POR Unit 4

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The article "Religious Experience in Hindu Tradition" by June McDaniel challenges the common
idea that religious experience is a modern scholarly invention. It aims to explore the
understanding of religious experience within various Hindu traditions, spanning from the ancient
Vedas to contemporary practices. The introduction sets the stage by acknowledging the long-
standing and complex debate surrounding religious experience, particularly concerning its
legitimacy and interpretation.

McDaniel highlights the difficulty in defining the term "religious experience," drawing on the
work of Timothy Fitzgerald (2000), who notes its diverse meanings. These meanings range from
personal encounters with a divine being to the interpretation of everyday life through a religious
lens, and even to non-theistic experiences of "sacredness" or "ultimacy." The discourse also
encompasses the duality in understanding religious experience as either separate from daily life
(transcendent) or as an integral part of it, where its significance is derived from social and
institutional interpretation.

The author references Robert Sharf's (1998) perspective, who emphasizes the challenges of
analyzing subjective mental events and describes religious experiences as a spectrum of
"feelings, moods, perceptions, dispositions, and states of consciousness," including "pre-
reflective experience." Sharf expresses skepticism about the term "religious experience,"
considering it too "vague and unreliable" to be of much value.

A central theme in the discussion is the contrast between constructivists and perennialists in the
West. Constructivists argue that religious symbols and goals are social constructs, and religious
experience is a cultural projection, often used to legitimize authority. They deny the existence of
a universal religious aim. In contrast, perennialists believe in a god or ultimate reality that
transcends cultural and symbolic differences, viewing religious experience as a genuine and
essential means to access truths beyond ordinary comprehension. This debate, which has its roots
in the European Enlightenment, provides a crucial backdrop for examining the role of religious
experience in Hinduism. The author states, “This debate has been ongoing since the time of the
European Enlightenment (though its roots are much earlier) and it is a useful background for the
discussions of the role of religious experience in Hinduism.”

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McDaniel broadens the discussion to include Asian religions, acknowledging critiques that
question the authenticity and significance of religious experience in Asian contexts. These
critiques often suggest that the concept of religious experience in Asia is a Western imposition,
that pre-colonial Asian traditions did not emphasize the importance of experience, and that
religious authority in Asia is rarely based on spiritual states.

The author also addresses the challenge to the validity of religious experience by pointing to
false or inconsistent claims, using the example of alien abduction to discredit all subjective
religious experiences. In response, the article aims to investigate the terminology and specific
concepts of religious experience within major forms of Hinduism, including the exploration of
supernormal perception and spiritual discernment in Hindu philosophy. The author states, “In
order to address these arguments in the context of Hinduism, I shall look at terminology and
specific ideas of religious experience in the major forms of Hinduism, and discuss concepts of
supernormal perception and spiritual discernment in Hindu philosophy.” This approach seeks to
provide specific counter-examples to challenge the generalizations made in the critiques.

The analysis of the "Language of Religious Experience" reveals the complexity in defining the
term "religious experience" in English, due to its multiple referents and the absence of a singular
meaning. Specifically, concerning experiences involving the supernatural, definitions typically
include the perception of God or the divine and states of love, knowledge, and union associated
with this perception.

Similarly, in Hindu tradition, religious experience has a multifaceted definition, with several
ancient terms, predating colonialism and Western influence, used to describe its various aspects.
Beyond terms like jnana and abhijnata, which relate to experience, knowledge, and wisdom,
darsana and bhava are two terms that closely align with the English understanding of
"experience." Darsana specifically denotes experience linked to seeing or observing, particularly
the perception of a deity, and is primarily used to signify religious vision, although it can also
refer to philosophy and science, encompassing philosophical schools and "seeing" from a
specific viewpoint.

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Darsana can occur spontaneously, such as when a statue of a god or goddess is suddenly
perceived as living (and the observer is said to have darsana of the deity). Or, it can result from
repeated direct perceptions (bhuyodarsana), which leads to spiritual knowledge highly valued in
various Hindu traditions, especially bhakti. As Eck notes, the central act of Hindu worship
involves standing in the presence of the deity to see and be seen, highlighting the significance of
darsana.

The term bhava is more commonly used to denote experience in popular religion, contrasting
with darsana's use in traditional philosophy. Dictionaries define bhava variously, including
existence, condition, mental state, emotion, mood, and ecstasy, as well as essence, imagination,
divinity, yogic powers, rapture, and possession trance. However, local Hindu informants
distinguish between secular (laukika) and religious or supernatural (alaukika or adhyatmika)
definitions of bhava. Secular definitions include responses to art and beauty, emotion, passion,
feelings, and ideas, while religious definitions include experiences of holy individuals, the
relationship between the soul (jivatman) and the god, surrender to the goddess, intuitive thought,
detachment from the material world, and absorption in the deity.

Bhavas can be experienced inwardly or expressed outwardly when a person is described as

bhavavesa, or overcome by bhava. The term anubhava refers to ecstatic emotional states
manifested through the body. These terms represent valued states in Hinduism, spanning from
the pan-Indian Sanskrit tradition to regional traditions like that of West Bengal. To
comprehensively understand the concept of experience, it is necessary to examine terms within
major types of Hinduism.

The Rig Veda, a pre-colonial text, contains numerous descriptions of religious experience.
Dating estimates for the Rig Veda vary widely, from 2000 BCE to 600 BCE. Religious
experiences in the Rig Veda are attributed to rishis or seers who had visions of gods and other
worlds, priests who consumed the drug soma, and long-haired ascetics or kesins who were
believed to "ride the winds." The Vedic seers' experiences, often described as mystical and
"supranatural," involved visionary "beholding" that enabled them to compose hymns in which
gods spoke in the first person and the realms of the gods (devas) were depicted.

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Many hymns in the Rig Veda reference the divine light seen by the rishis and quote the words of
the gods they heard. These hymns are considered sruti (revelatory) in most forms of Hinduism
and are highly revered. Religious experience in the Vedic tradition includes visions of the
"shining ones," the heaven of endless light (svarga), and brahman, the source of the gods'
greatness.

The most famous account of ecstatic religious experiences in the Rig Veda is that of the soma
drinkers, whose insights were valued by the community. Rig Veda VIII.48.3 features a seer
describing his experiences of drinking soma, achieving immortality, reaching the light, and
finding the gods, expressing a sense of invincibility. The author quotes:

“We have drunk the soma

We have become immortal

We have gone to the light

We have found the devas

What can hostility now do to us

And what the malice of mortal men, O immortal one!”

Another example from the Vedic period is the Kesin hymn of Rig Veda X.136, which narrates
the flight of the long-haired ascetics believed to visit other worlds and become possessed by
gods. The hymn transitions from third person to first person, with the ascetics describing their
wind-swathed state and the limited perception of their bodies by mortals. The author quotes:

“These ascetics, swathed in wind, put dirty red rags on. When gods enter them, they ride with the
rush of the wind. ‘Crazy with asceticism, we have mounted the wind. Our bodies are all you
mere mortals can see.”
The hymn transitions from third person to first person, with the ascetics describing their wind-
swathed state and the limited perception of their bodies by mortals. Although hymns are
typically written in the third person, many accounts directly convey personal experience, with
seers directly speaking the words of the gods. The Vedic seers describe the light of lights as
sweet as honey, with its abundant sweetness leading humans to immortality. They journey to the
gods, ascend into the light, and undergo transformation. Religious experience is crucial in Vedic
tradition as it bestows supernatural vision and immortality upon the seer.

The Upanishads, commentaries on the Vedic texts, provide numerous stories and metaphors
depicting the practice and aims of contemplation. The dating of the Upanishads is widely
debated, with estimates ranging from 1500 BCE to 500 BCE. These texts include first-person
accounts of contemplative states characterized by blissful joy, union with ultimate awareness or
brahman, and the dissolution of the individual ego.

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The article then transitions to discussing the Yoga Tradition, highlighting that according to the
Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, liberation is achieved through asceticism and contemplation. A central
experience in meditation is citta-vritti-nirodha, the stilling of the fluctuations of consciousness.
This practice leads to the state of perfect contemplation or samadhi, which in turn culminates in
the ultimate state of liberation or kaivalya. During meditation, consciousness is likened to a
transparent crystal, with the potential for the individual to become the object of concentration
itself, “shining with the light of the object alone.”

While liberation is the ultimate goal, the Yoga Sutras also detail various supernatural experiences
or siddhis that may arise during specific types of meditation. These perfections or attainments
can occur through birth (and the karma from past lives), drugs, mantras, tapas (asceticism and
purification), and states of samadhi. They enable the individual to develop discrimination and
differentiate between pure spirit (purusa) and the gunas, the qualities of life and thought that
belong to matter, and they aid in the development of concentration. However, these siddhis are
considered less valuable than the higher forms of experience described in the Yoga Sutra I, 18-
19, which involve two forms of samadhi: samprajnata (achieved through yogic effort and having
four sub-stages) and asamprajnata (which occurs spontaneously, to both humans and
supernatural beings).

Other yoga texts emphasize the dissolution of the intellectually constructed world of concepts
and the revelation of the inner world of the spirit. Sense perception is suspended, and the
individual experiences the bliss of dissolution in the practice of laya yoga. The Hatha Yoga
Pradipika describes the yogi as “empty within and without like an empty pot in space, and also
filled within and without like a pot in the ocean.” In the ultimate state, the yogi experiences the
union of jivatman (the individual soul) and paramatman (the absolute or highest Self), a state of
being both empty and full. All these experiences are recognized as important developmental
stages, with the highest stages being the most valued religious experiences.
While most yogic texts are structured as handbooks and manuals, there are also personal
accounts from yogis and yoginis. For example, the Kashmiri yogini Lalla Devi describes her
meditation in poem 31:

“I pulled the reins of the steed of the mind I compressed the life force circulating through the ten
channels Concentrating on the om-sound I made my body like blazing coal. Leaving behind the
six crossroads I traveled the path of Truth. And then I Lalla, reached the Abode of Light.”

The primary value of yogic experiences during meditation is to facilitate the ultimate experience
of reaching the abode of infinite light, the experience of perfect liberation (jivanmukti) in this
lifetime.

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The article proceeds to discuss the Tantric Tradition, noting the close relationship between
yogic and tantric traditions. The origins of tantra are generally dated around 500 CE, although
some scholars suggest earlier precursors. Over the subsequent millennium, tantra developed
theories and practices that significantly influenced both philosophical and devotional traditions
within Hinduism. Tantric texts typically emphasize deities such as Shiva (particularly in the
Kashmiri Kaula tradition), Krishna (in the Vaishnava Sahajiya tradition), or the goddess Shakti
(in the South Indian Shri Vidya and Bengali Shakta tantric traditions). Tantric ideas and rituals
have also exerted influence on Buddhism, especially in Tibetan Vajrayana.

While Hindu devotionalism often describes the highest religious experience as intense love for a
deity, tantra posits that the highest state is union with a deity. This union is not only considered
possible but also the ultimate goal of human existence. Tantra stresses the unity of opposites:
spirit and matter, brahman and the physical world (jagat), and god and humanity. Despite
modern sensationalism that emphasizes sexual union, this is just one form of union among many
others that are more central to the tradition.

In Kaula philosophy, the highest aspiration is the “vision of the truth of the kula” (kula-tattva-
artha-darsana), which is the direct intuition of ultimate reality. This leads to gaining Shiva's
perception, in which all things, divine and otherwise, appear the same (sama-darsana). Within
the Shri Vidya tradition, earlier religious experiences, such as momentary ecstasies or states of
kshana samadhi, are seen as temporary manifestations of the highest state of sahaja samadhi, a
spontaneous state in which one can clearly perceive any world, whether divine or human.

Many tantric texts explore the significance of religious experience. In some texts, ecstatic states
serve to validate religious claims, while in others, these states are the very objective of the
practice. The medieval Kularnava Tantra, an important text for both Kashmiri and Bengali
tantric traditions, describes the state and value of absorption in the god Shiva, known as
samadhi:

“9.14 He [the yogi] does not hear, or smell, or touch, or see; he does not know pleasure and pain,
he does not analyze. Like a log, he does not think, he is not aware of anything [material]. One
who is thus absorbed only in Shiva is said to be in samadhi.
9.15 Just as no differences exist when water is poured into water, and milk into milk, ghee into
ghee, so there exists no difference between the individual self (jivatman) and the highest self
(paramatman).

9.25 In comparison to the pure and supreme state of consciousness attained by the great yogi,
even the states of gods and other divine beings have no value.

9.26 For one who has seen (darsana) the all-pervading, peaceful, blissful and imperishable,
nothing remains to be attained or known.”

The Kularnava Tantra unequivocally emphasizes the importance of experience, particularly

union with Shiva (sivatva):

“8.85 He gazes outward but looks inward, and his eyes are unblinking. This is the sambhavi
mudra.

8.86 This is the greatest of mudras, the true form of the bliss of union (samarasa), expressing the
nature of the self. By means of this, the devotee truly becomes Shiva. There is no doubt about
this.

8.87 Persons engaged in study of the self can know some of this bliss. But this state is beyond
description and must be experienced, as the pleasure of drinking sugared milk must be
experienced.”

The tantric tradition involves intricate ritual actions (sadhana) that generate a wide array of
religious experiences, extensively documented in tantric texts like the Kularnava Tantra.

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This page delves into the Tantric Tradition, highlighting its close relationship with yogic
practices and its significant influence on both philosophical and devotional aspects of Hinduism.
The origins of Tantra are generally traced back to around 500 CE, although some scholars
suggest even earlier precursors. Over the subsequent millennium, Tantra developed intricate
theories and practices that have left a lasting impact on Hindu traditions, spanning philosophical
frameworks and devotional expressions.

Tantric traditions predominantly center on several major deities, including Shiva, particularly
within the Kashmiri Kaula tradition; Krishna, notably in the Vaishnava Sahajiya tradition; and
the goddess Shakti, who is venerated in the South Indian Shri Vidya and Bengali Shakta Tantric
traditions. Furthermore, Tantric ideas and rituals have extended their influence beyond
Hinduism, playing a crucial role in Buddhism, especially in the Tibetan Vajrayana tradition.

While Hindu devotionalism typically characterizes the highest religious experience as an intense
love for the deity, Tantra distinguishes itself by defining the highest state as union with the deity.
This union is not merely considered a possibility but is regarded as the ultimate goal of human
existence. A core tenet of Tantra is the emphasis on the union of opposites, encompassing spirit
and matter, brahman and the physical world (jagat), and god and humanity.

Despite modern sensationalism often focusing on sexual union, it is important to recognize that
this is just one aspect of union within Tantra, and the tradition encompasses many other forms of
union that are considered more significant. In Kaula thought, the ultimate objective is the “vision
of the truth of the kula” (kula-tattva-artha-darsana), which refers to the direct intuition of
ultimate reality. This intuition enables one to gain the perception of the god Shiva, wherein all
things, whether divine or mundane, appear as one and the same (sama-darsana).

Within the Shri Vidya tradition, earlier religious experiences, such as momentary ecstasies or
states of kshana samadhi, are viewed as temporary manifestations of the highest state, known as
sahaja samadhi. Sahaja samadhi is a spontaneous state in which individuals can perceive any
world, whether divine or human, with clarity.

Tantric texts frequently emphasize the significance of religious experience. In some texts,
ecstatic states serve to validate religious claims, while in others, these states are considered the
ultimate goal of practice.

The medieval Kularnava Tantra, a crucial text for both Kashmiri and Bengali Tantric traditions,
elucidates the state and value of absorption in the god Shiva, referred to as samadhi. The text
describes this state as one where the yogi transcends sensory perceptions and mental processes,
akin to a log, devoid of thought and awareness of the material world. In this state of samadhi, the
individual self (jivatman) merges with the highest self (paramatman), much like water poured
into water, milk into milk, or ghee into ghee, becoming indistinguishable. The Kularnava Tantra
emphasizes that the pure and supreme state of consciousness attained by the great yogi surpasses
even the states of gods and other divine beings. For one who has experienced (darsana) the all-
pervading, peaceful, blissful, and imperishable, there remains nothing further to be attained or
known.

The Kularnava Tantra unequivocally affirms the significance of experience, particularly the
union with Shiva (sivatva), describing it as a state where one gazes outward but looks inward,
with unblinking eyes, embodying the sambhavi mudra. This mudra is revered as the greatest,
representing the true form of the bliss of union (samarasa) and expressing the nature of the self,
through which the devotee genuinely becomes Shiva. While individuals engaged in the study of
the self may gain some understanding of this bliss, the text emphasizes that this state transcends
description and must be directly experienced, akin to the ineffable pleasure of tasting sugared
milk. The Tantric tradition involves intricate ritual actions (sadhana) that give rise to a wide
array of religious experiences, which are extensively detailed in the texts, with the Kularnava
Tantra providing numerous examples.

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This page discusses the Dharma Tradition, highlighting that, of all the Hindu traditions, it places
the least emphasis on religious experience. In this tradition, the primary focus is on leading a
dharmic life, which involves fulfilling one's obligations based on various factors such as age,
gender, caste, and region. The ultimate goal within the Dharma Tradition is to achieve success,
live a prosperous life as a householder (if one is an adult), provide support to past and future
generations, and adhere to a moral and ethical way of living.

Historically, followers of the Dharma Tradition would contribute to temples and offer gifts to
deities, but personal religious experiences were not expected or emphasized. However, the
Dharma Tradition has been significantly influenced by modern secularism and Westernization,
leading some members to question or outright deny the existence and value of religious
experience. Others may choose to postpone the pursuit of religious goals until a future rebirth or
at least until retirement, at which point they may withdraw from worldly affairs and seek
guidance from a guru or engage in meditation and other religious practices.

The text also notes the longstanding tension in India between dharma, which represents the good
life lived in harmony with the universe, and moksha, which signifies liberation from the cycle of
rebirth and worldly attachments. The author argues that it is easy to downplay the importance of
religious experience in Hinduism if one solely focuses on the Dharma Tradition. However, it is
crucial to acknowledge that the conflict between dharma and moksha is an ongoing debate
within India, highlighting the diverse perspectives on the role of religious experience in
Hinduism.

The discussion then shifts to Folk Religion, which, along with tribal religions, is considered one
of the oldest continuous forms of religion in India. Due to its largely oral tradition, tracing the
origins and development of folk religion is challenging. There are ongoing debates about
whether folk and tribal religions should be classified as subtypes of Hinduism or as separate
belief systems, although it is evident that many folk religions incorporate Hindu deities and
worship rituals.

While there is no single, definitive type of folk or tribal religion in India, several common
themes can be generalized. Possession by gods and local spirits is a prominent feature, and
individuals who experience trance states are often regarded as lay religious authorities.

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Page 9 delves into the intricate relationship between folk and tribal religions in India and their
connection to Hinduism, highlighting the debates surrounding their classification. The discussion
begins by acknowledging the complexity in definitively tracing the origins and development of
folk and tribal religions due to their strong reliance on oral tradition. This reliance poses a
challenge to historical scrutiny and longitudinal analysis, making it difficult to ascertain the
precise evolution and historical context of these religious practices.

The central debate is whether these folk and tribal religions constitute subtypes of Hinduism or if
they represent distinct belief systems. This scholarly contention arises from the observable
syncretism where numerous folk religions incorporate Hindu deities and worship rituals. This
incorporation suggests a degree of overlap and influence, yet the extent of this influence and
whether it fundamentally alters the identity of the folk religions remains a point of contention.
The resolution of this debate is crucial for understanding the diversity and complexity of
religious traditions in India and their historical interactions.

Despite the diversity within folk and tribal religions across India, the text identifies several
common themes that provide a basis for generalization. Among the most prominent of these
themes is the phenomenon of possession by gods and local spirits. This possession is not viewed
as a marginal or aberrant practice but is often a central element of religious life, where
individuals experiencing trance states are accorded the status of lay religious authorities. The
experience of trance is thus a significant mechanism for religious authority and communication
with the divine in these traditions.

The text also elucidates the concept of group possession by ancestors, highlighting its role as a
medium for communal messages. In these instances, trance is frequently attributed to the
primordial ancestress, referred to as the "old woman" or "budi ma," underscoring the importance
of ancestral veneration and the role of female figures in these religious contexts. This ancestral
connection emphasizes the cyclical nature of life and the ongoing influence of the past on the
present.

Furthermore, the page emphasizes the significance of revelatory dreams and dream commands
from deities. These dreams are not merely personal or psychological phenomena but are often
imbued with religious significance, serving as origin stories for pilgrimage sites and holy places.
The divine communication through dreams thus grounds the sacredness of these sites in direct
experiential encounters with the divine.

The sacred spaces in folk and tribal religions are often natural locales, such as groves, rivers, or
mountains, believed to be the dwelling places of deities. Burial grounds of ancestors are also
considered sacred, seen as places where ancestors continue to reside and influence the living.
This connection to the natural world and ancestral realms underscores the holistic worldview of
many folk and tribal religions, where the boundaries between the living, the dead, and the divine
are often permeable.

Religious specialists, both male and female, play crucial roles in these communities. Designated
by various names across different regions (e.g., "ojhas" and "gunins" in West Bengal), these
individuals undergo rigorous training in healing practices and ritual performance. The training is
intense, often involving exposure to imagery of death and the practice of ascetic disciplines,
culminating in visionary experiences and vivid dreams that validate their spiritual authority and
expertise.

While some of these religious roles are hereditary, the text notes that they more commonly arise
from a "call" from a deity or an unusual experience that defies conventional explanation. This
divine call or extraordinary experience serves as a form of initiation, setting individuals apart and
marking them as chosen or favored by the divine powers. This phenomenon highlights the
importance of personal religious experience in the selection and legitimation of religious leaders
within folk and tribal traditions. The page concludes by setting the stage for a discussion of the
Bhakti Tradition, which represents a significant portion of contemporary Hinduism.
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Page 10 transitions into an exploration of the Bhakti Tradition, a prevalent form of Hinduism
characterized by "loving devotion to one or more deities." This tradition emphasizes that
devotion transcends mere respect and obedience, advocating for parama prema, or the highest
love, as the path to personal perfection. This form of love is described as a "passionate longing
for God's presence," where the resultant joy, known as premananda or the bliss of selfless love,
is believed to confer both immortality and divine knowledge.

The Bhakti Tradition distinguishes itself by rejecting traditional religious limitations based on
caste and gender, thereby democratizing access to the divine. This inclusivity has contributed to
its widespread appeal and the formation of numerous denominations or lineages, known as
sampradayas. Among these, the worship of Vishnu and his avatars, including Krishna and Rama,
is predominant, followed by devotion to Shiva and the goddess Shakti or Devi, who is venerated
in various forms such as Kali, Durga, and Parvati.

The focus of this section is on Vaishnava bhakti, recognized for its extensive devotional
literature. Within Vaishnava bhakti, a particularly intense form of love for the deity is identified
by Hardy as "emotional Krishna bhakti," which evolved from an earlier tradition of bhakti
centered on loyalty and respect. The emergence of this emotional bhakti is associated with the
Bhagavata Purana and the seventh to ninth-century CE Alvar saints of South India, marking a
significant development in the expression of devotion within Hinduism.

The importance of religious experience in Vaishnava traditions is underscored by references to

works like the Bhakti Sutras of the tenth-century CE writer Narada, dedicated to the god
Krishna. These sutras delineate various degrees of devotional love, commencing with the
glorification and appreciation of the god's greatness and progressing through stages of loving his
beauty, constant worship and remembrance, and identification with various relational roles such
as being the god's slave, friend, parent, and ultimately, a wife's love for her husband.

The culmination of this devotional progression involves the devotee's complete surrender to
Krishna, experiencing absorption in the deity while simultaneously feeling the sorrow of
separation. This paradoxical state of union and separateness is identified by Narada in his Sutra
82 as the highest religious state. The enduring nature of this experience is emphasized,
suggesting that it is not meant to cease upon achieving liberation but should ideally continue
eternally.

The page also highlights the contributions of the bhakti writer Ramanuja, who equated the god
Vishnu with the brahman of the Upanishads. Ramanuja's teachings emphasize prapatti, or self-
surrender, as the most significant religious act, leading to a state of absolute delight derived from
Vishnu's mercy, considered the highest attainable state for human beings.

Madhva, another bhakti writer, portrays the ideal state for a devotee as one of reflecting God's
splendor, achieving perfect identification with Vishnu, and perceiving the world through his
divine perspective. Similarly, Vallabha describes God's grace leading devotees to eternal
passionate love, enabling them to participate in the god's eternal play (nitya lila). This
participation involves attaining emotional states of bhajananda (the bliss of love) and
svarupananda (the bliss of perceiving the god's true form), with devotees aspiring to emulate the
single-minded devotion of Krishna's milkmaids, the gopis.

The Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition of West Bengal is presented as a prime example of the
centrality of religious experience in Hinduism. Inspired by the fifteenth-century saint Caitanya
Mahaprabhu, believed to be a joint incarnation of Krishna and his consort Radha, this tradition
prioritizes the experience of intense love in its various manifestations, mirroring the passionate
love of Radha and the gopis.

The legitimacy of these emotional states is validated by the occurrence of sattvika bhavas,
ecstatic experiences characterized by physical manifestations such as trembling, sweating,
paralysis, crying, piloerection, skin discoloration, and loss of consciousness. These physiological
responses serve as evidence of genuine religious experience, demonstrating that religious
experiences are not only validated by institutions but also by other religious experiences. The
page concludes by noting that such emotional states can arise from meditative practices in
current or past lives or occur spontaneously.

Page 11

Page 11 continues the exploration of the Bhakti Tradition, specifically focusing on the Gaudiya
Vaishnava tradition and its emphasis on ecstatic emotional states as evidence of profound
religious experience. The text explains that these sattvika bhavas, which include physical
manifestations like trembling, sweating, paralysis, crying, hair standing on end, changing skin
color, and loss of consciousness, are not only validated by religious institutions but also serve to
legitimize the religious experiences themselves. This intrinsic validation underscores the primacy
of personal experience within the tradition.

The text further elaborates on the origins of these emotional states, suggesting that they may
arise from meditative practices undertaken in the current or previous lives of the devotee.
Additionally, these states can occur spontaneously, described as "God's grace descending,"
highlighting the role of divine intervention in initiating and authenticating religious experiences.
This spontaneity suggests that while practices can cultivate receptivity to these experiences, they
are ultimately gifts from the divine.

The tradition also recognizes the potential for individuals to mimic these ecstatic states,
acknowledging the challenge of discerning genuine religious experience from mere performance.
To address this, the tradition emphasizes the importance of guidance from a spiritual teacher or
guru, who plays a crucial role in validating the authenticity of a devotee's experiences. This
validation process underscores the communal and pedagogical aspects of religious experience
within the Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition.

The text provides a vivid example of these ecstatic states through the personal account of
Caitanya Mahaprabhu, whose intense experiences are frequently described in the literature. His
example serves as a model for devotees, illustrating the depth and intensity of emotional
devotion that is sought within the tradition. This biographical emphasis connects contemporary
practitioners to the foundational experiences of the tradition's key figure.

In addition to personal accounts, the text also cites scriptural sources that validate the
significance of religious experience. The Bhagavata Purana and the Caitanya Caritamrita, for
instance, are referenced to demonstrate the scriptural basis for the emphasis on emotional and
ecstatic states. This scriptural grounding reinforces the legitimacy of these experiences and
situates them within a broader theological framework.

The discussion extends to the nature of divine-human interaction within the Bhakti Tradition,
highlighting the concept of the devotee as the deity's beloved. This relationship is characterized
by intense emotional engagement, with the devotee experiencing a range of powerful emotions,
including joy, sorrow, anger, and even sulky defiance towards the deity. These complex and
varied emotions are understood as integral to the deepening of the devotional relationship.

The text also addresses the concept of divine embodiment, or avatar, within the tradition, noting
that while some groups may interpret these emotional states as a form of divine embodiment, this
is not a universal interpretation. Instead, the tradition generally views these experiences as
evidence of a profound connection and intense love for the deity, rather than a literal merging
with the divine.

The page further explores the diverse expressions of religious experience within the Bhakti
Tradition, including visions, dreams, and auditions (hearing divine voices). These varied forms
of sensory and extrasensory experiences contribute to the richness and complexity of devotional
life, providing multiple avenues for devotees to connect with the divine.

The text also acknowledges the role of altered states of consciousness in facilitating religious
experience, while cautioning against the deliberate use of drugs to induce such states. This
cautionary note reflects a concern for the authenticity of religious experience, emphasizing the
importance of spontaneous or divinely inspired encounters over artificially induced ones.

The page concludes by reiterating the centrality of religious experience in the Bhakti Tradition,
emphasizing its role in validating faith, deepening devotion, and fostering a sense of intimate
connection with the divine. The tradition's rich tapestry of emotional, sensory, and spiritual
experiences underscores the dynamic and experiential nature of devotional life within Hinduism.

Page 12

Page 12 transitions from the general discussion of the Bhakti Tradition to a more focused
examination of supernormal perception and spiritual discernment within Hindu philosophy. It
addresses the critiques that question the authenticity and validity of religious experience,
particularly in Asian contexts, by providing specific counter-examples and philosophical
frameworks that support the existence and significance of such experiences.

The text begins by acknowledging the skepticism surrounding claims of religious experience,
noting that some scholars view them as "false, inconsistent or dubious." The example of "claims
of alien abduction" is used to illustrate the kind of extraordinary claims that can cast doubt on the
general category of subjective religious experience. The text counters this skepticism by
asserting that the existence of false claims does not invalidate all claims of religious experience,
advocating for a nuanced approach that considers the specific contexts and philosophical
underpinnings of these claims.

The discussion then moves to the concept of pratyaksha, or perception, in Hindu philosophy,
highlighting its broader scope compared to Western philosophical notions. Hindu philosophy
recognizes various types of perception, including ordinary sensory perception (laukika
pratyaksha) and extraordinary or supernormal perception (alaukika pratyaksha). This distinction
is crucial for understanding how Hindu traditions conceptualize and validate claims of religious
experience.

The text elaborates on the three main types of alaukika pratyaksha: samanyalakshana,
jnanalakshana, and yogaja. Samanyalakshana refers to the perception of universals, enabling
one to perceive the class to which an individual belongs (e.g., perceiving "treeness" when seeing
a tree). Jnanalakshana involves the transference of qualities from one object to another, as when
one perceives a white crystal as red due to its proximity to a red flower. Yogaja perception, the
most relevant to religious experience, is described as the intuitive or supernormal cognition
attained through yogic practices.

Yogaja pratyaksha is further explained as a direct, immediate, and infallible cognition of all
objects, past, present, and future, achieved by yogis through the power of their asceticism and
contemplation. This concept provides a philosophical framework for understanding how
individuals can have access to knowledge and experiences that transcend ordinary sensory
perception. The text emphasizes that this supernormal perception is not merely a subjective or
psychological phenomenon but a valid means of knowledge within Hindu epistemology.

The text also addresses the potential for misinterpretation or fraudulent claims of supernormal
perception, acknowledging the need for discernment and validation. It highlights the role of
spiritual teachers or gurus in guiding and authenticating the experiences of their disciples,
ensuring that they align with the teachings and practices of the tradition. This emphasis on
guidance and validation underscores the importance of community and tradition in navigating the
complexities of religious experience.

The discussion extends to the concept of spiritual discernment (viveka) in Hindu philosophy,
which is crucial for distinguishing between genuine and spurious religious experiences. Viveka
involves the ability to discriminate between the real and the unreal, the eternal and the transient,
and the true self and the ego. This discriminative faculty is developed through spiritual practice
and study, enabling individuals to discern the true nature of reality and the validity of their
experiences.

The text also touches on the ethical implications of supernormal perception, noting that it is not
merely a cognitive or epistemological issue but also a moral one. The development of
supernormal powers is often associated with spiritual advancement and moral purification,
suggesting that genuine religious experience is intrinsically linked to ethical conduct.
The page concludes by reaffirming the existence and validity of supernormal perception and
spiritual discernment within Hindu philosophy, providing a robust intellectual framework for
understanding and evaluating claims of religious experience. This philosophical grounding
challenges the skepticism of those who dismiss religious experience as merely subjective or
culturally constructed, demonstrating its deep roots in Hindu thought and practice.

Page 13

Page 13 delves into the complexities of defining and categorizing religious experience within the
diverse landscape of Hinduism, addressing the challenges posed by the tradition's multifaceted
nature and the varied interpretations of religious phenomena. It navigates the tension between
universalist and particularist perspectives, acknowledging the difficulties in applying a single,
monolithic definition to the rich tapestry of Hindu experiences.

The text begins by reiterating the absence of a singular, universally accepted definition of
religious experience, both within academic discourse and within the Hindu tradition itself. This
ambiguity arises from the diverse ways in which individuals and communities engage with the
divine or ultimate reality, ranging from ecstatic states of devotion to profound philosophical
insights. The text emphasizes the need for a nuanced approach that respects this diversity while
seeking to identify common threads.

The discussion then turns to the distinction between theistic and non-theistic experiences,
acknowledging that while many Hindu traditions involve devotion to personal deities, others
emphasize impersonal or non-dualistic understandings of the ultimate reality. This distinction
complicates the task of defining religious experience, as it necessitates encompassing both
experiences of divine encounter and experiences of self-transcendence or cosmic unity.

The text also addresses the challenge of distinguishing between religious and non-religious
experiences, particularly in the context of altered states of consciousness. While some altered
states may be interpreted as religious experiences, others may be attributed to psychological or
physiological factors. The text highlights the importance of cultural and interpretive frameworks
in shaping the meaning and significance of these experiences.

The role of language and symbolism in shaping religious experience is also explored,
acknowledging that the way individuals describe and understand their experiences is influenced
by their cultural and linguistic context. This emphasis on the social construction of religious
experience raises questions about the universality of religious phenomena and the extent to
which they are shaped by specific cultural and historical factors.

The text further examines the tension between individual and communal interpretations of
religious experience, noting that while some experiences are deeply personal and transformative,
others are embedded in communal rituals and practices. This tension highlights the interplay
between individual agency and social norms in shaping the meaning and significance of religious
experience.
The discussion also touches on the ethical and moral dimensions of religious experience,
acknowledging that some experiences may have profound ethical implications, while others may
be more focused on personal transformation or spiritual growth. This ethical dimension
underscores the connection between religious experience and the broader social and moral order.

The text also considers the role of power and authority in shaping religious experience, noting
that some experiences may be used to legitimize religious or political authority, while others may
challenge existing power structures. This political dimension highlights the complex relationship
between religious experience and social dynamics.

The page concludes by advocating for a pluralistic approach to the study of religious experience
in Hinduism, one that acknowledges the diversity of experiences and interpretations while
seeking to identify common themes and patterns. This approach emphasizes the importance of
interdisciplinary perspectives, drawing on insights from anthropology, psychology, sociology,
and religious studies to gain a comprehensive understanding of religious phenomena.

Okay, starting from page 14 of the PDF, here are the summaries:

Page 14

The intensity of the religious experiences in the Bhakti tradition is understood to be so powerful
that devotees may experience physical manifestations such as trembling, sweating, paralysis,
crying, hair standing on end, changing skin color, and even loss of consciousness. These ecstatic
states, known as sattvika bhavas, serve to validate the authenticity of religious experiences
within the tradition, indicating that religious experiences are not only sanctioned by religious
institutions but also by other forms of profound religious experience. These emotional states can
arise from meditative practices in the current or previous lives or occur spontaneously.

The Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition, inspired by the fifteenth-century saint Caitanya Mahaprabhu,
emphasizes the experience of intense love (prema) as the highest religious goal. This love
mirrors the passionate relationship between the god Krishna and his consort Radha, along with
her companions, the milkmaid friends called gopis. The tradition values the various expressions
of this love, and the legitimacy of these emotional states is confirmed through the ecstatic
experiences of sattvika bhavas.

The text highlights that religious experiences in the Bhakti tradition are not uniform, varying in
intensity and expression. Some devotees may experience overwhelming emotions and physical
changes, while others may have more subtle experiences of devotion and connection with the
divine.

Page 15

In the contemporary context, religious experiences within the Bhakti tradition continue to be
significant, with individuals reporting a wide array of encounters such as visions, dreams, and
auditions. These experiences often involve direct interactions with deities or saints, reinforcing
the devotee's faith and deepening their spiritual connection. Accounts of such experiences are
frequently shared within devotional communities, serving to inspire and validate the spiritual
practices of others.

Scholars like Bennett have documented instances of spirit possession and mediumship, which are
interpreted as forms of religious experience, particularly within the context of goddess worship.
These phenomena involve individuals acting as intermediaries between the divine and human
realms, conveying messages or embodying the presence of deities.

The article also addresses the scholarly debates surrounding the interpretation of religious
experiences, acknowledging the challenges in definitively categorizing such phenomena. While
some scholars may view possession and mediumship as psychological or cultural phenomena,
devotees often perceive these experiences as genuine encounters with the divine. This difference
in interpretation highlights the complex relationship between personal experience, cultural
context, and scholarly analysis in the study of religion.

Page 16

The article emphasizes the diversity of religious experiences within Hinduism, spanning from
ancient Vedic practices to contemporary devotional movements. It challenges the notion that
religious experience is a modern or Western construct, demonstrating the presence of rich and
varied experiential traditions throughout Hindu history.

The analysis of Hindu texts and practices reveals that religious experiences are not only
acknowledged but also actively cultivated and valued across different traditions. These
experiences take many forms, including visions, auditions, altered states of consciousness, and
intense emotional states, all of which contribute to the devotee's understanding of the divine and
their place in the cosmos.

Moreover, the article highlights the role of religious experience in shaping Hindu identity and
community. Shared experiences of the divine can create strong bonds among devotees,
reinforcing their sense of belonging and shared purpose. The transmission of these experiences
through narratives, rituals, and devotional practices ensures the continuity of Hindu traditions
across generations.

In conclusion, the article advocates for a more nuanced and inclusive approach to the study of
religious experience, one that acknowledges the diversity and complexity of Hindu traditions. By
examining the rich tapestry of experiential phenomena within Hinduism, scholars can gain a
deeper understanding of the ways in which individuals and communities engage with the divine.

Page 17

The article concludes by reiterating that the concept of religious experience is not a modern
invention but has deep roots in Hindu traditions. It emphasizes the importance of studying
religious experience within its specific cultural and historical context, rather than imposing
Western categories or assumptions. The author, June McDaniel, provides a comprehensive
bibliography, listing numerous scholarly works that have contributed to the understanding of
religious experience in Hinduism. This extensive list of references underscores the depth and
breadth of scholarship in this field, inviting further exploration and research. The article serves as
a valuable resource for scholars and students interested in the study of Hinduism and religious
experience, offering a nuanced and insightful perspective on a complex and multifaceted topic.