Chapter 2

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Created time @April 4, 2024 8:08 PM

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Sound is a form of energy that travels through mediums such as air, water, or
solids in the form of pressure waves. These pressure waves cause vibrations in
the particles of the medium, which are then detected by our ears and
interpreted by our brains.
Here are some key terms related to sound:

1. Period: The period of a sound wave is the time it takes for one complete
cycle of the wave to pass a given point. It's typically measured in seconds.
The period is inversely related to the frequency of the wave; that is, period
= 1 / frequency.

2. Frequency: Frequency refers to the number of cycles of a wave that occur

in one second. It is measured in Hertz (Hz), where one Hertz equals one
cycle per second. The frequency of a sound wave determines its pitch -
higher frequencies correspond to higher pitches, while lower frequencies
correspond to lower pitches.

3. Amplitude: In the context of sound waves, it represents the strength or

intensity of the sound. Greater amplitude corresponds to louder sounds,
while smaller amplitude corresponds to softer sounds.

4. Bandwidth: Bandwidth refers to the range of frequencies within a given

sound wave. In the context of communication systems, it can also refer to
the range of frequencies that a system can transmit. For example, in audio
equipment, the bandwidth might refer to the range of frequencies that can
be accurately reproduced or transmitted.

Computer Representation of Sound

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 1. Digitalization: Sound is converted from analog to digital form through a
process called analog-to-digital conversion (ADC). This involves sampling
the sound wave at discrete intervals and converting each sample into a
binary number representing its amplitude.

2. Sampling: Sound is sampled at regular intervals determined by the

sampling rate. Common rates are 44.1 kHz (CD quality) or 48 kHz (DVD
quality). Higher sampling rates capture more detail but require more storage
space.

3. Quantization: Each sample's amplitude is quantized into binary values

using a certain number of bits per sample. Common bit depths are 16-bit
(CD quality) or 24-bit (high-resolution audio). Higher bit depths provide
greater dynamic range and fidelity.

4. Digital Formats: Sound data is typically stored in digital audio file formats
like WAV, AIFF, MP3, AAC, or FLAC. These formats contain metadata
alongside the actual sound data, including information like sampling rate, bit
depth, and compression settings.

5. Playback: During playback, the digital audio data is converted back to

analog form through a digital-to-analog converter (DAC). The DAC
reconstructs the original waveform from the discrete samples, which is then
amplified and output through speakers or headphones.

6. Compression: In some cases, sound data may be compressed to reduce

file size for storage or transmission. Lossless compression algorithms
preserve all original data, while lossy compression algorithms sacrifice
some data to achieve higher compression ratios. Examples include MP3,
AAC, and OGG formats.

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 Common Audio File Formats

1. MP3 (MPEG Audio Layer III)

2. WAV (Waveform Audio File Format)

3. AIFF (Audio Interchange File Format)

4. FLAC (Free Lossless Audio Codec)

5. AAC (Advanced Audio Coding)

Audio Hardware:
a. Input Devices: These devices capture sound from the physical world and
convert it into electronic signals that computers or other digital devices can
process. Common input devices include microphones, instrument pickups,
and audio interfaces.

b. Output Devices: These devices take electronic audio signals and convert
them back into sound that humans can hear. Common output devices
include speakers, headphones, and studio monitors.

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 c. Processing Units: These devices manipulate and process audio signals.
This can include hardware components like mixers, equalizers, amplifiers,
and effects processors.

d. Digital Signal Processors (DSP): These specialized chips or circuits

perform mathematical calculations to process audio signals in real-time.
DSPs are often found in audio interfaces, effects units, and high-end audio
equipment.

e. Storage Devices: These devices store audio files in digital format.

Examples include hard drives, solid-state drives (SSDs), and memory cards.
f. Connectors and Cables: Various connectors and cables are used to
transmit audio signals between different hardware components. Common
connectors include XLR, TRS, RCA, and USB.

Audio Software:

a. Digital Audio Workstations (DAWs): DAWs are software applications

used for recording, editing, mixing, and mastering audio tracks. Examples
include Pro Tools, Logic Pro, Ableton Live, and FL Studio.

b. Virtual Instruments and Synthesizers: These software tools emulate

traditional musical instruments or generate synthetic sounds electronically.
Examples include synthesizer plugins, virtual pianos, and drum machines.

c. Effects Plugins: These software plugins add various effects to audio

signals, such as reverb, delay, compression, and equalization. Effects
plugins can be used within DAWs or standalone software.

d. Audio Editors: Audio editing software allows users to manipulate and edit
audio files directly. This includes tasks such as cutting, trimming, fading,
and applying effects.

e. Audio Utilities: These software tools serve various audio-related

functions, such as audio conversion, file format compatibility, noise
reduction, and audio analysis.

1. Definition:

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 Quality refers to the level of detail, clarity, and fidelity of digital media,
such as images, videos, or audio. It encompasses factors like
resolution, color depth, dynamic range, etc.

File size refers to the amount of digital storage space required to store a
particular piece of media. It's typically measured in bytes, kilobytes
(KB), megabytes (MB), gigabytes (GB), etc.

2. Relationship:

There's often an inverse relationship between quality and file size.

Higher quality usually requires more data, leading to larger file sizes.
Conversely, reducing quality can result in smaller file sizes.

However, it's possible to optimize media compression techniques to

find a balance between maintaining acceptable quality while minimizing
file size.

3. Compression:

Compression algorithms are used to reduce file size without

significantly compromising quality. Lossless compression maintains
quality but may not reduce file size as much as lossy compression,
which sacrifices some quality for smaller file sizes.

Different compression methods have different effects on quality and file

size, and the choice depends on the specific requirements of the
application.

MIDI
MIDI stands for Musical Instrument Digital Interface. It's a technical standard
that allows electronic musical instruments, computers, and other devices to
communicate with each other. MIDI is not a sound format like MP3 or WAV;
rather, it's a set of instructions that tells devices how to generate sounds.

Need for MIDI

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 MIDI is essential in the realm of music production and performance for several
reasons:

It enables different electronic musical instruments to communicate with

each other, allowing musicians to synchronize their performances.

It facilitates the recording and playback of music on computers and

digital audio workstations (DAWs).

MIDI data can be easily edited, manipulated, and rearranged, providing

flexibility in music composition and production.

MIDI allows for the control of various parameters such as pitch, volume,
and timbre in real-time, offering expressive possibilities for musicians
and producers.

💡 Hardware + Software are components of MIDI Devices

MIDI Hardware:
1. Controllers: These include devices like keyboards, drum pads that
generate MIDI data based on user input (such as pressing keys, hitting
pads).

2. Synthesizers: These devices receive MIDI data and produce sound. They
can range from simple tone generators to complex digital synthesizers
capable of producing a wide variety of sounds.

3. Interfaces: MIDI interfaces serve as bridges between MIDI devices and

computers. They allow MIDI data to be transmitted to and from computers
for recording, editing, and playback.

4. Sound Modules: These are devices dedicated solely to producing sound

based on MIDI input. They often lack physical interface controls and are
controlled entirely through MIDI messages.

MIDI Software:
1. Sequencers/DAWs (Digital Audio Workstations): Software like Ableton
Live, Logic Pro, or FL Studio allows users to record, edit, and play back

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 MIDI data alongside audio recordings. They often come with virtual
instruments that respond to MIDI input.

2. Virtual Instruments: These are software-based synthesizers, samplers,

and drum machines that generate sound in response to MIDI data. They can
emulate traditional instruments or create entirely new sounds.

3. MIDI Editors: These programs allow users to create, edit, and manipulate
MIDI data directly, often with graphical interfaces resembling musical
notation or piano rolls.

4. Plugins: These are software components that can be added to a DAW to

extend its functionality. MIDI plugins can manipulate MIDI data in various
ways, such as generating harmonies, arpeggiating notes, or applying
effects.

MIDI Sound Synthesis:

1. MIDI Messages: MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) messages are
used to communicate musical information such as note-on, note-off, pitch,
velocity, and control changes between devices.

2. MIDI Controller: A MIDI controller (like a keyboard or drum pad) sends

these messages to a MIDI-compatible device or software.

3. Synthesizer Engine: The MIDI-compatible device or software contains a

synthesizer engine, which interprets the MIDI messages to generate audio.

4. Sound Generation: The synthesizer engine produces sound based on the

MIDI messages received. This can involve various techniques:

Sample-based synthesis: Pre-recorded sounds (samples) are played

back at different pitches and durations according to the MIDI messages.

Additive synthesis: Individual sine waves are combined (added)

together to create complex timbres.

FM synthesis: Modulating the frequency of one waveform (carrier) with

another waveform (modulator) to create harmonically rich sounds.

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 Physical modeling synthesis: Simulating the physical properties of
acoustic instruments to generate realistic sounds.

5. Effects Processing: Additional effects such as reverb, delay, chorus, and

distortion can be applied to the synthesized sounds to enhance their quality
and create spatial effects.

6. Output: The synthesized audio is then sent to speakers or headphones for

listening.

💡 Wav is digital audio

MIDI VS DIGITAL AUDIO

Aspect MIDI Digital Audio

Musical Instrument Digital

Digital audio refers to sound that
Interface (MIDI) is a protocol that
has been converted into a digital
allows electronic musical
Definition format, allowing it to be stored,
instruments, computers, and other
manipulated, and reproduced
devices to communicate and
using electronic devices.
synchronize with each other.

A MIDI keyboard sending signals to

A recorded song in MP3 format
Example a computer to trigger virtual
stored on a computer.
instrument sounds.

MIDI does not store actual audio

Digital audio provides high-
but rather digital instructions on
fidelity reproduction of sound,
Sound Quality how to produce sound, so the
preserving the original quality of
quality depends on the sound
the recorded audio.
source.

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 MIDI files are typically much Digital audio files can be larger
smaller in size compared to digital due to containing actual audio
File Size
audio files since they only contain data, especially if they are
instructions for generating sound. uncompressed formats like WAV.

Digital audio editing involves

MIDI allows for easy editing of working directly with audio
individual notes, timing, and other waveforms, allowing for detailed
Editing
musical parameters even after manipulation of sound, such as
recording. cutting, splicing, and applying
effects.

MIDI can sound artificial or Digital audio can provide a more

mechanical since it relies on realistic representation of sound,
Realism
synthesizers or sampled sounds to capturing nuances and
reproduce music. subtleties of live performances.

Also widely supported but may

Widely supported across devices
Compatibility encounter format compatibility
and platforms
issues

MIDI is used for creating and Digital audio is used for

controlling electronic music, such recording and playback of
Use Cases
as synthesizers and drum music, sound effects, and
machines. voiceovers

MIDI comprises a series of

Digital Audio comprises analog
commands that represent musical
Representation sound waves that are converted
notes, volume, and other musical
into a series of 0s and 1s.
parameters.

Speech Recognition:

Speech recognition refers to the process of automatically recognizing and

transcribing spoken language into written text or other understandable formats

1. Audio Input: A microphone captures spoken words, converting sound

waves into digital audio data.

2. Pre-processing: The audio data undergoes pre-processing to remove

noise, normalize volume, and enhance clarity.

3. Feature Extraction: The processed audio is broken down into smaller units
called features, which represent characteristics such as frequency and
amplitude over time.

4. Acoustic Modeling: These features are compared against a stored

database of phonemes (distinct units of sound in a language) using

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 statistical models to identify the most likely sequence of words spoken.

5. Language Modeling: The identified sequence of words is further refined by

considering the probabilities of word sequences occurring in a given
language context.

6. Output: The recognized speech is output as text, which can be further

processed or utilized in various applications.

Speech Generation:
Speech generation, also known as text-to-speech (TTS), is the process of
converting written text into spoken language.

1. Text Input: A piece of text is provided as input, representing the desired

speech output.

2. Text Pre-processing: The input text is analyzed and processed to ensure

proper pronunciation, intonation, and naturalness.

3. Prosody Modeling: The linguistic features of the text, such as stress

patterns, intonation, and rhythm, are converted into parameters that define
the speech characteristics.

4. Speech Synthesis: Using a database of pre-recorded speech units or

through a computational model, the synthesized speech is generated by
combining the prosodic parameters with appropriate phonetic units.

5. Post-processing: The synthesized speech may undergo additional

processing to improve quality, such as smoothing transitions between
phonetic units or adjusting pitch and speed.

6. Output: The generated speech is output as audible sound waves through

speakers or headphones, conveying the spoken message corresponding to
the input text.

Speech Analysis:

Speech analysis involves examining and processing speech signals to extract

relevant information or features.

1. Audio Input: Speech signals are captured using a microphone, converting

sound waves into digital audio data.

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 2. Pre-processing: The raw audio data undergoes pre-processing to remove
background noise, normalize volume levels, and enhance clarity.

3. Feature Extraction: The pre-processed audio is analyzed to extract

relevant features, such as frequency, amplitude, and duration of speech
sounds.

4. Speech Segmentation: The speech signal is divided into smaller units, such
as phonemes, words, or phrases, to facilitate further analysis.

5. Feature Representation: The extracted features are represented

mathematically, often using techniques like Fourier analysis, spectrograms,
or cepstral analysis, to capture the essential characteristics of the speech
signal.

Speech Transmission:
Speech transmission refers to the process of transmitting speech signals from
one point to another over a communication channel.

1. Encoding: The analyzed speech signal is encoded into a format suitable for
transmission over a communication channel, such as analog or digital
encoding methods.

2. Transmission: The encoded speech data is transmitted over the

communication channel, which could be wired or wireless, using various
modulation and multiplexing techniques.

3. Decoding: At the receiving end, the transmitted speech signal is decoded

back into its original format using appropriate decoding algorithms.

4. Reconstruction: The decoded speech signal is reconstructed to reproduce

the original speech waveform, using techniques such as digital-to-analog
conversion.

5. Playback: The reconstructed speech signal is played back through

speakers or headphones, making it audible to the listener.

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