Grounding System Design and Sizing

Manual

Table of Contents
1. Introduction
2. Fundamental Concepts
3. Soil Resistivity Measurement
4. Grounding System Design Process
5. Conductor Sizing and Material Selection
6. Grounding Grid Design
7. Connection Methods and Installation
8. Testing and Verification
9. Maintenance Requirements
10. Special Applications
11. Calculations and Formulas
12. Case Studies
13. References

Introduction
This comprehensive manual provides step-by-step guidance for the design, sizing, and
implementation of grounding systems for electrical installations. It integrates best
practices and requirements from major international standards including BS 7430 (UK),
IEEE 80 and IEEE 142 (US), NEC Article 250 (US), and IEC 60364 (EU).

Purpose and Scope

The purpose of this manual is to provide electrical engineers, designers, and technicians
with a practical guide to designing safe, effective, and compliant grounding systems. The
manual covers:

• Fundamental principles of grounding and bonding

• Step-by-step design methodology
• Conductor sizing and material selection
• Installation and testing procedures
• Maintenance requirements
 • Special applications and case studies

Importance of Proper Grounding

A properly designed and implemented grounding system is essential for:

1. Personnel Safety: Protection against electric shock by limiting touch and step
potentials
2. Equipment Protection: Minimizing damage from fault currents and transient
overvoltages
3. System Performance: Ensuring proper operation of protective devices and
minimizing electromagnetic interference
4. Regulatory Compliance: Meeting the requirements of applicable codes and
standards

Applicable Standards

This manual incorporates requirements and recommendations from the following

standards:

• BS 7430:2011+A1:2015: Code of practice for protective earthing of electrical

installations (UK)
• IEEE 80-2013: IEEE Guide for Safety in AC Substation Grounding (US)
• IEEE 142-2007: IEEE Recommended Practice for Grounding of Industrial and
Commercial Power Systems (US)
• NFPA 70 (NEC): National Electrical Code, Article 250: Grounding and Bonding (US)
• IEC 60364-5-54:2011+AMD1:2021: Low-voltage electrical installations - Earthing
arrangements and protective conductors (EU)

Fundamental Concepts

Grounding vs. Bonding

Understanding the distinction between grounding and bonding is essential for proper
system design:

• Grounding (Earthing): The process of connecting an electrical system or

equipment to the earth through a conductive path. This provides a reference point
for the electrical system and a path for fault currents.
 • Bonding: The process of connecting conductive parts together to ensure electrical
continuity and conductivity. Bonding ensures that connected equipment maintains
the same potential.

Purposes of Grounding Systems

Grounding systems serve multiple purposes:

1. Personnel Safety: Limiting touch and step potentials to safe levels during fault
conditions
2. Equipment Protection: Providing a low-impedance path for fault currents to
facilitate the operation of protective devices
3. Voltage Stabilization: Maintaining system voltages within predictable limits with
respect to earth
4. Noise Reduction: Minimizing electrical noise in sensitive electronic systems
5. Lightning Protection: Providing a path to earth for lightning currents
6. Static Discharge: Dissipating static electricity

Grounding System Types

Different types of grounding systems are used depending on the application:

1. System Grounding: Connection of a current-carrying conductor (usually the

neutral) to earth
2. Solidly grounded
3. Resistance grounded
4. Reactance grounded

5. Ungrounded

6. Equipment Grounding: Connection of non-current-carrying conductive parts to

earth

7. Equipment grounding conductors

8. Grounding electrode conductors

9. Bonding jumpers

10. Earth Electrode Systems:

11. Vertical rods

12. Horizontal conductors
13. Ground grids
14. Foundation electrodes
 15. Plate electrodes

System Grounding Arrangements (IEC 60364)

IEC 60364 defines three main types of system grounding arrangements:

1. TN System: The power system has one point directly grounded, and exposed
conductive parts are connected to that point via protective conductors.
2. TN-C: Neutral and protective functions combined in a single conductor (PEN)
3. TN-S: Separate neutral and protective conductors throughout the system

4. TN-C-S: Combined neutral and protective functions in part of the system

5. TT System: The power system has one point directly grounded, and exposed
conductive parts are connected to earth electrodes that are electrically
independent of the power system's earth electrodes.

6. IT System: The power system has no direct connection to earth (or is connected
through a high impedance), and exposed conductive parts are connected to earth
electrodes.

Soil Resistivity Measurement

Importance of Soil Resistivity

Soil resistivity is the most critical factor affecting the design and performance of a
grounding system. It determines:

• The resistance of earth electrodes

• The distribution of potential gradients around electrodes
• The required size and configuration of the grounding system
• The effectiveness of the grounding system in dissipating fault currents

Measurement Methods

Wenner Four-Pin Method

The Wenner four-pin method is the most common and accurate method for measuring
soil resistivity:

1. Equipment Required:
2. Earth resistivity tester
3. Four test probes
 4. Four connecting cables

5. Measuring tape

6. Procedure:

7. Place four equally spaced probes in a straight line

8. Connect the probes to the earth resistivity tester
9. Measure the resistance (R) in ohms

10. Calculate soil resistivity using the formula: ρ = 2πaR Where:

◦ ρ = soil resistivity in ohm-meters

◦ a = probe spacing in meters
◦ R = measured resistance in ohms

11. Measurement Considerations:

12. Take measurements at different spacings to determine resistivity at different

depths
13. Take measurements in different directions to account for soil non-uniformity
14. Take measurements at different times of the year to account for seasonal variations

Schlumberger Method

The Schlumberger method is an alternative to the Wenner method:

1. Procedure:
2. Place four probes in a straight line, with the inner probes closer together than the
outer probes
3. Measure the resistance (R) in ohms
4. Calculate soil resistivity using the formula: ρ = πR(L² - b²)/2b Where:
◦ ρ = soil resistivity in ohm-meters
◦ L = distance between outer probes in meters
◦ b = distance between inner probes in meters
◦ R = measured resistance in ohms

Interpretation of Results

Uniform Soil Model

If soil resistivity measurements at different spacings yield similar values, a uniform soil
model can be used:

• Single resistivity value for the entire soil volume

 • Simplifies calculations and design

Two-Layer Soil Model

If soil resistivity varies significantly with depth, a two-layer soil model should be used:

• Upper layer with resistivity ρ₁ and thickness h

• Lower layer with resistivity ρ₂ extending to infinite depth
• Requires computer modeling or specialized calculations

Multi-Layer Soil Model

For complex soil structures, a multi-layer model may be necessary:

• Multiple layers with different resistivity values

• Requires advanced computer modeling
• Used for critical installations where precise analysis is required

Factors Affecting Soil Resistivity

Several factors affect soil resistivity:

1. Moisture Content: Higher moisture content generally reduces resistivity

2. Temperature: Lower temperatures increase resistivity; freezing significantly
increases resistivity
3. Soil Type: Clay typically has lower resistivity than sand or gravel
4. Chemical Composition: Dissolved salts reduce resistivity
5. Compaction: Higher compaction generally reduces resistivity
6. Seasonal Variations: Resistivity varies with seasonal changes in moisture and
temperature

Grounding System Design Process

Step 1: Define Design Requirements

The first step in designing a grounding system is to clearly define the requirements:

1. Identify Applicable Standards and Codes:

2. National and local electrical codes
3. Industry-specific standards

4. Client specifications

5. Determine Safety Criteria:

 6. Maximum allowable touch voltage
7. Maximum allowable step voltage

8. Maximum grid resistance

9. Identify System Parameters:

10. System voltage

11. Maximum fault current
12. Fault clearing time

13. System configuration

14. Define Environmental Conditions:

15. Soil characteristics

16. Climate conditions
17. Space constraints
18. Corrosion potential

Step 2: Collect Site Data

Gather all necessary site information:

1. Perform Soil Resistivity Measurements:

2. Use Wenner four-pin method or equivalent
3. Measure at multiple locations and depths

4. Document seasonal variations if possible

5. Obtain Site Plans and Layouts:

6. Physical dimensions of the area

7. Locations of equipment and structures
8. Existing underground utilities

9. Future expansion plans

10. Identify Potential Interference Sources:

11. Nearby power lines

12. Communication systems
13. Cathodic protection systems

14. Railway systems

 15. Assess Corrosion Potential:

16. Soil pH and chemical composition

17. Presence of stray currents
18. Groundwater level
19. Nearby buried metal structures

Step 3: Develop Soil Model

Based on the soil resistivity measurements, develop an appropriate soil model:

1. For Uniform Soil:

2. Use the average measured resistivity value

3. Verify uniformity by comparing measurements at different locations

4. For Two-Layer Soil:

5. Determine upper layer resistivity (ρ₁)

6. Determine lower layer resistivity (ρ₂)
7. Determine the thickness of the upper layer (h)

8. Use graphical methods or computer software to interpret measurements

9. For Multi-Layer Soil:

10. Use specialized software to analyze measurements

11. Develop a model with multiple layers of different resistivities

Step 4: Select Grounding System Configuration

Choose the appropriate grounding system configuration based on the application:

1. For Substations and Power Plants:

2. Grounding grid with ground rods
3. Mesh configuration to control step and touch potentials

4. Perimeter conductors and cross-conductors

5. For Industrial Facilities:

6. Combination of grounding grid and ground rods

7. Equipment grounding conductors

8. Bonding to building steel and rebar

 9. For Commercial Buildings:

10. Ground ring around the building

11. Ground rods at corners and at specified intervals

12. Connection to building steel and concrete-encased electrodes

13. For Residential Installations:

14. Ground rods or plates

15. Connection to water piping (if metallic)
16. Concrete-encased electrodes

Step 5: Preliminary Design

Develop a preliminary design based on the selected configuration:

1. Determine Grid Dimensions:

2. Cover the entire area to be protected
3. Extend beyond equipment boundaries where possible

4. Consider future expansion

5. Select Conductor Spacing:

6. Typically 3-7 meters for substations

7. Closer spacing in areas with high fault current density

8. Consider practical installation constraints

9. Determine Number and Location of Ground Rods:

10. At grid corners and perimeter

11. At major equipment locations

12. Additional rods to achieve target resistance

13. Select Preliminary Conductor Size:

14. Based on maximum fault current

15. Consider thermal and mechanical requirements
16. Follow minimum size requirements from applicable standards
Step 6: Calculate System Performance

Analyze the performance of the preliminary design:

1. Calculate Grid Resistance:

2. Use appropriate formula based on grid configuration and soil model

3. For uniform soil: R = ρ/4r + ρ/L Where:

◦ R = grid resistance in ohms

◦ ρ = soil resistivity in ohm-meters
◦ r = radius of a circle with the same area as the grid in meters
◦ L = total length of buried conductors in meters

4. Calculate Maximum Grid Current:

5. Consider fault current division between grid and other paths

6. Account for decrement factors for asymmetrical currents

7. Include future system growth

8. Calculate Touch and Step Voltages:

9. Use IEEE 80 equations or computer modeling

10. Compare with allowable limits

11. Identify areas requiring additional measures

12. Evaluate Transferred Potentials:

13. Identify metallic paths leaving the grounded area

14. Calculate potential transfer to remote locations
15. Determine need for isolation or additional grounding

Step 7: Refine Design

Modify the preliminary design to address any deficiencies:

1. If Grid Resistance Is Too High:

2. Increase grid area
3. Add more ground rods
4. Use deeper ground rods

5. Add soil treatment if necessary

6. If Touch or Step Voltages Exceed Limits:

 7. Decrease conductor spacing
8. Add more cross-conductors
9. Add a surface layer of high-resistivity material

10. Extend the grid beyond the fence or boundary

11. If Transferred Potentials Are Problematic:

12. Add isolation devices

13. Extend the grounding system
14. Provide gradient control wires

15. Use equipotential planes

16. Optimize for Cost-Effectiveness:

17. Balance material costs against performance

18. Consider installation and maintenance costs
19. Evaluate life-cycle costs

Step 8: Finalize Design Documentation

Prepare comprehensive design documentation:

1. Detailed Drawings:
2. Plan view showing all conductors and electrodes
3. Cross-sections showing burial depths
4. Connection details

5. Relationship to other underground systems

6. Specifications:

7. Material requirements
8. Installation methods
9. Testing procedures

10. Acceptance criteria

11. Calculations:

12. Soil model development

13. Grid resistance
14. Touch and step voltage analysis

15. Conductor sizing

 16. Bill of Materials:

17. Conductors (type, size, length)

18. Ground rods (type, size, quantity)
19. Connectors and accessories
20. Surface materials if required

Conductor Sizing and Material Selection

Conductor Sizing Criteria

Grounding conductors must be sized to meet several criteria:

1. Thermal Capacity:
2. Must carry maximum fault current without exceeding temperature limits
3. Temperature rise depends on fault duration and conductor properties

4. IEEE 80 provides the following formula for minimum conductor size: A = I × √(t_c
× TCAP × 10⁻⁴) / (K_f × √(ρ_r × ln(K_o + T_m/T_a))) Where:

◦ A = conductor cross-sectional area in mm²

◦ I = fault current in kA
◦ t_c = fault duration in seconds
◦ TCAP = thermal capacity factor
◦ K_f = material constant
◦ ρ_r = resistivity of the conductor material
◦ K_o, T_m, T_a = material-specific constants

5. Mechanical Strength:

6. Must withstand installation stresses

7. Must resist corrosion over the system lifetime
8. Must withstand thermal expansion and contraction

9. Minimum sizes typically specified in standards:

◦ NEC: Minimum 6 AWG (13.3 mm²) for copper

◦ IEEE 80: Minimum 2/0 AWG (67.4 mm²) for copper in direct burial applications

10. Corrosion Allowance:

11. Additional cross-sectional area to account for corrosion

12. Typically 20-30% for bare copper in average soil conditions
13. Higher for aggressive soils or presence of stray currents
Material Selection

The choice of conductor material affects performance, longevity, and cost:

1. Copper:
2. Excellent conductivity (100% IACS)
3. Good corrosion resistance
4. Moderate mechanical strength
5. Relatively high cost

6. Standard material for most applications

7. Copper-Clad Steel:

8. Good conductivity (30-40% IACS)

9. Excellent mechanical strength
10. Good corrosion resistance
11. Lower cost than solid copper

12. Suitable for ground rods and high-strength applications

13. Aluminum:

14. Good conductivity (61% IACS)

15. Light weight
16. Poor corrosion resistance in soil
17. Not recommended for direct burial

18. Suitable for above-ground applications

19. Stainless Steel:

20. Moderate conductivity (3-15% IACS)

21. Excellent corrosion resistance
22. High mechanical strength
23. High cost

24. Suitable for highly corrosive environments

25. Galvanized Steel:

26. Moderate conductivity (12-15% IACS)

27. Good mechanical strength
28. Moderate corrosion resistance
29. Low cost
 30. Limited lifetime in corrosive soils

Material Compatibility

When different materials are used in a grounding system, galvanic compatibility must be
considered:

1. Galvanic Series:
2. Materials far apart in the galvanic series should not be directly connected

3. The less noble metal will corrode when in contact with a more noble metal in the
presence of an electrolyte

4. Compatible Combinations:

5. Copper with copper alloys

6. Copper-clad steel with copper
7. Stainless steel with copper (with caution)

8. Aluminum with aluminum alloys (above ground only)

9. Incompatible Combinations:

10. Copper with aluminum

11. Copper with galvanized steel

12. Aluminum with steel

13. Mitigation Measures:

14. Use bimetallic connectors

15. Apply protective coatings at junctions
16. Isolate dissimilar metals where possible

Conductor Configurations

Different conductor configurations are used for different applications:

1. Solid Conductors:
2. Simple installation
3. Good current-carrying capacity
4. Limited flexibility

5. Typically used for main grid conductors

6. Stranded Conductors:
 7. Greater flexibility
8. Easier to route around obstacles
9. More difficult to connect

10. Typically used for equipment grounding conductors

11. Flat Conductors (Strap or Tape):

12. Lower impedance at high frequencies

13. Larger surface area for better current distribution
14. More difficult to install
15. Used in specialized applications (e.g., telecommunications)

Grounding Grid Design

Basic Grid Configurations

Several basic grid configurations are commonly used:

1. Simple Grid:
2. Parallel conductors in two perpendicular directions
3. Forms a mesh pattern

4. Suitable for small to medium installations

5. Grid with Ground Rods:

6. Basic grid with vertical ground rods at intersections or perimeter

7. Reduces grid resistance

8. Provides better performance in multi-layer soils

9. Grid with Perimeter Enhancement:

10. Additional conductors around the perimeter

11. Closer spacing at the perimeter

12. Controls step voltages at the boundary

13. Grid with Internal Equipment Grounds:

14. Direct connections from equipment to the grid

15. Multiple connections for critical equipment
16. Ensures low impedance path for fault currents
Grid Layout Considerations

The layout of a grounding grid should consider:

1. Area Coverage:
2. Cover the entire area containing electrical equipment
3. Extend beyond fence or boundary where possible

4. Include future expansion areas

5. Conductor Spacing:

6. Typically 3-7 meters for substations

7. Closer spacing in high-traffic areas

8. Closer spacing where higher fault currents are expected

9. Depth of Burial:

10. Typically 0.5-1.0 meters

11. Below frost line in cold climates

12. Deep enough to avoid damage from surface activities

13. Relationship to Structures:

14. Coordinate with foundation design

15. Utilize concrete-encased electrodes where available
16. Maintain clearance from other underground utilities

Ground Rod Placement

Ground rods enhance grid performance and should be placed strategically:

1. At Grid Corners:
2. Controls corner potentials

3. Reduces grid resistance

4. Along Perimeter:

5. At regular intervals (typically 10-20 meters)

6. Controls perimeter potentials

7. At Major Equipment Locations:

 8. Transformers
9. Switchgear

10. Lightning arresters

11. In Areas of High Soil Resistivity:

12. Penetrate to lower resistivity layers

13. Reduce overall grid resistance

Special Design Considerations

Special considerations may be required for certain situations:

1. High-Resistivity Soil:
2. Use deeper ground rods
3. Consider soil treatment
4. Use counterpoise conductors

5. Increase grid density

6. Limited Space:

7. Use deep-driven rods

8. Consider chemical electrodes
9. Use concrete-encased electrodes

10. Implement surface potential control measures

11. Rocky Terrain:

12. Use horizontal conductors in trenches

13. Use shallow grids with surface mats
14. Consider drilling for rod installation

15. Use structural foundations as electrodes

16. Areas with Seasonal Variations:

17. Design for worst-case conditions

18. Increase safety margins
19. Consider deep electrodes below frost line
20. Implement moisture retention techniques
Surface Potential Control

In areas where touch and step voltages may exceed safe limits:

1. Surface Layer Materials:

2. High-resistivity crushed rock (typically 3000-5000 ohm-meters)
3. Minimum thickness of 0.1-0.15 meters

4. Extends 1 meter beyond the grid perimeter

5. Equipotential Mats:

6. Mesh conductors at operating positions

7. Connected to the main grid

8. Creates an equipotential zone for the operator

9. Gradient Control Wires:

10. Buried conductors parallel to the fence or boundary

11. Reduces step potentials at the perimeter

12. Typically 2-3 conductors at increasing distances

13. Insulating Barriers:

14. Physical barriers to prevent contact with grounded structures

15. Insulating platforms at operating positions
16. Warning signs and restricted access

Connection Methods and Installation

Connection Types

Several methods are used to connect grounding conductors:

1. Exothermic Welding:
2. Creates a molecular bond between conductors
3. Excellent electrical conductivity
4. High mechanical strength
5. Excellent corrosion resistance
6. Permanent connection

7. Requires special equipment and training

 8. Compression Connectors:

9. Mechanical pressure creates the connection

10. Good electrical conductivity
11. Good mechanical strength
12. Requires proper tools for installation
13. Available in various configurations

14. Suitable for most applications

15. Bolted Connections:

16. Uses bolts to create pressure between conductors

17. Moderate electrical conductivity
18. Moderate mechanical strength
19. Requires regular maintenance
20. Susceptible to loosening over time

21. Suitable for above-ground connections

22. Brazing and Silver Soldering:

23. Creates a metallurgical bond

24. Good electrical conductivity
25. Moderate mechanical strength
26. Requires heat and skill to install
27. Not recommended for direct burial

Installation Procedures

Proper installation is critical for system performance:

1. Conductor Installation:
2. Excavate trenches to specified depth
3. Lay conductors with sufficient slack
4. Avoid sharp bends (minimum bend radius 8 times conductor diameter)
5. Backfill with native soil or special backfill

6. Compact soil to prevent settlement

7. Ground Rod Installation:

8. Drive rods vertically to specified depth

9. Use driving caps to prevent damage
10. For deep installations, use sectional rods
 11. In rocky soil, consider pre-drilling

12. Ensure rod top is accessible for testing

13. Connection Installation:

14. Clean conductor surfaces thoroughly

15. Follow manufacturer's instructions for connectors
16. For exothermic welds, ensure proper mold selection and preparation
17. For compression connectors, use the correct die and tool

18. For bolted connections, apply anti-oxidant compound

19. Equipment Grounding:

20. Connect equipment to the grid at multiple points where possible

21. Use shortest practical route
22. Avoid sharp bends
23. Protect conductors from physical damage
24. Label connections for future identification

Corrosion Protection

Measures to protect against corrosion include:

1. Material Selection:
2. Use corrosion-resistant materials
3. Consider local soil conditions

4. Avoid dissimilar metal contacts

5. Protective Coatings:

6. Apply protective compounds at connections

7. Use factory-applied jackets for conductors in aggressive soils

8. Seal connections against moisture ingress

9. Cathodic Protection:

10. Sacrificial anodes for critical installations

11. Impressed current systems for large installations

12. Regular monitoring and maintenance

13. Soil Treatment:

 14. Backfill with low-resistivity material
15. Use bentonite or other conductive clays
16. Apply chemical treatments to reduce corrosion potential

Documentation During Installation

Maintain comprehensive documentation during installation:

1. As-Built Drawings:
2. Record actual locations of all conductors and electrodes
3. Note any deviations from design

4. Include GPS coordinates for future reference

5. Photographic Records:

6. Photograph all connections before burial

7. Document installation methods

8. Record site conditions

9. Test Results:

10. Initial resistance measurements

11. Continuity tests

12. Soil resistivity verification

13. Material Certificates:

14. Conductor specifications

15. Connector specifications
16. Test certificates for critical components

Testing and Verification

Initial Testing

After installation, comprehensive testing should be performed:

1. Earth Resistance Testing:

2. Fall-of-potential method for complete grid
3. Clamp-on testing for individual electrodes
4. Compare with design calculations
 5. Document results for future reference

6. Continuity Testing:

7. Verify all connections are intact

8. Measure resistance between points

9. Ensure low-resistance paths to all equipment

10. Soil Resistivity Verification:

11. Confirm soil conditions match design assumptions

12. Adjust design if significant differences are found

13. Touch and Step Voltage Testing:

14. For critical installations

15. Requires specialized equipment
16. Inject current and measure resulting potentials
17. Compare with calculated values

Fall-of-Potential Method

The fall-of-potential method is the standard for measuring grid resistance:

1. Equipment Required:
2. Earth resistance tester
3. Current and potential probes

4. Connecting cables

5. Procedure:

6. Disconnect the grid from external connections if possible

7. Place current probe at a distance of at least 5 times the maximum grid dimension
8. Place potential probe at multiple positions between the grid and current probe
9. Measure resistance at each position
10. Plot resistance vs. distance curve

11. Determine the plateau value as the grid resistance

12. Interpretation:

13. Ideal curve shows a plateau at 61.8% of the distance to the current probe
14. Deviations indicate interference or measurement errors
 15. Multiple measurements in different directions may be necessary

Clamp-On Testing

For individual electrodes or in systems where disconnection is not possible:

1. Equipment Required:

2. Clamp-on earth resistance tester

3. Procedure:

4. Clamp the tester around the electrode or conductor

5. Ensure no parallel paths exist
6. Read the resistance value directly

7. Take multiple measurements for verification

8. Limitations:

9. Cannot measure the resistance of the entire grid

10. Requires a complete loop path
11. May be affected by parallel paths

High-Current Testing

For critical installations, high-current testing may be performed:

1. Equipment Required:
2. High-current source
3. Current measurement equipment
4. Voltage measurement equipment

5. Safety equipment

6. Procedure:

7. Inject a known current into the grounding system

8. Measure voltage gradients at various locations
9. Calculate touch and step voltages

10. Compare with allowable limits

11. Safety Considerations:

12. Requires careful planning and execution

 13. Potential for dangerous voltages
14. May require temporary shutdown of equipment
15. Should be performed by specialists

Acceptance Criteria

The completed grounding system should meet the following criteria:

1. Resistance to Earth:
2. Substations: Typically <1 ohm
3. Industrial facilities: Typically <5 ohms
4. Commercial buildings: Typically <5-10 ohms
5. Residential: Typically <25 ohms

6. Or as specified by applicable standards and design requirements

7. Continuity:

8. Low resistance between all connected points

9. No open circuits or high-resistance connections

10. Touch and Step Voltages:

11. Below calculated safe limits

12. Verified by measurement in critical areas

13. Physical Inspection:

14. All connections properly made

15. No visible damage to conductors or connectors
16. Proper burial depth maintained
17. Surface materials properly installed

Maintenance Requirements

Inspection Schedule

Regular inspections are essential for maintaining system performance:

1. Visual Inspections:
2. Annual for above-ground components
3. After significant site modifications
4. Following lightning strikes or major faults
 5. After severe weather events

6. Resistance Measurements:

7. Every 2-5 years for critical installations

8. When system modifications are made
9. When soil conditions change significantly

10. When equipment is added or removed

11. Comprehensive Testing:

12. Every 5-10 years for most installations

13. More frequently for critical systems
14. When significant changes occur in the electrical system
15. When anomalies are detected in routine tests

Inspection Procedures

Inspections should follow a systematic approach:

1. Visual Inspection:
2. Check for corrosion at accessible connections
3. Verify mechanical integrity of connections
4. Inspect for physical damage to conductors
5. Check for unauthorized modifications

6. Verify presence of required warning signs

7. Resistance Testing:

8. Measure grid resistance using fall-of-potential method

9. Compare with previous measurements
10. Investigate significant changes (>20%)

11. Measure resistance of individual electrodes where possible

12. Continuity Testing:

13. Verify continuity between major equipment and grid

14. Check bonding connections

15. Measure resistance of critical connections

16. Documentation Review:

 17. Update as-built drawings if changes are found
18. Record all test results
19. Compare with previous records
20. Identify trends that may indicate degradation

Common Problems and Solutions

Several issues may develop over time:

1. Increasing Resistance:
2. Cause: Corrosion, broken connections, or changing soil conditions

3. Solution: Locate and repair damaged components, add electrodes, or treat soil

4. Corrosion:

5. Cause: Galvanic action, aggressive soil, or stray currents

6. Solution: Replace damaged components, add cathodic protection, or improve

drainage

7. Mechanical Damage:

8. Cause: Construction activities, settlement, or frost heave

9. Solution: Repair or replace damaged components, improve protection, or relocate

vulnerable sections

10. Loose Connections:

11. Cause: Thermal cycling, vibration, or improper installation

12. Solution: Retighten or remake connections, use more suitable connection methods

Documentation and Records

Maintain comprehensive records of the grounding system:

1. As-Built Drawings:
2. Update when changes are made
3. Include GPS coordinates for buried components

4. Note depths and routing of conductors

5. Test Results:

6. Record all measurements with dates

 7. Note test conditions (weather, soil moisture)
8. Track changes over time

9. Identify trends that may indicate problems

10. Maintenance History:

11. Document all repairs and modifications

12. Record component replacements

13. Note any anomalies found during inspections

14. Soil Conditions:

15. Monitor changes in soil resistivity

16. Record seasonal variations
17. Note changes in groundwater level
18. Document any soil treatments applied

Special Applications

Lightning Protection Systems

Lightning protection systems require special grounding considerations:

1. Integration with Power System Grounding:

2. Common earth termination system recommended
3. Maintain separation from sensitive electronic equipment grounds

4. Provide low-impedance path to earth

5. Down Conductor Design:

6. Multiple paths to ground

7. Avoid sharp bends
8. Maintain minimum cross-sectional area

9. Use dedicated electrodes at the base of each down conductor

10. Earth Electrode System:

11. Type B ring electrode around the structure

12. Additional vertical electrodes at down conductors
13. Low-impedance connection to main grounding system
 14. Consider soil ionization under high-current conditions

15. Transient Protection:

16. Surge protective devices at service entrance

17. Coordinated protection at distribution panels
18. Local protection at sensitive equipment
19. Bonding of all metallic services entering the building

Telecommunications and Data Centers

Telecommunications facilities and data centers have unique requirements:

1. Signal Reference Grid:

2. Mesh of conductors below raised floor
3. Typically 2-3 meter spacing
4. Connected to building ground at multiple points

5. Provides low-impedance path for high-frequency currents

6. Isolated Ground Systems:

7. Separate ground path for sensitive equipment

8. Minimizes noise from other equipment
9. Still connected to main grounding system at service entrance

10. Requires careful design to avoid safety issues

11. Computer Room Grounding:

12. Equipotential plane under raised floor

13. Bonding of all metallic structures
14. Low-impedance connections to equipment

15. Regular testing and maintenance

16. Tower Grounding:

17. Ring electrode around tower base

18. Multiple radial electrodes
19. Low-impedance connection to equipment building
20. Protection against lightning strikes
Renewable Energy Systems

Grounding for renewable energy systems presents unique challenges:

1. Solar PV Systems:
2. Equipment grounding for all exposed metal parts
3. System grounding based on inverter type
4. Lightning protection for large arrays

5. Consideration of galvanic compatibility with mounting structures

6. Wind Turbines:

7. Tower grounding with multiple electrodes

8. Lightning protection system integration
9. Equipotential bonding of all components

10. Regular testing due to high exposure

11. Energy Storage Systems:

12. Separate grounding for DC and AC systems

13. Consideration of fault current paths
14. Protection against thermal runaway

15. Integration with facility grounding system

16. Microgrids:

17. Coordination of multiple sources

18. Consideration of islanded operation
19. Ground fault detection and protection
20. Integration with utility grounding

Hazardous Locations

Grounding in hazardous locations requires special attention:

1. Explosion-Proof Installations:
2. Bonding of all metal parts
3. Low-resistance connections
4. Regular testing and maintenance

5. Compliance with specific industry standards

6. Static Electricity Control:

 7. Bonding of all conductive components
8. Static dissipative flooring
9. Humidity control where applicable

10. Personnel grounding procedures

11. Intrinsically Safe Systems:

12. Isolation from other ground systems where required

13. Barriers and isolators for signal lines
14. Regular verification of isolation integrity

15. Documentation of all grounding connections

16. Cathodic Protection Interaction:

17. Coordination with pipeline protection systems

18. Isolation where necessary
19. Testing for stray currents
20. Monitoring for corrosion at crossing points

Calculations and Formulas

Grid Resistance Calculations

Several formulas are available for calculating grid resistance:

1. Schwarz's Formula for Uniform Soil: R = (ρ/π) × [1/L₁ + 1/L₂ - 1/√(A)] Where:
2. R = grid resistance in ohms
3. ρ = soil resistivity in ohm-meters
4. L₁ = total length of horizontal conductors in meters
5. L₂ = total length of vertical electrodes in meters

6. A = area covered by the grid in square meters

7. IEEE 80 Simplified Formula: R = ρ × [1/L + 1/(√(20A))] × (1 + 1/(1 + h × √(20/A)))

Where:

8. R = grid resistance in ohms

9. ρ = soil resistivity in ohm-meters
10. L = total length of buried conductors in meters
11. A = area covered by the grid in square meters

12. h = depth of burial in meters

 13. For Two-Layer Soil: More complex formulas or computer modeling required

Touch and Step Voltage Calculations

IEEE 80 provides formulas for calculating touch and step voltages:

1. Mesh Voltage (Touch Voltage): E_mesh = (ρ × K_m × K_i × I_g) / L_M Where:
2. E_mesh = mesh voltage in volts
3. ρ = soil resistivity in ohm-meters
4. K_m = mesh coefficient
5. K_i = irregularity factor
6. I_g = maximum grid current in amperes

7. L_M = effective buried length of conductors in meters

8. Step Voltage: E_step = (ρ × K_s × K_i × I_g) / L_s Where:

9. E_step = step voltage in volts

10. ρ = soil resistivity in ohm-meters
11. K_s = step coefficient
12. K_i = irregularity factor
13. I_g = maximum grid current in amperes

14. L_s = effective buried length for step voltage in meters

15. Allowable Touch Voltage: E_touch = (1000 + 1.5 × C_s × ρ_s) × 0.116/√t_s
Where:

16. E_touch = allowable touch voltage in volts

17. C_s = surface layer derating factor
18. ρ_s = surface layer resistivity in ohm-meters

19. t_s = shock duration in seconds

20. Allowable Step Voltage: E_step = (1000 + 6 × C_s × ρ_s) × 0.116/√t_s Where:

21. E_step = allowable step voltage in volts

22. C_s = surface layer derating factor
23. ρ_s = surface layer resistivity in ohm-meters
24. t_s = shock duration in seconds
Conductor Sizing Calculations

Conductor sizing must consider thermal capacity:

1. IEEE 80 Formula: A = I × √(t_c × TCAP × 10⁻⁴) / (K_f × √(ρ_r × ln(K_o + T_m/

T_a))) Where:
2. A = conductor cross-sectional area in mm²
3. I = fault current in kA
4. t_c = fault duration in seconds
5. TCAP = thermal capacity factor
6. K_f = material constant
7. ρ_r = resistivity of the conductor material

8. K_o, T_m, T_a = material-specific constants

9. Simplified Formula for Copper Conductors: A = I × √t / 7.06 Where:

10. A = conductor cross-sectional area in mm²

11. I = fault current in kA

12. t = fault duration in seconds

13. NEC Table 250.122: Provides minimum equipment grounding conductor sizes
based on overcurrent device rating

Ground Rod Resistance Calculations

For individual ground rods:

1. Single Rod in Uniform Soil: R = (ρ/(2πL)) × [ln(4L/d) - 1] Where:

2. R = resistance in ohms
3. ρ = soil resistivity in ohm-meters
4. L = rod length in meters

5. d = rod diameter in meters

6. Multiple Rods in Uniform Soil: R = R₁/n × η Where:

7. R = combined resistance in ohms

8. R₁ = resistance of a single rod in ohms
9. n = number of rods

10. η = efficiency factor (typically 0.7-0.9 depending on spacing)

 11. Single Rod in Two-Layer Soil: Requires specialized calculations or computer
modeling

Case Studies

Case Study 1: Substation Grounding System

Project Description

• 138/13.8 kV distribution substation

• Area: 50 m × 60 m
• Maximum fault current: 10 kA
• Fault clearing time: 0.5 seconds
• Soil resistivity: 100 ohm-meters (uniform)

Design Approach

1. Grid Configuration:
2. 5 m × 5 m mesh grid
3. 4/0 AWG copper conductors
4. 3/4" × 10' copper-clad ground rods at corners and equipment locations

5. Burial depth: 0.5 m

6. Calculations:

7. Grid resistance: 0.87 ohms

8. Maximum touch voltage: 720 V
9. Maximum step voltage: 420 V
10. Allowable touch voltage: 824 V

11. Allowable step voltage: 2,720 V

12. Special Considerations:

13. 4" layer of crushed rock (ρ = 3,000 ohm-m) for surface potential control
14. Gradient control wires around perimeter
15. Connections to fence at regular intervals

Results

• All safety criteria met

• System performed as designed during subsequent fault events
• Annual testing confirmed stable resistance values
Case Study 2: Industrial Facility Grounding

Project Description

• Chemical processing plant

• Area: 200 m × 150 m
• Multiple buildings and process areas
• Maximum fault current: 15 kA
• Fault clearing time: 0.3 seconds
• Soil resistivity: 200 ohm-meters (top layer), 50 ohm-meters (bottom layer)

Design Approach

1. System Configuration:
2. Ground ring around each building
3. Interconnected building grounds
4. Equipment grounding system within buildings

5. Connection to process piping and structural steel

6. Special Challenges:

7. Corrosive environment
8. Hazardous areas requiring intrinsically safe systems
9. Sensitive electronic control systems

10. Lightning protection requirements

11. Solutions Implemented:

12. Stainless steel conductors in corrosive areas

13. Isolated ground systems for sensitive electronics
14. Integrated lightning protection system
15. Regular testing and maintenance program

Results

• System resistance: 1.2 ohms

• No equipment failures due to grounding issues
• Successful operation during lightning events
• Minimal electromagnetic interference
Case Study 3: Telecommunications Facility

Project Description

• Cellular base station with 60 m tower

• Equipment building: 10 m × 15 m
• Maximum fault current: 5 kA
• Soil resistivity: 500 ohm-meters (rocky terrain)

Design Approach

1. Tower Grounding:
2. Ring electrode around tower base
3. Radial electrodes extending outward
4. Down conductors from top of tower

5. Exothermic welded connections

6. Equipment Building:

7. Perimeter ground ring

8. Signal reference grid under equipment
9. Surge protection at all entrances

10. Isolated ground for sensitive equipment

11. Challenges and Solutions:

12. Rocky terrain: used horizontal electrodes and soil treatment

13. High lightning exposure: enhanced air terminals and down conductors
14. Limited space: used deep-driven rods and enhanced soil treatment

Results

• System resistance: 4.8 ohms

• Successful operation during multiple lightning seasons
• No equipment damage from electrical events
• Minimal service interruptions
References
This manual incorporates requirements and recommendations from the following
standards:

1. BS 7430:2011+A1:2015: Code of practice for protective earthing of electrical

installations (UK)
2. IEEE 80-2013: IEEE Guide for Safety in AC Substation Grounding (US)
3. IEEE 142-2007: IEEE Recommended Practice for Grounding of Industrial and
Commercial Power Systems (US)
4. NFPA 70 (NEC): National Electrical Code, Article 250: Grounding and Bonding (US)
5. IEC 60364-5-54:2011+AMD1:2021: Low-voltage electrical installations - Earthing
arrangements and protective conductors (EU)

Additional references:

1. IEEE 81-2012: IEEE Guide for Measuring Earth Resistivity, Ground Impedance, and
Earth Surface Potentials of a Grounding System
2. IEEE 837-2014: IEEE Standard for Qualifying Permanent Connections Used in
Substation Grounding
3. IEC 62305: Protection against lightning
4. NFPA 780: Standard for the Installation of Lightning Protection Systems
5. IEEE 1100: IEEE Recommended Practice for Powering and Grounding Electronic
Equipment