Programming in C

Outline
• Making
g Decisions
– The if Statement
– The if-else Construct
– Logical Operators
– Boolean Variables
– Nested if Statements
– The else if Construct
– The switch Statement
– The Conditional Operator
• Character Input/Output
 Example - if

// Program to calculate the absolute value of an integer

int main (void)
{
int number;
printf ("Type in your number: ");
scanf (("%i",
, &number);
);
if ( number < 0 )
number = -number;
printf ("The absolute value is %i\n", number);
return 0;
}
 The if statement
if ( expression )
program statement

If expression is true
(non-zero), executes
statement.
If gives you the choice
no of executing statement
expression or skipping it.

yes

Program statement
 Example: if
if-else
else

// Program to determine if a number is even or odd

#include <stdio.h>
int main ()
{
int number_to_test, remainder;
printf ("Enter your number to be tested: ");
scanf ("%i", &number_to_test);
remainder
i d = number_to_test
b % 2
2;
if ( remainder == 0 )
printf ("The number is even.\n");
else
printf ("The number is odd.\n");
return 0;
}
 The if else statement
if-else
if ( expression )
program statement 1
else if-else statement:
program statement 2 enables you to
choose between
two statements

yes no
expression

Program statement 1 Program statement 2

Attention on if else syntax !
if-else
C, the ; is part
In C
if ( expression ) (end) of a statement !
program statement 1 You have to put it
else also before an else
program statement 2 !

if ( remainder == 0 )
printf ("The number is even.\n");
else
printf ("The number is odd.\n"); Syntactically OK
((void statement
on if) but
if ( x == 0 ); probably a
printf ("The number is zero.\n"); semantic error !
Example: compound relational test
// Program to determine if a year is a leap year
#include <stdio.h>
int main (void)
{
int yyear,
, rem_4,
, rem_100,
, rem_400;
;
printf ("Enter the year to be tested: ");
scanf ("%i", &year);
rem_4 = year % 4;
rem_100
100 = year % 100
100;
rem_400 = year % 400;
if ( (rem_4 == 0 && rem_100 != 0) || rem_400 == 0 )
printf ("It's a leap year.\n");
else
printf (“It's not a leap year.\n");
return 0;
}
 Logical operators
Operator Symbol Meaning

AND && X && y is true if BOTH x and y are true

OR || X || y is true if at least one of x and y is true
O
NOT ! !x iss true
ue if x is
s false
a se

Logical values as operands or in tests: true = non-zero, false=zero

Logical values returned as results of expressions: true = 1

1, false=zero

Precedence Example: 5 || 0 is 1
! ++,
!, ++ --, (type)
*, /, %
Example for operator precedence:
+, -
a > b && b > c || b > d
<, <=, >, >=, ==, !=
Is equivalent to:
&&
((a > b) && (b > c)) || (b > d)
||
=
 Boolean variables
// Program to generate a table of prime numbers
#include <stdio.h>
int main (void) {
int p, d; A flag: assumes only
_Bool isPrime;
i i one of two different
for ( p = 2; p <= 50; ++p ) { values. The value of a
flag is usually tested in
isPrime = 1;
the program to see if it
for ( d = 2;
; d < p; ++d ) is “on”
on (TRUE) or “off
off ”
if ( p % d == 0 ) (FALSE)
isPrime = 0;
if ( isPrime != 0 )
printf
i tf ("%i "
", p);
)
}
Equivalent test:
printf ("\n");
(more in C-style):
return 0;
if (isPrime)
}
 Testing for ranges
if (x >= 5 && x <= 10)
printf(“in range");

if (5 <= x <= 10)

printf(“in range");

Syntactically correct, but semantically an error !!!

Because the order of evaluation for the <= operator is left-to-right, the
test expression is interpreted as follows:
(5<= x) <= 10
The subexpression 5 <= x either has the value 1 (for true) or 0 (for
false) Either value is less than 10
false). 10, so the whole expression is always
true, regardless of x !
 Testing for character ranges
char ch;
scanf(“%c”,&ch);
if (ch >= 'a' && ch <= 'z')
printf("lowercase
printf( lowercase char\n");
char\n );
if (ch >= ‘A' && ch <= ‘Z')
printf(“uppercase char\n");
if (ch >=
> ‘0'
0 && ch <=
< ‘9')
9 )
printf(“digit char\n");

• This works for character codes such as ASCII

ASCII, in which the codes for
consecutive letters are consecutive numbers. However, this is not true for
some codes (i.e. EBCDIC)
• A more portable way of doing this test is to use functions from <ctype.h>
islower(ch), isupper(ch), isdigit(ch)
 Other operations on characters
ch will be the
char ch='d'; next letter ‘e’
ch=ch+1;

ch will be the
char ch='d'; corresponding
p g
ch=ch+'A'-'a'; uppercase letter
‘D’

• This works for character codes such as ASCII, in which the codes for
consecutive letters are consecutive numbers.
• A more portable way: <ctype.h>
<ctype h> : toupper(c),
toupper(c) tolower(c)
 Nested if statements

if (number > 5)
if (number < 10)
printf(“1111\n");
else printf(“2222\n");
printf( 2222\n );

Rule: an else
goes with the most
recent if,
if unless
if (number > 5) { braces indicate
if (number < 10) otherwise
printf(“1111\n");
p t ( \ );
}
else printf(“2222\n");
 Example: else
else-if
if
// Program to implement the sign function
#include <stdio.h>
int main (void)
{
i
int number, sign;
i
printf ("Please type in a number: ");
scanf ("%i", &number);
if ( number < 0 )
sign = -1;
else if ( number == 0 )
sign = 0;
else
l // M
Must
t b
be positive
iti
sign = 1;
printf ("Sign = %i\n", sign);
return 0;
}
 Multiple choices – else
else-if
if
int number;

if
negative if ( expression 1)
program statement 1
else else if ( expression 2)
program statement 2
else
if zero
program
p g statement 3

else

positive
Program style: this
unindented formatting
improves the readability of
the statement and makes
it
clearer that a three-way
decision is being made.
 Example: else
else-if
if
// Program
g to categorize
g a single
g character
// that is entered at the terminal
#include <stdio.h>
int main (void)
{
char c;
printf ("Enter a single character:\n");
scanf ("%c", &c);
if ( (c >= 'a' && c <= 'z') || (c >= 'A' && c <= 'Z') )
printf ("It's an alphabetic character.\n");
else if ( c >= '0' && c <= '9' )
printf ("It's
( It s a digit
digit.\n
\n");
);
else
printf ("It's a special character.\n");
return 0;
}
Example – multiple choices
/* Program to evaluate simple expressions of the form
number operator number */
#include <stdio.h>
int main (void) {
float value1, value2;
char operator;
printf ("Type in your expression.\n");
scanf ("%f %c %f", &value1, &operator, &value2);
if ( operator == '+' )
printf ("%.2f\n", value1 + value2);
else if ( operator == '-' )
printf ("%.2f\n", value1 - value2);
else if ( operator == '*' )
printf ("%.2f\n", value1 * value2);
else if ( operator == '/' )
printf ("%.2f\n", value1 / value2);
else
l printf
i f ("
("Unknown
k operator.\n");
\ ")
return 0;
}
 Example - switch
/* Program to evaluate simple expressions of the form
value operator value */
#include <stdio.h>
int main (void) {
float value1, value2;
char operator;
printf ("Type in your expression.\n");
scanf ("%f %c %f", &value1, &operator, &value2);
switch (operator) {
case '+': printf ("%.2f\n", value1 + value2); break;
case '-': printf ("%.2f\n", value1 - value2); break;
case '*': printf ("%.2f\n", value1 * value2); break;
case '/':
if ( value2 == 0 ) printf ("Division by zero.\n");
else printf ("%.2f\n", value1 / value2);
break;
default: printf ("Unknown operator.\n"); break;
}
return 0;
}
 The switch statement
switch ( expression )
{
case value1:
program statement The expression is
program statement successively compared
... against the values value1,
break; value2,
a ue , ...,, valuen.
a ue If a case is
s
case value2: found whose value is equal to
program statement the value of expression, the
program statement
program statements that follow
...
break; the case are executed.
...
case valuen:
program statement The switch test expression must be
program
p g statement
... one with an integer value
break; (including type char) (No float !).
default: The case values must be integer-
program statement yp constants or integer
type g
program statement
t t t
... constant expressions (You can't use
break; a variable for a case label !)
}
The switch statement (cont)
Break can miss !

Statement list on
a case can miss
switch (operator) !
{
...
case '*':
'*'
case 'x':
printf ("%.2f\n", value1 * value2);
break;
...
}
 The conditional operator
condition ? expression1 : expression2

condition is an expression that is evaluated first.

If the result of the evaluation of condition is TRUE (nonzero)
(nonzero), then expression1
is evaluated and the result of the evaluation becomes the result of the operation.
If condition is FALSE (zero), then expression2 is evaluated and its result
becomes the result of the operation

maxValue = ( a > b ) ? a : b;

Equivalent to:

if ( a > b )
maxValue = a;
else
l
maxValue = b;
 Standard input/output
• The C language itself does not have any special
statements for performing input/output (I/O)
operations; all I/O operations in C must be
carried out through function calls.
• These functions are contained in the standard C
library.
• #include <stdio.h>
• Formatted I/O: scanf(), printf()
• Character I/O: getchar(), putchar()
 Brief overview - scanf()
• scanf(control string, list of arguments)
• Control string: contains format characters
– Important: match the number and type of format characters with the
number and type of following arguments !
– Format characters: as for printf
• Arguments: variable names prefixed with the address operator (&)
• Example:
• scanf(“%i
f(“%i %i”
%i”,&x,&y);
& & )
 How scanf works
• Scanf: searches the input stream for a value to be read, bypasses
any leading whitespace characters
• scanf ("%f %f", &value1, &value2);
• scanf ("%f%f", &value1, &value2);
• In both cases
cases, user can type:
3 <space> 5 <enter>
<space> 3 <space> <space> 5 <space> <enter>
3 <enter> 5 <enter>
• The exceptions: in the case of the %c format characters— the next
character from the input, no matter what it is, is read
• scanf ("%f %c %f", &value1, &op, &value2);
3 <space> + <space> 5 <enter>
3 <space> + <space> <space> <enter> 5 <enter>
• scanf ("%f%c%f", &value1, &op, &value2);
3+5<enter>
Not OK: 3 <space> +5<enter> => op would take the value <space>,
character + would remain as input for value2 !
 How scanf works
• When scanf reads in a particular value: reading of the value
terminates when a character that is not valid for the value type being
read is encountered.
• scanf ("%f%c%f", &value1, &op, &value2);
3+5<enter>
• Any nonformat characters that are specified in the format string of
the scanf call are expected on the input.
• scanf ("%i:%i:%i", &hour, &minutes, &seconds);
3:6:21<enter>
3 6 21< t >
3<space>:<space>6<space>:<space>21<enter>
3<space>6<space>21<space> => NOT OK !
• The next call to scanf p
picks up
p where the last one left off.
• scanf ("%f", &value1);
• User types: 7 <space> 8 <space> 9 <enter>
• 7 is stored in value1, rest of the input chars remain waiting in buffer
• scanf ("%f", &value2);
• 8 from buffer is stored in value2, rest of the input remains waiting
getchar() and putchar()
• The simplest input mechanism is to read one
character at a time from the standard input,
with getchar
• To display a character: putchar
 Example: getchar()

#include <stdio.h>
int main(void) { Buffered input: the
char
h ch;
h characters you type are
while ((ch = getchar()) != '#') collected and stored in a
putchar(ch); buffer. Pressing Enter
return 0; causes the block of
} characters you typed to
be made available to
your program

Hello ! I am<enter>
Hello ! I am
Joe from #3
#3.<enter>
<enter>
Joe from
 Terminating keyboard input
Which character as
sign of end of input ?
#include <stdio.h> You need a
int main(void) { terminating character
int ch; that normally does
while ((ch = getchar()) != EOF) not show up in text.
text
putchar(ch);
return 0;
}

getchar returns the next input character each time it is called,

or EOF when it encounters end of file.
file
EOF is a symbolic constant defined in <stdio.h>. (The value is typically -1)

EOF from the keyboard: Ctrl+Z

 Exercise: getchar()
/* Read characters from input over several lines until EOF.
Count lines and characters in input */

#include <stdio.h>
int main(void) {
int c, nl, nc;
nl = 0;
nc = 0;
while ((c = getchar()) != EOF) {
nc++;
if (c == '\n')
nl++;
}
printf("Number of lines in input: %d\n", nl);
printf("Number of characters in input: %d\n", nc);
return 1;
}