500 ml of 40% glucose, plus twice daily oral dosing
of 150 ml of propylene glycol (a glucose precursor) for 4 days.
MILK FEVER
Clinical signs: Milk fever usually occurs one or two days before or after calving. Loss of
appetite and a slight drop in temperature are the first signs of milk fever. Later, the
animals may exhibit some unsteadiness as they walk. More frequently, a sick animal may
be found lying on her sternum with her head resting on the shoulder. The eyes are dull
and staring and the pupils dilated. If untreated, the cow becomes comatose and dies
within a day of the appearance of the first signs.
Treatment: Effective treatment can be achieved if it is administered in time. Milk fever
can be treated with slow intravenous infusion of 600-800 ml of 20% calcium
borogluconate.
FAT COW SYNDROME
Clinical signs: Fat cow syndrome most commonly occurs in fat cows which were heavily
fed in early pregnancy, but suffer severe nutritional stress during the 2 months before
calving. After calving, the affected cows lose their appetite and become weak. The pulse
is small and fast, and droppings are small and firm. Sternal recumbency follows. There is
a greater than normal clear nasal discharge. The respiration is rapid and grunting. About a
week after the first signs appearing, the cows become comatose and die quietly.

Treatment: Fat cow syndrome, treatment is generally ineffective, especially if the cows
are already recumbent. Anabolic steroids and supportive therapy with glucose, fluids and
electrolytes IV, and propylene glycol, fluids and electrolytes orally is recommended.
 92
HYPOMAGNESAEMIA
Clinical signs: Hypomagnesaemia occurs most commonly in adult cows which are
lactating heavily and are grazing on lush grass pastures, and in calves reared
predominantly on a diet of milk. In per acute form of the disease, affected animals may
be grazing normally, but suddenly develop staggers, fall and undergo severe paddling
convulsions. These convulsion periods may be repeated at short intervals and death
quickly follows. In many cases, animals at pasture may be found dead without illness
having been observed. Acute cases are similar apart from the animals survive a few hours
during which periods of convulsion followed by quiet periods. In subacute cases, affected
animals may progress to the acute or per acute, convulsive stage after a period as long as
2 to 3 days. All cases of hypomagnesaemia are characterized by loud heart sounds and
rapid heart rate.
Treatment: Effective treatment can be achieved if it is administered in time. For cases of
hypomagnesaemia, use the same treatment as for milk fever, plus subcutaneous injection
of 200 ml of 50% magnesium sulphate.
METABOLIC DISORDERS OF POULTRY
These are conditions caused by a disturbance of normal metabolic functions either
through a genetic defect, inadequate or inappropriate nutrition or impaired nutrient
utilisation. These include Fatty Liver Syndrome, Perosis (or slipped tendon), Rickets and
Cage Layer Fatigue.
Fatty liver syndrome
Fatty liver syndrome is a condition that affects only hens, primarily caged layers. It is a
metabolic or nutritional disease and is characterised by general obesity with an enlarged,
fatty liver that becomes soft and easily damaged. Mortality rates vary and death is often
caused by internal haemorrhage due to rupture of the liver.
The principal cause is thought to be excessive calorie intake, but it may also be related to
exposure to the mycotoxin aflatoxin, calcium deficiency and/or stress. An incorrect
protein: energy balance may also be to blame. Some strains of laying hen appear to be
more susceptible. The higher producing hens appear the be the birds within a flock that
are most affected. Fatty liver syndrome has been seen in conjunction with cage layer
fatigue.
Prevention and treatment of fatty liver syndrome
The principal causes of fatty liver syndrome are related to feed ingredient quality or
inappropriate feed formulation. Unless caused by aflatoxin or calcium deficiency, the
main treatment for this condition is to reduce the amount of dietary energy consumed. If
aflatoxin is involved, the contaminated feed must be replaced. If a calcium deficiency is
suspected, adding large particle calcium to the diet is recommended, as this allows the
hen to select an increased calcium intake without over-consuming the energy component
of the diet. Some farmers add choline chloride to feed as a treatment, however effects are
variable. If a complete layer ration is being fed, addition of vitamins can be of benefit.
However, control of body fat is the only successful remedy for this condition and is best
accomplished by regulation and reduction of total energy intake.
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Rickets and cage layer fatigue
Rickets and cage layer fatigue are nutritional diseases of chickens, turkeys and ducks that
results in soft bones. Often the leg bones become bowed and hamper the bird’s ability to
stand and walk. The term ‘rickets’ is generally used to describe the condition in young
poultry, while ‘osteomalacia’ is often the term used for the disease in adult birds. Caged
layer fatigue is a related condition observed in caged laying hens, usually around peak
egg production, that may also be associated with osteoporosis, a condition causing brittle
bones as a result of reduced bone density. Rickets is caused by a deficiency or imbalance
of circulating calcium, vitamin D3 and/or phosphorous. It can be caused by an
imbalanced or deficient diet, some medications and also some mould toxins. Caged layer
fatigue is thought to be caused primarily by depletion of body stores of calcium as a
result of delay in feeding high calcium feeds during high egg production or a metabolic
malfunction that impairs calcium absorption or bone calcification during this production
stage.
Prevention and treatment of rickets and cage layer fatigue
For normal bone calcification, calcium and phosphorous need to be supplied in adequate
amounts as well as in a ratio of 2:1. Excess of either calcium or phosphorous can cause
rickets. Vitamin D3 plays a critical role in regulating the absorption and metabolism of
calcium. Therefore, in addition to ensuring that poultry diets have an appropriate level
and balance of calcium and phosphorous, they must be adequate in vitamin D3. Bone
mineralisation is a constant process and therefore correction of dietary deficiencies or
imbalances can ease the condition if identified early enough.
Mould or fungal toxins, called mycotoxins, can have a range of effects on poultry
including interference with the absorption of nutrients. Rickets caused through the
presence of dietary mycotoxins can be treated by replacing the toxin-contaminated feed
and by supplementing vitamin D3 to three or fourfold of the usual levels. There is a
higher incidence of bone calcification problems in high producing layer hens housed in
cages rather than floor-based housing systems, hence the term cage layer fatigue. This
indicates the role of exercise in preventing or treating this condition.
 94
CHAPTER XVII

PROCESSING OF FEEDS AND FORAGE TO IMPROVE NUTRITIVE VALUE

IMPROVEMENT OF POOR QUALITY ROUGHAGES

Roughage processing

Physical methods Chemical methods Biological method

Wet methods Dry methods Alkali

Green chopping Bailing Ammonia
Soaking Grinding Lime
Steam processing Pelleting Urea generated NH3
Cubing Urine
Drying Urea in dry roughage
Irradiation Urea with silage

PHYSICAL METHODS
A. Wet Methods
1. Green chopping
This refers to converting the green crop residues into 1 to 4 cm length pieces by
chaff cutters. The main advantage is due to less wastage of unpalatable parts. By mixing
poor quality roughages in chopped green materials, it will mask the effects of the formet.
2. Soaking
This method is not considered to be practical except possibly with chopped straw.
3. Strem processing:
The steam treatment of forage particularly of low quality roughages like bagasse
has been reported to cause increased voluntary intake and higher digestibility in cattle.
Chemical studies indicated extensive degradation of cellulose and hemicellulose and the
production of undesirable poly-phenolic compounds when bagasse was steam processed.
Apart from this the method involves extra expenditure.
B. Dry methods
1. Baling:
Bailing is probably the most common method used in developed countries to
harvest roughage. Forage is cut and allowed to dry in the field. For proper baling the
moisture level must be sufficiently low (15 to 20 per cent) at the time of baling. Bales are
packages of square or round type. Round bales, however, will shed rain and thus may be
left in the field for extended periods without serious damage to the hay.
2. Grinding hays and straw
It is not necessary to grind good quality hay to realise its effective use. Grinding
coarse, stemmy hays will encourage total consumption by livestock but will not improve
their digestibility. However, for making the complete ration for livestock the entire hay
must be ground. The coarser the hay that is ground, the more it will retain its bulk value.
 95
In general, grinding hay causes a drop in the milk fat in dairy cows due to low
production of acetic acid in rumen.
3. Pelleting of roughages
Hays and straws must be ground prior to pelleting – thus, pelleting embraces most
of the advantages and disadvantages of grinding. The method reduces the space
requirement for storage by as much as 75 per cent. Pelleting of hay and straws increases
consumption and performances in beef cattle. It also reduces dustiness. The process
when applied to roughage, will cost twice as much as pelleting concentrates.
4. Cubing
“Cubing” are nothing more than large pellets. These may be of square or round
shape having the diameter and length between 2 to 3 inches and 1 to 4 inches
respectively. Grinding before cubing is not required, but usually water is sprayed on the
dry hay and straw as they are cubed.
Although cubes have an advantage, as they can be fed on the ground in clean
pastures, and no troughs are needed, it is difficult to detect (visually) low quality
roughages in them, and besides the method is costly.
5. Drying of roughages
Drying entails removal of excess moisture of green crop residues to 14-15 per
cent level either by artificial heat. In tropical countries like India, sun drying is the only
feasible method. However, in some developed countries where sunshine is not plentiful,
artificial drying is resorted to which involves a process, in which forage is cut by a hay
chopper or silage cutter immediately after harvest and dried in large drum driers of
different sizes.
6. Irradiation
Improvement of digestibility of wheat straw by high voltage X-rays has been
found to be due to the breaking of the cellulose and hemicellulose bonds, resulting in
formation of oligosaccharides, which can be utilised by the rumen organisms. Forage
lignin on the other hand resists irradiation. Upon irradiation, ergosterol, a plant sterol,
yields calciferol, commonly known as vitamin D2. The method involves high cost and
technology.
CHEMICAL METHODS
1. Alkali treatment
Treating straw with alkali can give a product of considerable nutritive value. It
reduces the strength of the intermolecular hydrogen bonds which bind the cellulose fibre
without affecting much of the cell wall.
The usual method requires large quantities of water and is impracticable in areas
where water supplies are limited. The process consists of soaking the straw in 10 times
its weight of 1.5 per cent NaOH solution for about 24 hours. The liquid is then drained
off and can be used for succeeding batches of straw. The straw is washed after treatment
until freed from the alkali. The treatment will in case of wheat straw increase organic
matter digestibility from 46 per cent to more than 70 per cent. The method is tiresome as
well as costly.
2. Ammonia treatment
Treatment of straw with anhydrous ammonia will add N2 to the straw which can
be used by rumen microorganisms, in addition, the ammoniation of straw will improve
 96
significantly the degrability of its fibrous constituents which will result in the
production of more energy in the form of VFA.
The ammonia method requires that a stack of straw be covered so that the
ammonia does not escape.
3. Lime treatment
Calcium hydroxide generated from lime may prove to be the cheapest alkali
available for the effective treatment of coarse roughages. Both wet and dry methods of
treatment have been used.
4. Urea-generated NH3 treatment of roughages
Refer urea treatment of paddy straw described under roughages – dried grass
5. Urine treatment
Animal urine can also be used as a source of urea which can generate ammonia to
have a similar effect on improving the degradability of fibrous constituents on the coarse
fodders.
Urea added to dry roughages
An addition of urea molasses to straw has become popular for increasing nutritive
value. A solution of 10 kg molasses and 2 kg urea in 10 kg of water is spread by a
sprayer on straws in 100 kg lots and spread evenly under the sun over an area of 20 X 20
ft. The treated straws can form maintenance ration when supplied along with the proper
amount of 2 per cent mineral and 1 per cent salt and vitamin AD3 mixture. About 8 kg of
this enriched paddy straw per animal per day will supply sufficient nitrogen for the
animals to synthesise the required amount of protein for maintenance.
Urea mixed with silage
Another way of feeding urea to cattle – especially dairy cattle – through the
addition of urea to crops which are being ensiled. If chopped, the whole maize plant is
being ensiled at 35 per cent to 40 per cent dry matter, urea is then added at a level of 0.5
per cent of wet material. This level should increase the crude protein level of the silage
on a dry matter basis about five points.
BIOLOGICAL TREATMENTS
Use of selected bacterial and fungal culture in roughages has been considered
during the past few years to increase the nutritive value of roughages over the chemical
treatments. Since plant residues constitute a good quantity of cellulosic materials
including cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin, the biological treatment causes
simplification of these compounds by releasing appropriate enzymes from microbes so
that the materials ultimately become easily digestible upon intake by the ruminants.
The fast growth rate of these microbes results in enriching the roughages with
protein.