THE INFINITIVE – THE GERUND

I. FORMS OF THE INFINITIVE:

- Present infinitive: to work, to do
- Present continuous infinitive: to be working
- Perfect infinitive: to have worked, to have done
- Perfect continuous infinitive: to have been working
- Present infinitive passive: to be done
- Perfect infinitive passive: to have been done
- Bare infinitive (infinitive without to): You had better say nothing.

II. USES OF THE INFINITIVE:

- As object of the verb: He wants to pay. I managed to put the fire out.
- As the complement of a verb: His plan is to keep the affair secret.
- As the Subject of a sentence: To compromise appears advisable.
To lean out of the window is dangerous.
To have made the same mistake twice was unforgivable.
But it is more usual to use the pronoun it: It appears advisable to compromise.
It is dangerous to lean out of the window.
It was unforgivable to have made the same mistake twice.
- be + infinitive: + Express commands or instructions:
No one is to leave this building without the permission of the police.
He is to stay here till we return.
+ Convey a plan:
She is to be married next month.
The expedition is to start in a week’s time.
- Express purpose: He went to France to learn French.
He left his gun outside in order/so as not to frighten us.
- After certain Adjectives: Would it be convenient (for you) to see Mr. X now.
The instructions were hard to follow.
- Connect two clauses: He survived the crash only to die in the desert.
= He survived the crash but died in the desert.
- Replace relative clauses: after the first, the second, ect…, the last, the only
The first/last/only man to leave the ship = the first/last/only man who left the ship
He is the second man to be killed in this way. = the second man who was killed
- After certain Nouns: ability, ambition, anxiety, attempt, decision, demand, desire,
determination, eagerness, effort, failure, offer, plan, promise, refusal, request,
scheme, willingness, wish
His ability to get on with people is his chief asset.
He made an attempt/effort to stand up.
Failure to obey the regulations may result in disqualification.
- With too/enough: He was too drunk to drive home.
 He spoke slowly enough for everyone to understand.
- As sentence adverbs: To be honest, I just don’t like him.
To cut a long story short, we said ‘No!’

III. FORMS OF THE GERUND:

- Present form: running, speaking, working
- Perfect gerund: having worked, having spoken
 Used to refer to a past action:
He was accused of deserting his ship = He was accused of having deserted his ship.
 Fairly usual after deny: He denied having been there.
- Passive gerund:
 Present: being written He was punished by being sent to bed without any supper.
 Past: having been written I remember being taken to Paris as a small child.
The safe showed no signs of having been touched.

IV. USES OF THE GERUND:

- As subject of a sentence: Dancing bored him.
Reading French is easier than speaking it. = It is easier to read French than to speak it.
 The gerund can be the subject of a clause placed after believe, consider, discover,
expect, find, think, wonder etc.
He found that parking was difficult. (= He found parking difficult.)
 The gerund is used in short prohibitions.
No smoking. No waiting. No fishing.
 Gerunds are used in the saying Seeing is believing.
- As complement of a verb: Her hobby is painting.
- After prepositions: He was accused of smugling.
- After certain verbs: He amitted taking the money.
- In noun compounds: a diving board, a walking stick

V. VERBS FOLLOWED BY GERUNDS OR INFINITIVE WITH LITTLE OR NO CHANGE OF

MEANING:
begin, start, cease, intend = propose, hate, like, love, prefer, continue, can’t
bear/stand
She never ceases complaining/to complain about the prize.
What do you propose to do/doing now?
 Like to  a habitual preferences (I like to listen to the radio every morning.)
Not like to  think it wrong to (I don’t like to disturb colleagues at home.)

VI. VERBS FOLLOWED BY GERUNDS OR INFINITIVE WITH CHANGE OF MEANING:

 Forget/remember/regret + infinitive  refer to an obligation or about what is going to
be said
Sorry, I forgot to post your letter.
I regret to say that you have failed your exam.
 Forget/remember/regret + gerund  refer to past events
I’ll never forget learning to drive.
I remember reading about the earthquake in the papers.
Forget/remember/regret + that-clause
I remembered that I had to pay the phone bill.
We regret that we didn’t tell her earlier.
 Mean + infinitive  intend to do something
He meant to watch the program, but he didn’t.
Mean + gerund  refer to what is involved
If we caught the early train, it will mean getting up at 6.00.
Mean + that-clause  explain the meaning
This means that you have to report to the police station.
 Stop + infinitive  refer to an intention
I stopped to get a drink of water.
Stop + gerund  refer to the ending of an activity
Jo has stopped learning French.
 Try + infinitive  refer to something attempted, which might fail or succeed
I tried to warn him, but it was too late.
Try + gerund  refer to making an experiment, or new experience
Have you tried windsurfing? It’s great!
 Hear/see/watch + bare infinitive  the action is complete
We watched all the cars cross the finishing line.
Hear/see/watch + gerund  the action is still in progress
I heard someone coming up the stairs.
 Go on + gerund  refer to the continuing of an action
She went on working even though it was late.
Go on + infinitive  refer to the continuation of a speech
The Prime Minister went on to praise the Chancellor.
 Consider + infinitive  refer to an opinion
She is considered to be the finest pianist of her generation.
Consider + gerund  think about
At one point I considered emigrating to Canada.
Consider + that-clause  refer to an opinion
We consider that she has behaved badly.

VII. VERBS FOLLOWED BY INFINITIVE:

 Ask, afford, aim, attempt, beg, bother (negative), care (negative), choose, dare,
deserve, decline, expect, fail, grow, hasten, hurry, help, hesitate, help, like, long,
manage, need, neglect, offer, prepare, proceed, refuse, seek, struggle, tend, wait,
want, would hate/like/love, volunteer
I managed to put the fire out.
We can’t afford to live in the center.
  Agree, arrange, ask, appear, claim, decide, demand, determine, expect, forget,
guarantee, hope, happen, learn, pretend, prove, promise, plan, pledge, resolve,
remember, seem, swear, wish, threaten, undertake, vow, it + occur + to + object,
make up one’s mind, turn out (These verbs can also be followed by that-clauses)
He pretended to be angry = He pretended that he was angry.
It occurred to me that he was trying to conceal something.
 Be about, be able, do one’s best, do what one can, make an/every effort, set out,
take the trouble
She set out to break the world record.

VIII. VERBS FOLLOWED BY HOW/WHAT/WHEN/WHERE/ WHICH/WHY + INFINITIVE

 Ask, decide, discover, find out, forget, know, learn, remember, see (= understand,
perceive), show + object, think, understand, want to know, wonder
He discovered how to open the safe.
I found out where to buy food cheaply.
 Want to know, wonder, decide, remember, think + whether + infinitive
I wondered whether to write or phone.
You needn’t decide yet whether to study arts or science.

IX. VERBS FOLLOWED BY OBJECT + INFINITIVE

 Ask, advise, allow, beg, bribe, command, compel, enable, encourage, entitle,
expect, forbid, force, instruct, invite, intend, implore, induce, like, order, oblige,
persuade, permit, prefer, request, show how, teach (how), tell (how), train, tempt,
warn, want, wish, urge, would like/hate/love/prefer
 Remind, show, teach, tell (These verbs can also be followed by that-clauses)
These glasses will enable you to see in the dark.
She encouraged me to try again.
 Remind, show, teach, tell (These verbs can also be followed by that-clauses)
He reminded me that the road was dangerous.
He showed me that it was quite easy.
 Assume, believe, consider, feel, know, suppose, understand + Object + to be
(These verbs can also be followed by that-clauses)
I consider him to be the best candidate. = I consider that he is the best candidate.
He is known to be honest. = It is known that he is honest.

X. VERBS/EXPRESSIONS + (OBJECT) + BARE INFINITIVE (INFINITIVE WITHOUT TO)

 Need, dare (without do/did/will/would)
You needn’t say anything. (but You don’t need to say anything)
I dared not wake him. (but I didn’t/wouldn’t dare (to) wake him.)
 Feel, hear, see, watch, make
I saw him drive off. (but I heard them shouting.  more usual)
He made me move the car.
But See, hear, make (in the passive) + full infinitive
 He was seen to enter the office.
He was heard to say that he was engaged.
I was made to move the car.
 Let (in both active and passive)
They let him see the documents.
 passive: He was allowed to see the documents. (He was let see the documents.  less usual)
 Would rather/sooner, rather/sooner than, had better
Shall we go today? – I’d rather wait till tomorrow.
Rather/Sooner than risk a bad crossing, he postponed his journey.
You had better start at once.
 Help + bare infinitive/full infinitive
He helped us (to) push it.
 But, except when they follow do + anything/nothing/everything
He does nothing but complain.
My dog does everything but speak.
Can’t you do anything but ask silly questions?
 The to is optional in sentences such as:
The only thing to do/we can do is (to) write to him.
All we can do is (to) write to him.

XI. VERBS FOLLOWED BY GERUNDS:

 Avoid, advise, appreciate, allow, burst out, contemplate, detest, delay, defer,
dread, dislike, endure, excuse, enjoy, escape, face, finish, forgive, involve, keep,
loathe, mind, miss, practise, pardon, prevent, postpone, permit, risk, resent, resist,
save, stop
He detests writing letters.
Would you mind waiting a moment?
The school does not allow smoking.
 Admit, appreciate, consider, deny, fancy, imagine, mention, mean, propose,
resent, recollect, remember, suggest, understand (These verbs can also be followed
by that-clauses)
I appreciate having the opportunity to discuss these important issues with you.
I recollect that we were all gathered in the kitchen.
 Can’t help (= prevent/avoid), it’s no use/good, be worth, feel like, spend/waste
time
I couldn’t help laughing.
It’s no good/use arguing.
Is there anything here worth buying?

XII. VERBS FOLLOWED BY POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE/OBJECT PRONOUN + GERUND

- Verb + (preposition) + gerund  the gerund refers to the subject of the verb
Tom insisted on reading the letter. (Tom read it.)
- Verb + (preposition) + possessive adjective/object pronoun + gerund  the gerund
refers to the person denoted by the possessive adjective/object pronoun
He insisted on my/me reading it. (I had to read it.)
 Dislike, dread, fancy, involve, like (negative), mean, mind, propose, recollect,
remember, resent, save, stop, suggest, understand, approve/disapprove of, insist
on, it’s no good/use, object to, there’s no point in, what’s the point of
He disliked working late.
He disliked me/my working late.
I object to paying twice for the same thing.
I object to him/his making private calls on this phone.

- Comparison: Possessive adjective  in formal English

Object pronoun  in informal English
- Nouns with gerunds:
I do not remember my mother’s complaining about it.  very formal English
I don’t remember my mother complaining. (omit the ’s)  much more usual