Lecture 6:

Functions, requirements and characteristics

Course code: DES602
Course name: Design Practice I

Dr Amar Behera
Email: amarkb@iitk.ac.in
Extension: 2401

Design Studio 605H-A

Diamond Jubilee Academic Complex
Learning Outcomes

• Understand the process of establishing design functions.

• Learn how to set clear and measurable design requirements.
• Identify key characteristics for a successful design.
Design problems exist at different
levels of generality
Examples:
• General: "Design a telecommunication system."
• Specific: "Design a telephone handset."
• Importance of defining the right level.
Moving between problem levels
• Up Levels: Broadening scope
• (e.g., "design a door" instead of "a doorknob").
• Down Levels: Narrowing focus
• (e.g., ergonomics of a handle).
Classic Case Study: The Doorknob
• Design problem: "Design a doorknob."
• Exploring levels:
• Up: Means of ingress/egress (may exclude doorknobs).
• Down: Kinematics of latch mechanisms.
Risks of Incorrect Problem Levels
• Client Focus:
• Too narrow: Misses innovative solutions.
• Too broad: Misaligned with client needs.
• Examples:
• Overdesigning a component.
• Proposing out-of-scope solutions.
When to Reconsider Problem Levels
• Stimulus for Innovation
• Questioning problem levels can reveal novel solutions.
• Example
• Reframing "design a car" as "create sustainable urban mobility."
 Functional Perspective in Design

• The function analysis method offers such a means of considering essential

functions and the level at which the problem is to be addressed.
• Essential Functions: What the product must achieve (irrespective of form).
• Example:
• Telecommunication system → Communication.
 The Function Analysis method
• Purpose: Focus on essential functions
over specific solutions.
• Helps decide problem boundaries.
• Example:
• Functions: Open, close, secure entry.
• Excludes: Specific doorknob types.
Step 1:
• Black box approach where the box
Express the overall function for the design in terms has all the functions to make the
of the conversion of inputs into outputs product work
• Start broad and then narrow down
Step 2: Break down the overall function into a set of essential sub-functions
• In specifying sub-functions it is helpful to ensure that they are all
expressed in the same way.
• Each one should be a statement of a verb plus a noun – for
example,
• ‘amplify signal’
• ‘count items’
• ‘separate waste’
• ‘reduce volume’
• Each sub-function has its own input(s) and output(s), and
compatibility between these should be checked.
• There may be ‘auxiliary sub-functions’ that have to be added but
which do not contribute directly to the overall function, such as
‘remove waste’.
Step 3:
Draw a block diagram showing the interactions between sub-functions
• In drawing this diagram you are deciding how the internal
inputs and outputs of the sub-functions are linked together so
as to make a feasible, working system.
• May have to juggle inputs and outputs, and perhaps redefine
some sub-functions so that everything is connected together.
• Use different conventions – i.e. different types of lines – to show
the different types of inputs and outputs – i.e. flows of
• Materials
• Energy
• Information
Step 4: Draw the system boundary
• Defining Boundaries:
• Avoid loose inputs/outputs outside the system.
• Define scope: focus on a subset of functions.
• System boundary may need narrowing after broad input-output
exploration.
• Often constrained by client or management requirements.
• Different boundaries result in distinct products.
Example of broad and narrow boundaries
• Example: Designing a Home Automation System

• Broad boundary: All house systems (lighting, HVAC, security).

• Narrow boundary: Only lighting controls.

• Result: Clearer focus, feasible solutions.

Step 5: Search for appropriate components for
performing the subfunctions and their interactions
• Identify a suitable component for each sub-function.
• Depends on the nature of the product or device, or more general system,
that is being designed.
• For instance, a ‘component’ might be defined as a person who performs a
certain task, a mechanical component, or an electronic device.
• Electronic devices can often now be substituted for components that were
previously mechanical devices or perhaps could only be done by human
operators
• Function analysis method leaves the physical means of achieving those
functions to this later stage of the design process.
Example 1: Packing of carpet squares
Example 2: Inkjet printer
Task – Create a function structure

• Product: Smart Refrigerator

• Primary function: Preserve food.

• Secondary function: Monitor

inventory, suggest recipes.

• Go to menti.com and type 7714 9259

Setting requirements
• Objectives and functions are statements of what a design must
achieve or do, but they are not normally set in terms of precise
limits, which is what a performance specification does.
• Definition: Requirements are measurable goals the design must
achieve.
• Example: Weight, size, durability, cost.
• Sets limits to what has to be achieved by a design
• Do not make them too narrow
• A lot of otherwise acceptable solutions might be eliminated
unnecessarily
 The performance specification method
• Consider the different levels of generality of solution which might be
applicable
• Determine the level of generality at which to operate
• Identify the required performance attributes
• State succinct and precise performance requirements for each attribute
Levels of generality
• Product alternatives
• Product types
• Product features
• Highest level –
• Free to propose alternative ways of heating a house, such as moveable appliances, fixed appliances, central heating with
radiators, ducted warm air, etc.
• There might even be freedom to move away from the concept of an ‘appliance’ to alternative forms of heating such as
conservatories that trap solar heat; or to ways of retaining heat, such as insulation.

• Intermediate level –
• Different types of appliance, say, different heater types such as radiators or convectors, or different fuel types.

• Lowest level –
• Different features within a particular type of appliance, such as its heating element, switches, body casing, supports, etc.
Where to operate depends on what the
company is trying to do
• Highest level if an appliance manufacturer was proposing to diversify
or broaden its activities into other aspects
• Example: Moving into other aspects of domestic heating
• Intermediate when a new product was to be designed, to add to the
existing range of appliances or to replace obsolete ones
• Lowest when making modifications to existing products.
• Avoid excessive generality (allows inappropriate solutions).
• Avoid excessive specificity (limits design freedom).
Identifying performance attributes
• Attributes include such things as comfort, portability and durability,
and key features such as speed, cost and safety.
• Similar to, or derived from, the design objectives and functions.
• Objectives tree and function structure - source of your initial list of
performance attributes
• Performance attributes should be stated in a way which is
independent of any particular solution
While creating performance attributes, be
careful of…
• Independence from existing solutions
• Statements of attributes made by clients or customers are often
couched in terms of solutions, because they value some performance
aspect which is embodied in the solution
• Such solution-based, rather than performance-based statements are
usually unnecessarily restrictive of solution concepts
While creating performance attributes, be
careful of…
• A client might suggest that the material for a particular surface area
should be ceramic tiles, because that is a satisfactory feature of an
existing solution.
• But the essential performance requirement might be that the surface
should be non-porous, or easy to clean, or have a smooth, hard
texture, or simply have a shiny appearance.
• Acceptable alternatives might be plastics, metal or marble.
Note though that…
• May be a whole complex of reasons underlying a client or customer
specification of a particular solution feature.
• It could be the whole set of attributes of a ceramic surface, as just
listed, plus
• the mass which is provided by ceramic tiles, plus
• the colour range, plus
• some perceived status or
• other value which is not immediately obvious.
• Comprehensive and reliable list of performance attributes may
require careful research into client, customer, and perhaps
manufacturer requirements.
Final list: Demands v wishes
• ‘Demands’ are requirements that must be met
• ‘Wishes’ are those that the client, customer or designer would like to
meet if possible.
• Requirement of a non-porous surface might be a functional ‘demand’
• Availability in a range of colours might be a ‘wish’ dependent on the
material actually chosen.
State succinct and precise performance requirements
for each attribute
• Use a metric and a value
• Wherever possible, a performance requirement should be expressed in
quantified terms.
• Maximum weight should be specified, rather than a vague statement such
as ‘lightweight’.
• A safety requirement – say, for escape from a vehicle – should state the
maximum time allowable for escape in an emergency, rather than using
terms like ‘rapidly’ or ‘readily’.
• If appropriate, a requirement should set a range of limits within which
acceptable performance lies.
• So a requirement should not say ‘seat height: 425 mm’ if a range between
400 mm and 450 mm is acceptable.
Specs for one-handed mixing tap
Attributes vs characteristics
• Managers and market researchers tend to concentrate more on
specifying the desirable attributes of a new product
• Viewpoint of customer or client requirements
• Designers and engineers concentrate more on a product’s
engineering characteristics
• Physical properties
• Attributes: Customer-desired qualities (e.g., portability, durability).
• Characteristics: Engineering choices (e.g., material, mass).
Practical example
• Product: Laptop

• Attribute: Long battery life (customer requirement)

• Characteristic: High-capacity lithium-ion battery (engineering solution)

• Engineering designer chooses a particular metal casing for a product,

of a certain gauge and surface finish
• Determines characteristics such as mass, rigidity and texture
• Characteristics determine product attributes such as portability, durability,
and appearance.
Tools for Defining
Characteristics
• Morphological Analysis.
• QFD (Quality Function
Deployment).
• Trade-off Matrices.
Introduction to Quality Function
Deployment (QFD)

• Definition: QFD is a structured method for

translating customer needs into specific
engineering characteristics.
• Goal: Ensure customer satisfaction by aligning
design decisions with their expectations.
Quality Function Deployment method
• Identify customer requirements in terms of product attributes
• Determine the relative importance of the attributes
• Draw a matrix of product attributes against engineering
characteristics
• Identify the relationships between engineering characteristics and
product attributes
• Identify any relevant interactions between engineering
characteristics
• Evaluate the attributes of competing products
• Set target figures to be achieved for the engineering characteristics
 Step 1 - Identify Customer
Requirements

• Key Activity: Collect customer needs and translate them

into product attributes.
• Methods: Surveys, focus groups, and interviews.
• Output: List of attributes such as durability, aesthetics,
functionality.
Step 2 - Determine Relative
Importance

• Key Activity: Rank the identified product

attributes based on customer preferences.
• Approach: Assign weightings or percentages to
each attribute.
• Result: Prioritized list of attributes guiding
design focus.
Step 3 - Create the QFD Matrix

• Structure:
• Rows: Product attributes (customer
requirements).
• Columns: Engineering characteristics (design
parameters).
• Purpose: Establish a visual framework for
alignment.
Step 4 - Identify
Relationships

• Key Activity: Determine how each

engineering characteristic impacts
product attributes.
• Scoring: Use symbols or numbers (e.g.,
strong, moderate, weak relationships).
• Result: Clear understanding of key
design drivers.
Step 5 - Identify
Interactions Between
Characteristics

• Focus: Examine how engineering

characteristics influence one another.
• Tool: "Roof" section of the QFD matrix.
• Outcome: Balanced and synergistic design
decisions.
• Example
• A more powerful engine is also likely to
be heavier
• Increases the vehicle mass
• Not necessarily increasing its perceived
‘responsiveness’.
• Interactions can be either negative or
positive.
Step 6 - Evaluate
Competing
Products
• Key Activity: Benchmark
attributes and characteristics of
competitors’ products.
• Tool: Competitive evaluation
chart.
• Goal: Identify gaps and
opportunities for differentiation.
Step 7 - Set Target Figures
• Key Activity: Define measurable goals
for engineering characteristics.
• Tool: Incorporate targets in the QFD
matrix.
• Purpose: Guide design efforts and
track progress.
Example – Bicylce splashguard
• Design for a new product type – a • Example
detachable splashguard for the • The ‘easy to attach’ attribute could
rear wheel of mountain bikes. be measured by
• Normally such bicycles have no • Number of steps needed to attach
mudguards, • Time needed to attach
• For circumstances in which the • Number of parts needed
rider does not wish to dirty their • Number of standard tools needed
clothes, a detachable splashguard • No comparable products already
was thought to be a potentially on the market
desirable product.
• Hence, compared against a fixed
mudguard and a raincoat
Example – Bicylce splashguard
 House of
quality:
Cordless drill
 Physical
properties
influencing
engineering
characteristics
House of
quality: Car
door
House of quality:
Domestic fan
heater
 • Establishing Functions:
• Defines what the product must do.
• Provides a foundation for the design process.
• Setting Requirements:
• Translates functions into measurable goals.
• Includes both functional and non-functional
requirements.
Summary • Determining Characteristics:
• Identifies specific features to achieve
requirements.
• Uses tools like QFD and trade-off matrices for
alignment.
• Key Takeaway: These foundational steps ensure
clarity, alignment, and a focused path to innovative
designs.
 Announcement:
No class on 03/02/24
Class on 01/02/24 and 15/02/24 at 6:15 pm
 References/Bibliography
• Ullman, D. G. (2017). The Mechanical Design Process. McGraw Hill Education.
• Pahl, G., Beitz, W., Feldhusen, J., & Grote, K.-H. (2007). Engineering Design: A Systematic Approach.
Springer.
• Cross, N. (2008). Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design. Wiley.
• Hubka, V., & Eder, W. E. (1996). Design Science: Introduction to the Needs, Scope and Organization of
Engineering Design Knowledge. Springer.
• Hauser, J. R., & Clausing, D. (1988). "The House of Quality." Harvard Business Review, 66(3), 63–73.
• Ulrich, K. T., & Eppinger, S. D. (2020). Product Design and Development. McGraw Hill.
• Otto, K., & Wood, K. (2001). Product Design: Techniques in Reverse Engineering and New Product
Development. Prentice Hall.
• Clarkson, P. J., & Eckert, C. (2005). Design Process Improvement: A Review of Current Practice.
Springer.