Biology Notes

Christmas Term
1) Classification of Organisms
• Characteristics of Life
o Movement: the change in position of a whole organism or parts of an
organism
o Respiration: the process by which energy is released from food by all living
cells
o Sensitivity: the ability of organisms to detect and respond to changes in their
environment or within themselves
o Growth: a permanent increase in the size or complexity of an organism.
o Reproduction: the process by which living organisms generate offspring
with or without a mate
o Excretion: the removal of metabolic waste from an organism
o Nutrition: the process by which living organisms make or obtain food
• Taxonomy
o Scientists study living things based on the way they can carry out the
processes of life. This branch of science is taxonomy.
• Classification
o Classification is the arrangement of living things into groups based on what
they have in common and what is different among them
o Classification places organisms in 5 major groups
▪ Plantae
▪ Fungi
▪ Animalia
▪ Protoctista
▪ Prokaryote
• Viruses
o Viruses make up another group of, but it is not a kingdom
o They are microscopic, they are not cells, they are much smaller than
bacterial cells which are much smaller than all other cells
o The shape and size of viruses vary
▪ They all have genetic material (DNA & RNA)
▪ They all have a protein coat which surrounds the DNA & RNA to
protect it.
o Viruses are not considered living because they can only carry out some
characteristics of life, and they can reproduce and grow in numbers.
 o Viruses work by entering cells, control them, and causing the cells to make
copies of itself
o Common examples of the viruses are Human Immunodeficiency Virus
(HIV), Influenza (the flu), Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), Corona Virus, etc.
o Viruses have become a great interest to humans because they have caused
the common cold, smallpox, measles, Covid-19 and the Spanish flu.
• Kingdoms
o The kingdoms are very large groups that organisms are placed in, but they
have little in common.
o Because of this, the classification system places living things in smaller
groups as the groups get smaller and smaller, the organisms gave more and
more in common.
▪ KINGDOM - katy
▪ PHYLUM - perry
▪ CLASS - came
▪ ORDER - over
▪ FAMILY – for
▪ GENUS - good
▪ SPECIES - soup
o The groups get smaller and more specific as we move from kingdom to
species
▪ HUMANS:
• Kingdom – Animalia
• Phylum – Chordata
• Class – Mammalia
• Order – Primates
• Family – Hominidae
• Genus – Homo
• Species – Sapiens
o Homosapien is the specific name for humans
• Dichotomous Key
o A dichotomous key is a scientific tool used to identify unknown organisms
based on a series of choices.
o These choices are presented in pairs
• How to Use the Dichotomous Key
o Identify 1 Organism at a time
o Start at the first pair of choices
 o Choose between the two contrasting features
o Move on to the next step as directed by the key
o Repeat Step 3 and 4
o Identify the organism
o Start over with a different Organism
• How to make a Dichotomous Key
o Calculate the number of steps the dichotomous key should have
▪ Steps = # of organisms – 1
o Observe the features of each organism
o Write down a feature, with its contracting feature at each step
▪ 1)A) Wings present… step 2
1) B) Wings Absent… ant
o Define the instruction of each feature
o Test your dichotomous key
o EG: Lion, Snake, Butterfly, Turtle, Jellyfish
▪ 1) a) Legs present… go to step 2
1) b) Legs absent… go to step 3
▪ 2) a) Hair present… lion
2) b) Hair absent… go to step 4
▪ 3) a) Tentacles present… jellyfish
3) b) Tentacles absent… snake
▪ 4) a) Wings present… butterfly
4) b) Wings absent… turtle
o DO NOT USE habitats, diets or blood temperatures. Only visible physical
attributes
 THE LIVING WORLD
• Unicellular organism
Prokaryote – Bacteria & blue
• Cells have a cell wall
green algae
• Cells lack a true nucleus, the DNA is free in the cell
(eg: tuberculosis, bacterium)
• Cells lack other membrane-bound organelles (mitochondria, chloroplasts)
• Most feed by absorbing food
• Most are unicellular, some are simple multicellular organisms that lack any
complex development of tissues and organs
Protoctista – Protozoa &
• Cells have a true nucleus surrounded by a membrane and other membrane-bound
Algae
organelles
(eg: amoeba, paramecium,
• Protozoans are animal-like and ingest food or absorb food
euglena, seaweed)
• Algae are plant-like, contain chlorophyll and make their own food by
photosynthesis
• Most are multicellular with a body composed of microscopic threads called
hyphae, a few are unicellular
Fungi – Yeasts, Moulds and
• Cells have cell walls that contain chitin
Mushrooms
• Cells lack chlorophyll
(eg: pin mould)
• Most reproduce by spores
• Feed by absorbing food
• Multicellular organisms
• Cells have cell walls made of cellulose
Plantae • Cells contain chlorophyll
• Make their own food by photosynthesis
• Stationary organisms
• Multicellular organisms
• Cells lack cell walls and chlorophyll
Animalia
• Feed by ingesting food
• Most move their whole bodies from place to place
 THE PLANT KINGDOM
• Have simple stems and leaves
Bryophytes
• Have root-like filaments called rhizoids
(eg: moss,
• Produce spores for reproduction
liverwort)
• Live in damp, shady places
Ferns
• Have proper roots, stems and leaves called fronds
(eg: breadfruit,
• Produce spores on the underside of fronds for reproduction
maidenhair fern)
• Have proper roots, stems and leaves
Conifers
• Leaves are usually needle-shaped
(eg: pine, fir)
• Produce seeds inside cones for reproduction
• Have proper roots, stems and leaves
• Produce seeds inside fruits that develop from ovaries of flowers for reproduction
• Leaves have straight, parallel veins and are usually long and narrow
• Seeds contain one cotyledon (seed leaf)
Monocotyledon
Flowering • Flower parts are in multiples of three
Plants • e.g. sugar cane, guinea grass
• Leaves have a network of veins and are usually broad
• Seeds contain two cotyledons
Dicotyledons
• Flower parts are in multiples of four or five e.g. pride of
Barbados, flamboyant
 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM
• Stationary organisms
• Lack tissues and organs
Porifera (sponges)
• Body contains a single cavity with many pores in its walls making a system of water canals
• Eg: barrel sponges, vase sponges
• Have a bag- or umbrella-shaped body
• Gut has only one opening, the mouth
Cnidaria
• Have a ring of tentacles around the mouth
• e.g. sea anemone, coral, jellyfish
Platyhelminthes • Have a long, flat, unsegmented body e.g. tapeworm, liver fluke
(flatworms • Eg: tapeworm, liver fluke
• Have an elongated, round, unsegmented body with pointed ends
Nematodes
• e.g. hookworm, threadworm
Annelids (segmented • Have an elongated body divided into segments
worms) • e.g. earthworm
• Have a waterproof exoskeleton (external skeleton) made mainly of chitin
• Have a segmented body
• Have several pairs of jointed legs
• Have two pairs of antennae
• Usually have five or seven pairs of legs
Crustaceans • Body is divided into head, thorax and abdomen or cephalothorax and
abdomen
• e.g. lobster, shrimp, crab, woodlouse
• Have no antennae
• Have four pairs of legs
Arachnids
• Body is divided into cephalothorax and abdomen
Arthropods
• e.g. spider, tick, scorpion
• Have one pair of antennae
• Have three pairs of legs
• Body is divided into head, thorax and abdomen
Insects
• Have a pair of compound eyes
• Most have two pairs of wings
• e.g. cockroach, moth, ant, house fly
Myriapods • Have one pair of antennae
• Have many pairs of legs
• Body is elongated and divided into many segments
• e.g. centipede, millipede
• Have a soft, moist, unsegmented body
• Have a muscular foot
Molluscs
• Many have shells
• e.g. slug, snail, octopus
• Have a body based on a radial pattern of five parts
• Body wall contains calcium carbonate plates, often with projecting spines
Echinoderms
• Have tube feet with suction pads for movement
• e.g. starfish, sand dollar, sea urchin
 • Have a notochord (rod) running down the body, most have a backbone
• Have a dorsal nerve cord with the anterior end usually enlarged forming the brain
• Most have an internal skeleton of bone and cartilage
• Have a waterproof skin covered with scales
• Have gills for breathing
Pisces (fish)
• Have fins for swimming
• e.g. barracuda, flying fish, shark
• Have a soft, moist, non-waterproof skin without scales
• Eggs are laid in water, larvae live in water, adults live on land
Amphibians
• Larvae have gills, adults have lungs
• e.g. frog, toad, newt
• Have a dry, waterproof skin with scales
Chordates Reptiles • Lay eggs with a rubbery shell on land
• e.g. snake, lizard, iguana, turtle
• Have a waterproof skin with feathers
• Have a beak and no teeth
• Forelimbs are modified to form wings
Aves (birds)
• Lay eggs with a hard shell
• Are homeothermic (warm blooded)
• e.g. sparrow, cattle egret, hawk
• Have a waterproof skin with hair and sweat glands
• Have different types of teeth
Mammals • Young feed on milk from their mother
• Are homeothermic
• e.g. mouse, whale, human
2) Ecology
o Ecology the study of how organisms interact with each other and the
environment.
o Studying ecology is crucial for understanding the complex relationships
and promises that sustain life on earth.
o Key concepts in ecology include ecosystems, biodiversity, food chains,
energy flow and human impact.
• Environment
o The environment is the surrounding or conditions in which an organism,
species or community of organisms exist and interact with the living and
non-living elements that make up their surroundings.
o The environment consists of:
▪ Biotic Factors: Living organisms
▪ Abiotic Factors: Non-living organism
• Habitat
o A habitat is a specific place or type of environment in which a particular
organism or species naturally lives and thrives.
• Species
o It is a group of closely related organisms that are capable of interbreeding
and producing fertile offspring
• Population
o All the members of a particular species, living together and interacting in
a particular geographical area
• Community
o Different populations of organisms in a particular area interacting with
each other and their environment
• Ecosystem:
o A community of living organisms interacting with each other and their
biotic factors.
• Niche
o The specific role that a species occupies within an ecosystem. This
includes how a species and its impact on the ecosystem.
• Ecological Studies
o An ecosystem is studied to identify the different species of animal and
plants present, to find out where they live, determine their numbers and
find out the relationship they have with their environment.
A) Sampling
• Sampling techniques used to collect information on types of, density and
distribution of species in a sample area are:
o Quadrats
o Line Transects
o Belt Transects
o Collecting Organisms
• Quadrat:
o Is a square usually made of wood, metal or plastic, which has a known
area.
o It is used to study a sample area to find out the density of organisms in
that area.
o Quadrats also tell the percentage of an area covered by a species
o They are usually used for stationery and slow-moving organisms in a
uniformed ecosystem (it looks mostly the same throughout).
o Quadrat sampling is always done randomly, so there is no bias
o A quadrat may have a grid on the inside, or it may not.
o Quadrats are used in aquatic or terrestrial habitats
• How To Use?
1. Select an area
2. Throw quadrats randomly
3. Count the number of organisms or estimate the percentage cover
4. Repeat the procedure until there is sufficient information on total region
sample area ~ 10% of the total area
• Area of Quadrat
o Length of quadrat * width
• Total Area Sampled
o Area of Quadrat * No. of Time Quadrat was Thrown
• Formulas
o Density:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑂𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑠𝑚𝑠
▪
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
o Species Cover:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 % 𝐶𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒
▪
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑠
o Frequency
# 𝑜𝑓 𝑄𝑢𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛
▪ ∗ 100
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑠
• Advantages
o They are simple to use
o They are one of the cheapest methods of sampling because they don’t
require additional equipment
o Their uniform size and shape make the sample easier to study
• Disadvantages
o Quadrat sampling can be very demanding, as there is much manual
labour.

• Line Transect
o A string or tape, with graduations, markings, stretched/laid out along the
ground in a straight line, across an ecosystem.
o Only organisms that are touching the line are counted as part of the sample
o Line transects are used when there is a transition of organisms across the
ecosystem
▪ This tells which organisms are present.
o They are also used to measure the distribution of organisms
o The ecosystem is not usually uniform
• Setting It Up
o The sample area is selected
o The line is placed at the starting point.
o Line is spread across the desired distance, along a straight path
• How To Carry Out
o It may be done continuously or discontinuously
▪ Continuous – this is when all organisms touching the line are recorded
▪ Discontinuous – this is done when there are too many organisms to
count or the line is too long, so only species at intervals are recorded
(eg: every 2m, any touching the line is recorded)
o The heights are recorded and distances along the line as well
• Advantages
o Data collected can be represented graphically
• Disadvantages
o Many overlapping species may be overlooked
• Belt Transect
o A belt transect is a combination of two line transects at a fixed width from
each other, in a straight line across the ecosystem
▪ The organisms found between two lines are recorded
o A belt transect can also be set up using one line transect and a quadrat
▪ The quadrat is moved along the line transect and the number of
individuals of each species found in the quadrat is counted
o Belt transects are continuously and discontinuously like the belt transect
o Belt transects provide information on types of organisms
o Belt transects are used for stationary and slow-moving organisms like
insects and millipedes
• Advantages
o Provides more information than line transects
o Allow bar charts to be created using data collected
• Disadvantages
o Unlike quadrat and line transects that can be used on their own, a belt
transect must be made using two line transects or a quadrat and a line
transect.

B) Collecting Organisms
• Sometimes quadrats and transects do not provide enough information on
species, especially fast-moving ones
• Sometimes individuals need to be identified so that the ecologist know more
about the area
• These fast-moving organisms are often collected.
• A biologist must not cause harm or destroy life, so if the organisms can be
studied without removing it from its habitat, then do so.
• Do not take more than you need
• Return any species you found as soon as possible
• Try to leave the habitat the same way you saw it, as if undisturbed
• Take pictures instead of individuals
• Where individuals must be collected the following methods are used:
o Pooter
o Pitfall Traps
o Tullgren Funnel
 o Plankton Nets
o Sweep Nets
o Beating Tray
• Pooter

o Used to collect small insects. The inlet is placed over the insect, the
person sucks in air through the mouth pieces. Insect in pulled into the
collected jar. The filter prevents the insect from being pulled into the
mouthpiece.
• Pitfall Trap

o For walking and crawling animals

o A container is buried in the soil with the top uncovered so that animals
fall in
o It is usually hidden, so that they won’t avoid it
• Tullgren Funnel

o Used for small animals in soil or leaf litter.

o The bulb provides heat
o To get away from the heat, animals crawl down and end up in
water/alcohol
• Plankton Net

o Used in water
• Sweep Net
o Used for flying insects and aquatic animals
• Beating Tray
o A beating tray consists of a pale-coloured cloth that is usually stretched
out using a frame
o The frame is then held under a tree or shrub and the foliage is then
shaken. Invertebrates fall from the foliage and land on the cloth
o They can then be collected and examined using a pooter.
• Mark-Release-Recapture
o Method of sampling where animals are captured wit much care
o They are marked with something that won’t harm them (paint, etc.)
o They are released for some time, to mix with the original population.
o A second recapture is done
o The number of marked and unmarked individuals are counted
o This is used to estimate the population size:
▪ Lincoln-Peterson Index
𝑀∗𝑆
• 𝑁 =
𝑅
o N = population size
o M = marked individuals released
o S = size of second sample
o R = marked animals recaptured
3) Abiotic Factors
• Abiotic factors are non-living components of an ecosystem, such as
temperature, water, pH, sunlight and soil that affects the environment and the
organisms that live in it
o Air, temperature, water, salinity, light, humidity, soil, pH, minerals
• Three Categories
o Edaphic (Soil)
o Climatic
o Aquatic
a) Edaphic Factors
• Abiotic factors concerned with the soil. Soil is made of
o Rock particles
o Air
o Water
o Minerals
o Organic matter
o Microorganisms
• Rock/Mineral Particles
o These are the inorganic parts of the soil and are classified according to
size. The three primary particles are sand, silt and clay. The proportion
of the particles in a soil determines its texture.
o Soil Size Comparison

Gravel
More than 2mm

Sand
0.2mm – 2mm

Silt (0.02mm – 0.0mm)

Clay (Less than 0.02mm)

 • Organic Matter
o Organic matter in the soil consists of decaying plant and animal materials.
It adds nutrients to the soil and improves its structure.
• Water
o Water enters the soil by rainfall, irrigation or from underground water.
Water is held in thin film around soil particles by capillarity
• Air
o Air is found between the spaces in the soil.
Characteristics Clay Sand Loam
Particle Size Very Fine Coarse Large Particles A mixture of both
Soft, crumbly, well
Texture Smooth, Sticky, Dense Gritty, Loose
structured
Water Retention High Low Moderate
Drainage Poor Excellent Good
Nutrient Retention High Low Moderate
Aeration Poor Good Good
• Texture
o How big or small the rock particles are
▪ Influences aeration
▪ Influences drainage
▪ Influences mineral content
▪ Influences plant & animal ability to penetrate the soil
• Air
o Provides oxygen needed for aerobic respiration in plant roots and soil
organisms
o Bacteria and fungi need oxygen in the air to decompose organic material
into humus
o Nitrogen in air is needed to form inorganic nitrogenous material
• Mineral Nutrients
o Needed for the healthy growth of plants
• pH
o How acidic or alkaline a substance is
o 6.0-7.5 [relatively neutral] is the optimal pH for most soil dwelling
o pH affects mineral availability for plants. If the soil is too alkaline or
acidic, mineral ions become less available.
• Humus
o Allows soil clump together, forming soil crumbs. This improves the
aeration of soil
o Improves the mineral content of soil by adding and retaining minerals
o Improves water content by adding and retaining water.

b) Climatic Factors
• These are terrestrial factors influencing the weather conditions:
o Light, Temperature, Humidity, Water Availability, Wind, Atmospheric
Pressure
• Light:
o Organisms are affected by light intensity and duration. Plants need light to
make food by photosynthesis. It is influencing the growth and distribution
of animals. Some plants and animals’ responses are dependent on seasonal
changes which are affected by changes in light.
• Temperature:
o Most organisms can survive a narrow range of temperatures. The cells are
damaged at low temperatures and enzymes are denatured at high
temperatures. Temperature also affects the rate of many biological
processes such as photosynthesis and germination.
• Humidity
o This is a measure of how much water vapour is present in the air
o Humidity affects the rate of biological processes that involve the loss of
water from an organism’s surface such as transpiration and evaporation of
water from the surfaces of some animals
• Water Availability/Precipitation
o Precipitation involves rainfall, snow, sleet and hail. Most organisms are
made up of water, most chemical reactions in the body take place in water.
Plants use water to make food during photosynthesis. Water availability
also affects the growth of plants.
• Wind
o Wind plays a role in seed dispersal, pollination and the distribution of heat
and moisture. It can also affect the structure of vegetation in an area.
c) Aquatic Factors
• These are the factors that affect organisms living in aquatic environments.
Aquatic environments are also affected by climatic factors plus other factors
such as salinity, water, movement, and wave action as well as dissolved
oxygen.
• Salinity
o How much salt is in water. Some organisms can only survive in fresh
water (like rivers and lakes) and some can survive in only salt water
(oceans, seas). Some, like the mangroves can survive in brackish waters
• Water Movement & Wave Action
o Changing in the levels and movement of water can affect aquatic
organisms
• Dissolves Gases
o Organisms living in water will need to dissolve oxygen for respiration.
If the oxygen level is too low or inadequate these organisms may die.
4) Feeding Relationships
• Food Chain:
o A linear representation of energy and nutrients flow through an ecosystem
between organisms using arrows.
▪ The sun is a primary source of energy for living things. Plants use
energy from the sun to photosynthesize – this makes them self-feeders
or autotrophs. They are also producers as they produce their own food
• All other organisms are heterotrophic consumers. They are classified
according to what they eat: herbivore, carnivore or omnivore. They are also
classified according to the rank: primary, secondary, tertiary consumers, etc.
Each organism occupies a feeding or trophic level. Plants as autotrophs are at
the first trophic level.
• Energy is lost at each level due to the life processes of each organism, for
example, up to 90% is lost therefore 10% is available. This limits the number
of trophic levels in a food chain. Predator-prey relationships are limited as
they become unprofitable after about six trophic levels.
• Organisms generally eat foods found in their habitats – it would be uncommon
to find a terrestrial organism as the meal of an aquatic organism since they do
not live there.
• The arrows are used to demonstrate the flow of energy as always only in the
direction away from the producer.
• Food Web:
o A collection of food chains within an ecosystem that intersect organisms
that are common to more than one food chain. They are more useful in
representing the diets of organisms and how energy moves in the ecosystem
• Decomposers
o Decomposers are not exactly within the food chain as they consume dead
and decaying organisms. They are different from scavengers and
detritivores by size but tend to deconstruct the complex molecules of other
organisms to recycle nutrients in the environment. Decomposers such as
fungi are called saprophytes as they both grow and feed on dead organisms
• Ecological Pyramids
o Because there is less energy and biomass at each trophic level in a food
chain, fewer organisms can be supported at each level.
o Energy, biomass and the number of organisms at successive levels can be
represented on a pyramid.
• Detritivores are animals (earthworms, woodlice, millipedes, sea cucumbers)
which feed on pieces of decomposing organic matter, breaking them down
into smaller fragments. They are scavengers.
• Decomposers are microorganisms which feed saprophytically on dead and
waste organic matter causing it to decompose. They secrete digestive enzymes
that break down complex organic compounds into simple organic compounds
which they absorb. During this process, they release carbon dioxide and
inorganic mineral nutrients in the form of ions (nitrates, sulfates) into the
environment. These can be reabsorbed and reused by plants
5) Symbiosis
• Symbiosis is any close relationship between two organisms of different
species. Symbiotic relationships can be divided into the following types:
o Parasitism
o Commensalism
o Mutualism

• Parasitism
o In parasitism, one organism (the parasite) gains benefit from the other
organism (the host), is harmed. The parasite lives in or on the host and
often has a vector or intermediate host which is unharmed by the parasite.
The parasite usually reproduces inside the intermediate host, and this
increases the parasite’s chance of survival and transmission.
o Lice and ticks live on certain mammals (humans, dogs, cows), sucking
on their blood.
o Tapeworms live in the intestines of humans. It absorbs digested food from
the intestines and gains shelter and protection.
• Commensalism
o In commensalism, one organism (the commensal) gains benefit while the
other organism neither gains nor is harmed.
o Epiphytes are plants which grow non-parasitically on other plants, which
they use for support since their roots do not enter the soil.
o Cattle egrets are commensals that perch on the back of cows. They gain
food by eating ticks from the cow’s skin and insects that the cow disturbs
as it moves through the grass.
o Remoras are small fish that attach themselves onto the skin of sharks by
suction cups on their heads. They gain food scarps left by the sharks as
they feed.
• Mutualism
o In mutualism, both organisms gain benefit, and in many cases, they
cannot survive without each other.
• Other relationships:
o Camouflage: some organisms resemble others or objects, so they are
concealed, e.g., stick insects resemble woody stems.
o Pollination: many plants depend on insects, small birds, or bats to transfer
their pollen from one flower to another for reproduction.
o Support: some organisms use others for support, e.g., birds build nests in
trees, vines use the support of other plants to grow closer to sunlight.
o Protection: some organisms use others for protection, e.g., grasshoppers
live in long grass.
o Competition: members of the same species and of different species may
compete. Animals compete for food, space, mates, and shelter. Plants
compete for light, water, and minerals.
6) Energy Flow
• During photosynthesis, primary producers absorb sunlight energy and convert
it into chemical energy, which is stored in organic food molecules. Some of
this energy is then released by the producers during respiration and some is
passed on through food chains in the organic molecules.
• At each trophic level in a food chain, energy and biomass (amount of
biological matter) are lost. Some organic matter containing energy is lost in
faeces and some is lost in organic excretory products, e.g. urea. Some is used
in respiration during which the stored energy is released and used or lost as
heat. The remaining energy containing organic matter is used in growth and
repair and is then passed on to the next trophic level when organisms are
consumed. Organisms not consumed eventually die.
• Organic matter in faeces, excretory products and dead organisms are
decomposed by decomposers and they release energy during respiration.
Energy, therefore, flows from producers to consumers and decomposers in one
direction through ecosystems, and is not recycled. In general, only 10% of the
energy from one level is transferred to the next level.

• Ecological pyramids
o Because there is less energy and biomass at each trophic level in a food
chain, fewer organisms can be supported at each level. Energy, biomass
and the number of organisms at successive levels can be represented by
ecological pyramids. Due to the loss of energy and biomass at each level,
food chains rarely exceed four or five trophic levels.
7) Recycling
• Materials are constantly being recycled and re-used in nature. The different
chemical elements that make up the bodies of all living organisms, mainly
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur and calcium, are
continually cycled through these living organisms and the physical
environment. Decomposers are essential to the recycling of most of these
elements.
• Water Cycling
o The cycling of water is essential to ensure that:
▪ Plants have a continuous supply of water to manufacture organic food
by photosynthesis.
▪ All living organisms have a continuous supply of water to keep their
cells hydrated and to act as a solvent.
▪ Aquatic organisms have a constant environment in which to live.
• Carbon Cycling
o Carbon atoms are cycled by being converted into different compounds
containing carbon, e.g. carbon dioxide and all organic compounds. The
cycling of carbon is essential to ensure that:
▪ Plants have a continuous supply of carbon dioxide to manufacture
organic food by photosynthesis.
▪ Animals and decomposers have a continuous supply of organic food.
• Recycling of manufactured and other waste materials
o Recycling changes waste materials into new products. Recyclable
materials can be divided int two categories:
▪ Biodegradable materials: these can be decomposed by the action of
living organisms, mainly bacteria and fungi. They include waste from
the food industry, farmyard and garden waste, and most paper and
bagasse from the sugar industry.
▪ Non-biodegradable materials: these cannot be decomposed by living
organisms. They include glass, plastics, rubber, construction waste,
synthetic fabrics such as nylon, and metals such as iron, steel,
aluminium, copper and lead.
o Recycling manufactured and other waste materials is important because
it:
▪ Prevents wastage of potentially useful materials.
▪ Conserves natural resources by reducing the quantity of fresh raw
materials used in manufacturing.
▪ Reduces energy usage.
▪ Reduces the quantity of waste requiring disposal.
▪ Reduces pollution of air, land and water.
• Difficulties encountered in recycling manufactured materials
o Several difficulties are encountered when trying to recycle materials:
▪ It can be difficult to persuade households and industries to separate
their waste into different types.
▪ It is more difficult to collect, transport and store waste items when
separated into different types.
▪ It can be time-consuming because items must be cleaned before they
are recycled. Also, different manufactured materials can have very
different properties, and they must be sorted into their different types
before recycling, e.g. there are many different types of plastics.
▪ It can be hazardous because recyclable materials must be separated
from any toxic materials before they can be recycled, e.g. the acid must
be removed from lead batteries before recycling the lead.
▪ Bagasse is biodegradable. Plastics are non-biodegradable
▪ It can be uneconomical in small countries such as the Caribbean
islands because it is labour and energy intensive, and the quantity of
recyclable materials generated by these countries is insufficient to
maintain the full-time operation of recycling plants.
▪ Most small countries do not have the facilities to use recycled raw
materials.
8) Impact of Man on The Environment
• Human activities are having a negative impact on both non-renewable and
renewable natural resources, and in many cases, these resources are being
rapidly depleted.
• Non-renewable resources
o Non-renewable resources are present on the Earth in finite amounts; they
cannot be replaced, and consequently they are running out. These include:
o Energy resources such as fossil fuels, i.e. petroleum (crude oil), natural
gas and coal, and radioactive fuels, e.g. uranium.
o Mineral resources such as iron ore, bauxite (aluminium ore), copper and
tin.
• Renewable resources
o Renewable resources can be replaced by natural processes. However,
many plant and animal species are being overexploited such that their
numbers are decreasing, in some cases to the point of extinction.
o Many marine organisms are being overfished for food, e.g. lobsters,
whales, turtles, sea eggs and conch.
o Some terrestrial organisms are being overhunted for products such as fur
and ivory, e.g. mink, seal and elephants.
• The Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming
o Carbon dioxide, water vapour, dinitrogen monoxide (N2O) and methane
(CH4) are greenhouse gases.
o They form a layer around the Earth that lets radiation from the sun pass
through but prevents much of it being reflected into space. This radiation
causes warming of the Earth which is known as the greenhouse effect.
o An increase in greenhouse gases, especially carbon dioxide, caused by
human activities, e.g. burning fossil fuels and deforestation is enhancing
the greenhouse effect and resulting in the Earth getting warmer. This
warming, called global warming, is leading to global climate change. It is
starting to cause:
▪ Melting of polar ice caps and glaciers.
▪ A rise in sea levels.
▪ Flooding of low-lying coastal areas.
9) Population Studies
• The rate at which a population grows depends on four factors: the birth rate,
the death rate, the rate of movement of organisms into the population, i.e.
immigration, and the rate of movement of organisms out of the population, i.e.
emigration. The growth of the population may be represented by a sigmoid
growth curve
• Stages:
o Stage 1 -When a population is colonizing a new habitat the growth rate
of the population is slow at first. This is because there are a small
number of individuals mature enough to reproduce. This is the lag phase
or stage of little growth
o Stage 2 - After some time, the population will experience rapid growth
if there are favorable conditions in the habitat Favorable conditions
include abundant food supply, no competition, little to no predators, no
disease, high birth rate and low death rate. This is the stage of rapid
growth or exponential growth phase
o Stage 3 - Rapid growth doesn’t continue forever, population growth will
slow down. This is because the various resources are not enough to
sustain the population size. This is the point at which population growth
begins to slow down – transitional phase.
▪ Food may not be enough
▪ There is now competition for space and mates, etc.
▪ Predator numbers increase as well
o Stage 4 - The population growth rate slows and stops. Stage 4 is the
point at which growth is constant, no growth takes place.
▪ At this point, the population size remains constant
▪ If there is any increase
or decrease, it doesn’t go
far from the average
population size
▪ If the population
experiences a rapid
decline this may be due to
disease, a serious
environmental change or
too much predation.
• The red dotted line represents the carrying capacity of the population.
• Carrying capacity is the maximum number of organisms that the environment
can sustain over a period.
• If population sizes go over this by huge numbers, then the environment will
not be able to sustain it
• Birth rate and death rate are roughly the same at this point

• Factors that Reduce Population Sizes

o Food shortages
o Overcrowding
o Diseases
o Predators
o These factors cause the death rate to increase, more than the birth rate
o At this point populations decrease.
o Other factors that affect population sizes include
o natural disasters such as hurricanes, tornadoes, earthquakes, tsunamis,
etc.
o Pests
o Invasive species – these come in and ‘take over’ causing food and other
resources to be in short supply for locals’ species
• Human Population
• The human population is still in the rapid growth or exponential phase of the
sigmoid curve.
• The general population of the earth is increasing, even though many females
have decided to use family planning
• Many countries have laws that make it mandatory to limit the number of births
o And many countries are under
populated
o Local populations grow:
o when the birth rate is high, and the
death rate is low
o There are many more people being
added to the population than the
number of people being removed
o When the immigration rate is high,
countries see an increase in the
number of citizens
o Emigration is low, not many people
are leaving the country to go
elsewhere
• Local populations decrease when:
o Birth rate is low, and death rate is high
o There are more people being removed from the population that are
being added
o When emigration is high, the number of citizens decreases
o When migration is low, not many people come into the country
Easter Term
1) Cells
• The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living organisms. Some
organisms are unicellular being composed of a single cell; others are
multicellular, composed of many cells. Cells are so small they can only be
seen through a microscope and are invisible to the naked eye.

Plant and Animal Cells

• All plant and animal cells contain structures called organelles which are
specialized to carry out one or more vital functions

Structures of Animal Cell

• Cell membrane – a selectively permeable membrane composed of protein and
lipids around the outside of the cell. Controls what enters and exits the cell
• Cytoplasm – a jelly-like substance composed of about 80% water and 20%
dissolved substance, especially protein. Supports the organelles and is the site
of many chemical reactions
• Nucleus: the ‘brain’ of the cell. Surrounded by a double membrane (nuclear
membrane). Chromatin threads contain genetic information in the form of
DNA which contains the characteristics of the cell. The nucleus is essential in
mitosis. The nucleus also contains structures like the nucleolus and
nucleoplasm.
• Mitochondrion – a rod-shaped organelle with a smooth outer membrane and a
folded inner membrane. Contains respiratory enzymes. Where respiration
occurs.
• Vacuoles: small, membrane-bound compartments which may contain water,
food, cell secretions or waste. They are sometimes absent in cells, and they
are temporary
• Glycogen granules – a food store
• Ribosomes - these make proteins (protein synthesis). Located on the rough
endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and around the cell
• Golgi Apparatus - helps process and package proteins and lipid molecules,
especially proteins destined to be exported from the cell
Plant cells usually have a specific shape which is usually determined by the Cell
wall. They have feature like animal cells. They have extra organelles like cell wall
and chloroplasts
• Cell Wall – A freely permeable wall made of cellulose. Supports and protects
the cell and gives it shape
• Cell Membrane
• Chloroplasts – a disc-shaped organelles surrounded by a double membrane.
Has many internal membranes, the green pigment called chlorophyll, and
photosynthetic enzymes may have starch grains. Where photosynthesis
occurs.
• Starch Grains – a food store
• Large, Permanent Vacuole – a large membrane-bound compartment
containing cell sap, a solution of sugars, mineral salts, amino acids and waste
products. Supports cell when turgid. May store food or cell waste.
• Vacuole Membrane
• Nucleus
• Cytoplasm
• Ribosomes
• Golgi Apparatus
Animal Cell Plant Cell
No cell wall present Have a cell wall, made of cellulose
Usually have chloroplasts, which
No chloroplast or chlorophyll
contain chlorophyll
When present, vacuoles are small and
Usually we have one large, central
scattered throughout the cytoplasm
vacuole which contain cell sap
and contents vary
May contain glycogen granules May contain starch grains
Have a regular shape (round, square
Many various shapes
or rectangular)
Microbe Cells
Microbes or micro-organisms are extremely small organisms that include all
members of the Prokaryote kingdom, e.g. bacteria, many members of the
Protoctista kingdom, e.g. amoeba, and some members of the Fungi kingdom, e.g.
yeast. The cells of prokaryotes lack a true nucleus and other membrane-bound
organelles. Their DNA exists in a region called the nucleoid, which lacks a
nuclear membrane, and in smaller regions called plasmids.

• Flagellum (flagella pl.)- A long, whip-like, thin structure attached to the cell.
It allows the cell to move around.
• Capsule- Is a slimy protective layer, made of mucus, around the cell wall.
Protects the cell from being engulfed by phagocytic cells. Contains water
which protects bacteria from desiccation.
• Cell Wall- Are complex boundaries made up of the polysaccharide, murein.
The function of the bacterial cell wall is to act as a filter. It maintains the shape
of the cell wall. It prevents bursting when excess water is present in the cell.
• Cell Membrane and Plasma Membrane- This is the boundary that encloses
the cell and its cell surface membrane contents. It is partially selectively
permeable, so it regulates the amount of nutrients and other substances that
enter the cell. It secretes waste from the cell. It also separates the cell from its
environment. It protects the cell and its contents.
• Cytoplasm- A gel-like substance composed of water with dissolved
substances like water and gases, such as CO2 &O2. It also contains enzymes
and proteins. Cytoplasm is the site for chemical processes such as respiration.
It houses structures such as ribosomes, DNA and plasmids. It stores food. It
contains enzymes, it is mostly made of water.
• Nucleoid- It is the region of the cell where the DNA is stored. The nucleoid
sometimes contains enzymes, proteins and RNA used for cellular processes.
• DNA (Genetic Material)- DNA in bacteria is simple and circular. It is found
in the nucleoid region of cells. It contains instructions for development and
functioning of the cells.
• Plasmid (Extra DNA)-This is a smaller circular DNA that is separate from
the main DNA. It may help the bacteria to form resistance against substances.
• Ribosomes – these make proteins (protein synthesis)
• Pilus - hair-like structure found on the surface of some bacteria and archaea
that helps with adhesion, colonization, and infection

• Pseudopodia – “false foot” an extension of the membrane and cytoplasm.

Used to engulf food for movement
• Food vacuole – contains ingested microscopic organisms. Where digestion
occurs.
• Contractile vacuole – contains water. Collects and removes excess water from
the cytoplasm.
 Cell Specialization
• The body of a unicellular organism consists of one unspecialized cell. This
cell can carry out all essential life processes.
• The body of a multicellular organism is composed of many cells. To enable
multicellular organisms to carry out all essential life processes efficiently, cells
in their bodies become specialized (differentiated) to carry out specific
functions, e.g. muscle cells in animals contract to bring about movement,
mesophyll cells in leaves carry out photosynthesis. By becoming specialized,
cells are better able to carry out their specific functions. Cells specialized in
carrying out a particular function then work together in groups called tissues.
Tissues may contain one or, in some cases, more than one type of cell.
Specialized Cell Use Adaptations
Animal Cells
Biconcave shape for increased
Red Blood Cell Transports oxygen in the blood surface area; no nucleus for more
space to carry haemoglobin
Can change shape to engulf
White Blood Cell Fights infections and diseases
pathogens; produces antibodies
Facilitates movement by Contains many mitochondria for
Muscle Cell
contracting and relaxing energy; long and elastic
Has a tail for movement;
Sperm Cell Fertilizes the ovum contains enzymes to penetrate
ovum
Large and nutrient-rich; has a
Ovum (Egg Cell) Carries female genetic material
protective membrane
Long axons for quick
Transmits electrical signals
Nerve Cell (Neuron) transmission; myelin sheath for
throughout the body
insulation
Forms protective barriers and Tightly packed; some have cilia
Epithelial Cell
lines organs for movement of substances
Plant Cell
Absorbs water and minerals from Has a long projection for
Root Hair Cell
the soil increased surface area
Controls the opening and closing Changes shape to regulate gas
Guard Cell
of stomata exchange and water loss
Transports water and minerals in Hollow and strengthened with
Xylem Cell
plants lignin for support
Transports food (sugars) in Has sieve plates for efficient
Phloem Cell
plants transport
 Stores food and helps with Thin-walled and flexible for
Parenchyma Cell
photosynthesis storage and photosynthesis
Packed with chloroplasts; closely
Palisade Mesophyll Main site of photosynthesis in
arranged for maximum light
Cell leaves
absorption
2) Movement of Substances
• Substances can move in and out of the cell with three different processes:
o Diffusion
o Osmosis
o Active Transport

Diffusion
• Diffusion is the net movement of particles from an area of high concentration
to low concentration across a concentration gradient until equilibrium is met.

Osmosis
• Osmosis is the net movement of water molecules from an area of high
concentration to low concentration across a selectively permeable membrane
with the aim of reaching equilibrium.
• In any cell, the cell
membrane is differentially
permeable. There is always
cytoplasm, a solution of
protein and other substances
in water, on the inside of the
membrane and usually a
solution on the outside. Water
molecules, therefore, move
into and out of cells by
osmosis.
• Tonicity: the amount of solutes (dissolved substances) a solution contains
compared to another solution.
• Solutions may be:
o Hypertonic
o Hypotonic
o Isotonic
• Hypertonic Solutions: this is where there is a higher of water inside the cell
than in the solution; there is a net movement of water inside the cell.
• Hypotonic Solutions: this is where there is a high concentration of water in the
solution than the cell; there is a net movement of water outside the cell
• Isotonic Solution: there is an equal concentration of water inside the cell and
in the solution; net movement in and out of the cell at the same rate.
Hypertonic Solutions
• When cells are hypertonic solutions, water will move out of the cell.
• Animal cells will shrivel when placed in a hypertonic solution.
• Plant cells shrivel but because of their cell wall they remain the same size. The
cells go through a process called ‘plasmolysis’. In this state, the cell is flaccid.
o Plasmolysis is the process in which a plant cell loses water due to
osmosis, causing the cell membrane to shrink away from the cell wall.
When this occurs, the cell is plasmolyzed.
Hypotonic Solutions
• When cells are
in hypotonic solutions,
water will move into
the cell.
• Animal cells
with swell and if too
much water enters the
cell it will burst.
• Plant cells in
these solutions will
also swell but will not burst because of their cell wall. The cell membrane and
cell contents push against the cell wall and cause a pressure build up. In this
state, the cell is turgid.

Isotonic Solutions
• When cells are placed in Isotonic solutions water will keep moving between
the solution and the cell, but at the same rate, so the cell will remain the
same size. In these solutions, there is no change in the plant and animal cells
because there is no net or major movement in any direction so, water moves
in and out equally.
• Animal cells are like isotonic environments because their sizes remain the
same. They will not burst or shrink.
• Plant cells do not like isotonic solutions because the cytoplasm is not
pushing against the cell wall to help it be firm. Plant cells are flaccid in
isotonic solutions. They begin to wilt at this point.

Factors Affecting the Rate of Diffusion

• Temperature - The higher the temperature, the faster the movement of water
molecules across the semi-permeable membrane.
• Surface Area - The larger the surface area, the more space for the molecules
to move easily across; the smaller the area, the more restricted the movements
of the molecules and the slower the movement.
• Pressure – The more the pressure, the faster the molecules will move for they
are being pushed forward.
• Concentration Gradient - The movement of osmosis is affected by the
concentration gradient; the lower the concentration of the solute within a
solution the faster osmosis will occur in that solvent.
• Difference in Water Potential – water potential means water can move. If
there is a high water to potential that means water is more willing to move
than if there is a low water potential. If the water potential of an area (cell A)
 is higher than for another area (cell B) than water is going to move from A to
B. if the water potential is very similar there will be very little movement

Importance of Osmosis to Living Organisms

• Plants take in water, through roots by osmosis. Water is used for
photosynthesis.
• Cells are kept hydrated by osmosis.
• Osmosis keeps cells turgid, so trees can stay erect (do not wilt) and trap
sunlight.
• Water is distributed through plants and animals for chemical reactions, by
osmosis.
• The kidney tubules reabsorb water into the blood, by osmosis, so that the body
doesn’t lose too much water.
• Water that is taken in when we drink moves into the blood from the intestines,
by osmosis. This water is needed to keep the body hydrated.

Active Transport
• Unlike passive transport (osmosis and diffusion) which do not need the use
of energy, active transport requires energy and molecules are moved from
low concentration to high concentration.
• Active transport is the movement of mineral and ions (molecules) from an
area of low concentration to high concentration through a selectively
permeable membrane and against a concentration gradient using energy from
cellular respiration.
Examples in Organisms
• Mineral ions move into plant root cells, from the soil, by active transport
• Photosynthesis produces glucose which is moved into the phloem by active
transport.
• Some of the glucose and amino acids produced in digestion are absorbed from
the ileum into the blood by active transport
• Useful substances are reabsorbed from the filtrate (concentrated solution) in
the kidneys into the blood by active transport
3) Nutrition
• Nutrition is the process by which living organisms make or obtain food.
• There are two types of nutrition:
o Autotrophic
o Heterotrophic

Autotrophic Nutrition
• Autotrophic nutrition occurs in green plants and some bacteria. These
organisms, called autotrophs, use simple inorganic compounds, e.g. carbon
dioxide, water and minerals to manufacture complex organic food substances,
e.g. carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and vitamins. Autotrophic nutrition
requires a source of energy. The main type is photosynthesis which occurs in
green plants and uses energy from sunlight.

Heterotrophic Nutrition
• Heterotrophic nutrition occurs in animals, fungi and most bacteria. These
organisms, called heterotrophs, obtain ready-made organic food from their
environment. There are three types:
o Holozoic nutrition occurs in most animals. The organisms obtain organic
food by consuming other organisms. The complex organic food is
ingested (taken in) by the organism and then digested (broken down) into
simpler organic substances within the body of the organism.
o Saprophytic nutrition occurs in fungi and most bacteria. The organisms,
called saprophytes, obtain organic food from the dead remains of other
organisms. They digest the complex organic food outside their bodies and
then absorb the simpler organic substances produced.
o Parasitic nutrition occurs in some plants, animals, fungi and bacteria. The
organisms, called parasites, obtain organic food from the body of another
living organism called the host. The host is usually harmed.
a) Autotrophic Nutrition
• Photosynthesis is the chemical process by which carbon dioxide and water in
the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll is used by plants to make oxygen
and glucose.
o Raw Materials: Oxygen and Water
o Conditions: Light Energy and Chlorophyll
o Products: Glucose and Oxygen
𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛 + 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ⟶ 𝐺𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒 + 𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛
6C02 + 6H2 O ⟶ C6 H12 O6 + 6O2
• Photosynthesis occurs in any plant structure that contains chlorophyll (is
green), however it mainly occurs in the leaves of the plant. Photosynthesis
occurs in the chloroplasts of plants as it contains chlorophyll.
The Two Stages of Photosynthesis
• Photosynthesis occurs in two stages:
o Light-dependent Stage: This stage requires light to take place. This is
when chlorophyll uses the sun’s energy to split the water molecules into
two hydrogen and an oxygen molecule. Oxygen is released as a waste
product and diffuses from the leaves through the stomata, into the
environment.
o Light-dependent Stage/ Dark Stage: Does not require light. This is when
the hydrogen atoms from the water combine with the carbon dioxide
atoms, with the help of special enzymes. Combining carbon dioxide with
hydrogen is sometimes called the reduction of carbon dioxide.
Conditions Needed for Photosynthesis
• Light Energy
• Chlorophyll
• Photosynthetic Enzymes
• A suitable temperature
• Mineral Ions
Movement to the Chloroplast
• Carbon Dioxide: diffuses from the air, through the stomata/pores, on the
underside of the leaf. It goes into the air spaces, into the mesophyll cells.
When the cells use up carbon dioxide, its concentration into the cells drops,
 so more carbon dioxide will then diffuses into the cells from the high
concentration in air.
• Water: moves from the soil into the plant roots by osmosis. It then moves up
the stems, into the leaves through the xylem vessels. Water moves from the
xylem in the leaves to the individual cells by osmosis.
• Light Rays: pass through the leaves from all around, especially from above.
The chloroplasts are most abundant at the surface of the leaves. This section
of cells is called the palisade mesophyll. The chlorophyll in these cells traps
most of the sunlight.
Fate of The Products of Photosynthesis
• Oxygen
o Instead of being released, the oxygen may be re-used by the cells for
cellular respiration
o If not used, it simply exits the leaves by diffusion.
• Glucose
o It is converted to sucrose (simple sugar) and carried to other parts of the
plants by the phloem tubes. When it gets to the other cells, it is
reconverted to glucose and used for respiration.
o It can be converted to starch and stored in plant organs, such as roots and
stems. The starch can be reconverted to glucose for other times when the
plants need energy.
o It can be converted to start, lipids (fats), proteins and used for growth and
development.
o It can be used in the leaf cells for respiration.
o It can be converted to cellulose and form part of the cell wall.
Parts of the Leaf
• The lamina/blade is the organ made up of all the cells in a leaf.
• Apex is the tip of the leaf
• The lamina is attached to the plant by the petiole
• The margin is the edge of the leaf
• The midrib is the main vein that contains the xylem and phloem.
 • The veins branch off from the
midrib. The phloem in them collects
sugars and send to other parts of the plant
and the xylem takes water from the midrib
into the veins so all the cells can get it
• The petiole/ leaf stalk connects the
lamina to the branch of the plant
Adaptations of the Leaf
The leaf has adaptations (special) features
to carry out photosynthesis:
• External Adaptations of the Leaf:
o The lamina is usually broad and flat. Increasing surface area for diffusion
of carbon dioxide in and oxygen out. It is flat to ensure that diffusion
takes place over a short distance.
o The lamina is usually thin to ensure that sunlight gets to all the cells, and
carbon dioxide moves in quickly.
o The lamina is usually held flat by the veins, so they remain open to trap
light.
o Leaves usually lie at a 900 to the sunlight to maximize exposure to
sunlight.
o There are usually many leaves, with good spacing between them to try
and avoid shading.
o There are many stomata on the underside of the leaf, to allow carbon
dioxide in and oxygen out quickly.
• Internal Adaptations of the Leaf

o Palisade Mesophyll has many cells, closely packed, and close to upper
surface of leaves. These cells contain many chloroplasts with
chlorophyll. This important because the more chlorophyll present, then
maximum sunlight will be absorbed to provide energy.
o The palisade mesophyll cells are also closer to surface of leaf to allow
chloroplasts to move closer to cell surface in dim light to capture sunlight
o The spongy mesophyll has less cells causing spaces to be formed
between cells, allowing diffusion of gases
o The intercellular air spaces between the spongy mesophyll cells allow
carbon dioxide to diffuse in and oxygen to diffuse out very quickly.
o The veins contain xylem and phloem.
▪ The xylem supplies mesophyll cells with water and minerals
▪ The phloem takes the food made in photosynthesis away from the
mesophyll cells to “feed” other parts of the plant.
o There is an upper and lower epidermis.
▪ They are responsible for protecting the inside cells
▪ They also secrete the cuticle which prevents water loss
 ▪ The cuticle is also transparent to allow light to pass through
o The stomata allow carbon
dioxide in and oxygen and water
out. They are controlled by guard
cells
▪ There are guard cells on
either side of the stomata
▪ When guard cells are turgid
(stiff) they stretch creating space
between them, the stomata open
▪ When they are flaccid, they
relax and lessen the space between
them, causing stomata het smaller or
close.

Environmental Factors that Affect Photosynthesis

• Since Photosynthesis requires raw materials it means that if anything is

missing or in short supply Photosynthesis can slow down or even stop.
• For example, if there is enough light, carbon dioxide and the temperature is
suitable but there is not enough water Photosynthesis will slow down.
• Any factor that slows down or stops the rate of Photosynthesis is the Limiting
Factors.
• The limiting factor is the environmental factor that is in short supply slowing
down the rate of photosynthesis.
• The main factors that affect Photosynthesis are
o Temperature
o Light Intensity
o Carbon dioxide concentration
o Water Availability
• Light intensity – decreases at special times, like at dusk, dawn, during winter
months, cloudy days. During these times photosynthesis slows down because
light intensity has decreased, so there is less energy for the chlorophyll. In the
days and when there is normal, sunny weather, the rate of photosynthesis
returns to normal.
• Temperature variations affect the rate of photosynthesis. When it is hot, the
structure of enzymes that reduce carbon dioxide to glucose get disrupted
because the molecules vibrate too much. At this point high temperatures will
 be the limiting factor. During winter months and when it gets very hot in the
summer, the rate of photosynthesis is limited by temperature.
• Water availability - Little to no water during the dry season and when the soil
is frozen limits the amount of water available for the plants.
• Carbon Dioxide Concentration - the atmospheric concentration of CO2 is
about 0.03-0.04%. If the concentration gets much lower than that the rate of
photosynthesis will be slowed

These limiting factors can be represented on a graph:

• In the graph it shows that as light intensity increases, the rate of

photosynthesis increases. Points A to B.
• Since photosynthesis is increasing with light intensity it means light
intensity was the limiting factor
• At point B the rate of photosynthesis stops increasing, even though light
intensity is still increasing.
o This means there is another factor limiting the rate
o According to the line, that is CO2
• If light intensity, water levels and the temperature are optimum then when
CO2 increases, then the rate of photosynthesis will also increase.
 Minerals Needed for Plant Nutrition

• Plant Nutrition doesn’t only refer to Photosynthesis, it also refers to the

compounds that are needed to make proteins, vitamins, etc. If these
compounds are missing then plants cannot function as normal. These
compounds are Mineral nutrients

Element and Ion Functions Results of Deficiency

Poor growth; chlorosis
To make proteins for plant (yellowing of leaves,
Nitrogen (Nitrate: NO₃⁻)
growth; to make chlorophyll. especially older leaves);
underdeveloped leaves.
To make chlorophyll; magnesium
Magnesium (Magnesium:
is part of the chlorophyll Chlorosis of leaves.
Mg²⁺)
molecule.
Stunted growth (short stems);
Phosphorus (Phosphate: To make ATP; to make some dull, purplish-green leaves
PO₄³⁻) proteins. with curly brown edges; poor
root growth.
Yellow-brown margins and
Helps maintain the correct salt
brown spots on leaves, creating
Potassium (Potassium: K⁺) balance in cells; helps in
a mottled appearance;
photosynthesis.
premature leaf death.
Poor growth; chlorosis of
Sulphur (Sulphate: SO₄²⁻) To make proteins.
leaves.
Poor, stunted growth; death of
To make cell walls in the growing
Calcium (Calcium: Ca²⁺) growing root and shoot tips;
tips of roots and shoots.
poor bud development.
Needed for chlorophyll synthesis; Chlorosis (yellowing of young
Iron (Iron: Fe³⁺ / Fe²⁺) helps in electron transport in leaves); reduced enzyme
photosynthesis. activity, affecting metabolism.
4) Chemistry of Life
• There are many chemical elements present in all living organisms. They
combine to produce various chemical compounds used by living organisms to
carry out all their metabolic processes. Of that number there are six (6) that
stand out and are most common, and there are a few common ones.
• The main 6 are: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus,
Sulphur. Common ones include Calcium (Ca), Sodium (Na), Fluorine (F),
Potassium (K)
• The organic compounds that these
elements make up include
o Carbohydrates
o Proteins
o Lipids / Fats
o Vitamins (A, B, C, D, E and K)
• N.B. an organic compound contains
both carbon and hydrogen and is
made from living organisms
• The inorganic compounds made by
these elements include:
o Water
o Carbon Dioxide
o Oxygen
o Sulphates
o Phosphates
• N.B. an inorganic compound is one that does not contain both hydrogen and
carbon, and it is not made by living organisms.

Carbohydrates
• Carbohydrates are organic compounds made of Carbon, Hydrogen and
Oxygen. They include sugar, starches and cellulose.
• C, H and O occur in carbohydrates in ratio of ~1:2:1. Hydrogen and oxygen
are always in the ratio of 2:1, Hydrogen to Oxygen.
• There are three types of
 Carbohydrates:
monosaccharides, disaccharides
and polysaccharides.

Monosaccharides
• These are the simplest forms
of Carbohydrates. They are
simple sugars. They include
glucose, fructose and galactose.
The chemical formula is C6H12O6. They all have 6 Carbons, 12 Hydrogens
and 6 Oxygens in their structure. Though they have similar chemical
formulas, their structures are very different.

• Properties of Monosaccharides
o They are sweet tasting
o They are soluble in water (can dissolve in water)
o They are very small
o Solid at room temperature, they are crystalline
o They are reducing sugar
• Importance of Monosaccharides
o They are very important sources of energy.
▪ E.g. glucose is broken down during respiration of energy. Glucose
is the Food source produced by photosynthesis.
o They combine to form more complex sugars like sucrose, also needed for
energy
o They form larger molecules that provide structural support

Disaccharides
• “Di” means two, therefore two sugars combine to make disaccharides, also
called complex sugars. Their chemical formula is C12H22O11. Disaccharides
are sugars made when two monosaccharides combine. The reaction that forms
disaccharides is a condensation reaction. Condensation means water is
removed. When disaccharides are being broken down into monosaccharides
water is added, the reaction is hydrolysis, enzymes help this process. Common
disaccharides include sucrose, maltose, and lactose.
• Sucrose is the common sugar that we all use. It is formed when a glucose
molecule and a fructose molecule combine through condensation (water
removed).
• Maltose is formed when two glucose molecules combine through a
condensation reaction, removing water.

• Properties of Disaccharides:
o They are sweet tasting
o They are soluble in water
o Maltose and Galactose are reducing sugars, sucrose is a non-reducing
sugar.
• Importance of Disaccharides:
o They are used as a source of energy
o They are used as sweeteners
o They are used as a means of energy transport, e.g. sucrose is transported
around plants and then broken down to glucose and fructose when it gets
to where it is needed.
Polysaccharides
• These are complex carbohydrates. They have a chemical formula of
(C6H10O5)n, where n can be any number. They are formed when many
monosaccharides combine through condensation(dehydration) reactions. i.e.
they are polymers of monosaccharides. They are broken down to disaccharides
and monosaccharides through hydrolysis reactions, using enzymes. Their
structures are usually long chains, some chains are straight, and some chains
have branches.
• Types of polysaccharides include:
o Starch
o Cellulose
o Glycogen
• Properties of Polysaccharides
o They are not sweet
o They are not soluble in water
o Starch is made up of two types of units, amylose and amylopectin
• Importance of Polysaccharides
o Starch - the main energy store in plant cells. It is a source of food for
animals.
o Cellulose - the main component in cell walls of plant cells. It provides
structural support to plant cell walls.
o Glycogen - is the equivalent of starch, but in animals, the main energy
store in animal cells

Lipids
• These are fats and oils. They are made of Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen, but
there are much fewer oxygen atoms present in Lipids. Lipids are made of four
smaller molecules, 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids. Glycerol is the only molecule
that contains oxygen. The fatty acids
only contain hydrogen and carbon
atoms.
• The reaction that takes place between
fatty acids and glycerol and fatty
acids, to form lipids, is condensation.
i.e. water is removed for the fatty
acids to connect with the glycerol.
• Types of lipids include oils, waxes,
steroids
Properties of Lipids
• They are insoluble in water
• They are soluble in alcohol and other organic solvents
Importance of Lipids
• They make up a major part of the cell membrane of all cells
• They are a secondary source of energy when carbohydrates are used up
• Excess fats are stored for later use, e.g. oils in nuts and fatty tissue in animals
• Fats provide insulation, especially for animals living in cold regions
• Fats are a source of food. E.g. butter, nuts, pastry, etc.
Proteins
• These are organic compounds that are made up of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen,
Nitrogen, and sometimes, Phosphorus and Sulphur. These atoms combine in
various ways to make amino acids. Amino acids are the small units or building
blocks that make up proteins.
• There are 20 basic amino acids, essential amino acids, they combine in many
ways to form proteins. The reactions that amino acids undergo to proteins are
condensation, where water is removed. Amino acids form protein chains that
may remain straight, form fibers or coil like a phone cord, or folded to form
various structures, like a ball
• The links that form between proteins are called peptide bonds.
• Examples of Proteins
o Haemoglobin - present in red blood cells.
o Keratin - forms part of the structure of hair and nails.
o Enzymes – These help reactions to take place using less energy.

Properties of Proteins
• Some of them are soluble in water, some are insoluble
• The order of the amino acids determines the resulting protein
• All proteins have a specific function
Importance of Proteins
• Proteins are needed to repair wounds and cuts
• Help in the making of new cells
• Aids growth and development
• They are part of the structure of antibodies, hormones
• Enzymes are proteins that ensure that many chemical reactions take place in
living organisms for their survival.
Vitamins
• An organic compound made up of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and other
elements such as Phosphorus.
• Vitamins are needed in small amounts in the body, as they cannot be made by
the body.
• Examples of vitamins:
o Vitamin A
o Vitamin B1/Thiamin
o Vitamin B2 Riboflavin
o Vitamin B3/Niacin
o Vitamin C / Ascorbic Acid
o Vitamin D
o Vitamin E
o Vitamin K
Properties of Vitamins
• Some vitamins are only soluble in water, water-soluble
• Some vitamins are only soluble in fats, fat-soluble
Importance of Vitamins
• They are important for growth and reproduction
• Some function as coenzymes, i.e. enzymes cannot work properly without
them.
Summer Term
1) Heterotrophic Nutrition
• Heterotrophic nutrition in humans occurs in five stages
You can remember using the acronym Izzie’s Dog Ate An Egg
o Ingestion: the process by which food is taken into the body via the mouth.
o Digestion: the process by which food is broken down into simple, soluble
food molecules.
o Absorption: the process by which the soluble food molecules, produced
in digestion, move into the body fluids and body cells.
o Assimilation: the process by which the body uses the soluble food
molecules absorbed after digestion.
o Egestion: the process by which undigested food material is removed from
the body.

• In humans, the system that handles nutrition is the digestive

system. It is its job to convert food to a form the body can use.
• The digestive system consists of:
o The alimentary canal / gastrointestinal tract / gut
o Liver and Gall bladder
o Pancreas
• The alimentary canal is a muscular tube, about 8-9
meters, that runs from the mouth to the anus. Each
section is adapted to carry out its own special function.
The parts of the alimentary canal are the mouth,
oesophagus, stomach, small intestines, large intestines and
anus.
a) The Mouth
• Ingestion starts with the mouth. This is where food is taken into the body, by
the hands.
• Digestion occurs in two ways in the mouth, chemical and mechanical.

i) Mechanical Digestion in the Mouth

• Mechanical digestion is done by the teeth. Mastication (chewing) is done by
the teeth and tongue.
• The tongue turns and stirs the food while the teeth chew and break the food
into smaller pieces.
• Mechanical digestion is very important because:
o Breaking down food into small pieces increases the surface area for
enzymes in the mouth t effectively work (more surface area is exposes
for the enzymes to work on).
o Food is broken up to make it easier to pass through the alimentary canal.
The Teeth
• There are four types of teeth in the human mouth.
o Incisors
o Canines
o Premolars
o Molars
• Teeth make food particles smaller for swallowing and movement of food
through the alimentary canal easier. Their action increases the surface area of
food so that saliva and gastric juices can get to all the food, making chemical
digestion faster.
Parts of the Teeth
 • Enamel – covers the crown, very hard outer surface. Protects the teeth,
preventing it from damage
• Dentine – greater part of the tooth, it is bone-like but softer than enamel
• Pulp Cavity – the space where blood vessels and nerves are present. It forms
dentine and helps to protect teeth.
o Blood vessels – take food and oxygen to cells, removes carbon dioxide
from cells
o Nerves – help teeth sense hot and cold
• Cement – bone-like structure that lines root and holds the tooth in place
• Gum / gingiva – has fibres/periodontal ligaments that attach to the cement
around the teeth and hold them in place.
• Crown – the part of the tooth that is above the gum. It is used for mastication
• Neck – between the crown and the root, is in gum for support
• Root – the part of the teeth in the gum. It goes all the way to the bone socket,
holds the teeth in place.

Type Position Shape Function Amount

At the front of the Chisel-shaped with sharp To cut food, to bite
Incisor 8
jaw edges. One root off pieces of food
To grip and pierce
Cone/dagger shaped and
Canine Next to incisor food, to tear pieces 4
pointed with one root
off food
After the canines, Flat surface with two cusps, To grind and crush
Premolar 8
side of the jaw has two roots food
None in
After premolars, Flat surface with four/five Crush and grind
Molar children.
back of the jaw cusps. Three roots food
Adults - 12
ii) Chemical Digestion in the Mouth
• Chemical digestion takes places while mastication is taking place. The
salivary glands in the mouth produce saliva.
• The saliva contains water, mucus and the enzyme salivary amylase. The water
and mucus moisten and soften the food while the amylase begins to break
down starch present in the food to maltose.
• After the food is chewed properly, it is rolled into a ball-like structure called a
bolus and swallowed to move it into the oesophagus.
o The bolus is water, mucus and chewed food and enzymes.
• There is a flap In the back of the throat which covers the trachea/windpipe
while swallowing called the epiglottis.
b) The Oesophagus
• The oesophagus is the muscular tube that connects the throat to the stomach.
• It runs behind the trachea and the heart. It moves food from the stomach by
the stomach by peristalsis.
• Peristalsis is where circular muscles contract to push food forward. This
repeats until the bolus gets to the stomach.

c) The Stomach
• At the bottom of the oesophagus is a ring of muscle, sphincter muscle, that
opens to release food into the stomach
• The stomach is a muscular organ that lies to the upper left abdomen
• The stomach churns the bolus. As it is churned, the pits in the stomach secrete
gastric juices, which contain:
o Mucus – protects the lining of the stomach from HCl
o Hydrochloric acid (HCl) – provides and acidic environment for rennin
and pepsin to work & kills pathogens
o Pepsin – begins protein
digestion in the
stomach, proteins are
broken down to
peptides.
o Rennin (in babies) –
present in baby
mammals, it clots the
protein in milk so it can
be digested.
• Churning and digestion takes
place for about 2 hours. The
result is chyme, a more liquid
state.
• The pyloric sphincter muscle
at the bottom of the stomach opens, releasing the chyme into the small
intestines
d. The Small Intestines
• Chyme enters the duodenum from the stomach, it is still acidic because of the
HCl present.
• Liver cells make bile and store it in the gall bladder.
• Gall bladder secretes bile, through the bile duct into the duodenum.
o Bile emulsifies fats by breaking tem down into saller droplets, increasing
the surface area for enzymes to digest fats.
o Bile also contains bile pigments; these are waste products but are removed
from the body through the alimentary canal.
• Pancreas secretes pancreatic juice wich has sodium hydrogen carbonate
(NaHCO3), the enzymes trypsin, lipase and pancreatic amylase.
o NaHCO3 neutralizes the HCl so the pancreatic enzymes can work in the
slighty alkaline environment, which is optimum for them.
o Trypsin continues to break down peptide chains to smaller peptides
o Lipase breaks down fats to fatty acids and glycerol
o Pancreatic amylase continues to break down starch to maltose
• Peristalsis keeps chyme moving from the duodenum, trought the jujenum into
the ileum.
• Along the way, instenstial juices containing enzymes are secreted.
• The enzymes are maltase, sucrase, lactase and peptidase (erepsin)
o Maltase: Maltose → glucose molecules
o Sucrase: Sucrose → glucose and fructose
o Lactase: Lactose → glucose and galactose
o Peptidase: Peptides → amino acids
• By the time chyme gets to the ileum, all the complex molecules would be
broken down into simple forms.
• Absorption begins to take place in the ileum and continues into th large
intestines.
• Simple molecules are absorbed by difusion, active transport and water is
absorbed by osmosis.
• The small intestines have adaptations that allow them to absorb nutrients

Adaptations of the Small Intestine

• The intestines are very long, so it maximises the amount of absorption that
can take place.
 • The inner surface is covered in finger-like projections called villi (singular
– villus)
o These further increase the surface acrea for absorption
• Villi have capillaries that quickly carry the products of digestion away, so
that molecules can keep diffusing in
o Capillaries also absorb vitamins B and C, animo acids and some water and
monosacchardies
• Villi ave lacteal that quickly absorb and carry away fatty acids, glycerol,
vitamins A and D.
• Villi walls have epithelial cells lining them.
o Epithelium is only one cell thick, allow products of digestion to pass
through quickly.
• Epitheial cells have microvilli, which extend to further increase the surface
are for absorption.

e. The Large Intestines

• Peristalsis keeps food moving into the large intestine/colon.
• Water and mineral salta are absorbed here.
• As water is removed te food becomes more and more solid.
• By time it gets to the rectum, only unwanted substances are left. At this point
it is faeces
• Faeces contains bile pigements, undigested fiber, dead cells, mucus and dead
pathogens.
• It is stored here until anal sphincteer relaxes and releases through the anus,
• The removal of feces is egestion.

f. Assimilation
• The carbohydrates (glucose, fructose, galactose) and amino acids are taken to
the liver by the hepative portal vein.
• The galactose and fructose are converted to glucose, and all glucose molecules
are sent into circulation.
o Glucose is used by all the cells in the body for repsiration
o Any excess is converted to glycogen and stored in liver and muscle cells
o Excess may be converted to fat and storied in liver and adipose (fatty)
tissue, under the skin and surrounding organs.
▪ Glucose converted to fat in liver and transported to fatty tissue by blood
• The amino acids are taken used by all body cellls to make proteins which are
for
o Growth and repair
o To make hormones and enzymes
o Excess is converted to fats or glycogen and stored
o Excess may also be deaminated (broken down) in the liver and converted
to urea and excreted in urine
• The fatty acids are carrried from the lacteal into the circulation, where they
are taken to cells to be used
o To make cell membreans of newly formed cells and organnelles
o In respiration sometimes
o If there is any excess, converted to fats and sored in adipose tissue under
skin and around organs

g. The Liver
• The liver plays a vital role in the control and use ofbiological molecules
used by the body.
• The liver s responsible for
o Store glucose as glycogen for later use
o Convert glycogen to glucose when it is needed
 o Removes excess cholesterol through the digestive system as part of the
bile
o Removes excess amino acids as urea
o Produces bile and emulsifies fats
o Stores vitamins and release them when they are needed

Functions of Each Nutrient

Class Sources Functions
Sweet foods (fruits, cakes, jams, To provide energy (17 kJ/g): energy released
Carbohydrates etc.) Starchy foods (yams, when respired. For storage: glycogen granules
potatoes, rice, pasta, bread, etc.) stored in many cells.
To make new cells for growth and repair, to
make enzymes, to make hormones, to make
Fish, lean meat, milk, cheese,
Proteins antibodies, to provide energy (17 kJ/g): used
eggs, peas, beans, nuts
only when stored carbohydraes and lipids have
been used up.
To make cell membranes of newly formed
Butter, vegetables, oils,
Lipids cells, to provide energy (39 kJ/g), for storage,
margarine, nuts, fatty meals
for insulation.

Vitamins are organic compounds that are rewuired in small amounts

(micronutrients) for healthy growth and development.
Different Vitamins and Functions
Vitamins Sources Functions Results of Deficiency

• Dry unhealthy skin and

• Helps to keep the skin,
cornea. Inceased
Liver, cod liver oil, yellow cornea and mucous
susceptibility to infection.
A and orange vegetables and membranes healthy. • Reduced vision at night or
fruits, green leafy vegetables • Helps vision in dim light.
complete night blindness.
• Strengthens the immune
• Xerophthalmia: eyes fail to
system
produce tears leading to dry
 damaged cornea and
sometimes blindness

Whole-grain cereals and • Aids in respiration to • Beri-beri: weakness and

bread, brown rice, peas, produce energy pain in the limb muscles,
B1
beans, nuts, yeast extract, • Important for the proper difficulty walking, nervous
lean pork function of the nervous system disorders, paralysis.
system
• Pellagra: skin, digestive
system and nervous system
Fish, lean meats, whole- • Aids in respiration to
B3 disorders resulting in
grain cereals, yeast extract. produce energy demeratitis, diarrhoea and
dementia

• Scurvy: swollen and bleeing

• Keeps tissues healthy, gums, loose teeth or loss of
teeth, red-blue spots on the
West indian cherries, citrus especially the skin and
C connective tissue. skin, muscle and joint pain,
fruits, raw green vegetables
• Strengthens the immune wounds do not heal.
system • Increased susceptability to
infection

• Rickets in children: soft,

• Promotes the absorption of weak, painful, deformed
calcium an phosphorus in bones, especially limb
Oily fish, eggs, cod liver oil. the ileum. bones, bow legs.
D Made in the body by the • Helps build and maintain • Osteomalacia in adults:
action of sunlight to the skin strong bones and teeth soft, weak, painful bones
• Strengthens the immune that fracture easily,
system weakness of limb muscles
• Poor teeth
 Minerals are inorganic substances that are required in small amounts for healthy
growth and development.
Different Minerals and Functions
Element Sources Functions Results of Deficency
Calcium (Ca) Dairy products, yogurt, • To build and maintain • Rickets in children
green vegetables healthy bones and teeth • Osteoporosis in
• Help blood to clot at cuts adults: brittle, fragile
bones
• Weak brittle nails
• Tooth decay
Phosphorus (P) Protein-rich foods • To build and maintain • Weak bones and teeth
(milk, cheese, meat, healthy bones and teeth • Tiredness, lack of
poultry, fish, nuts) • To make ATP energy
Iron (Fe) Red meat, liver, eggs, • To make haemoglobin • Anaemia: reduced
beans, nuts, dark green numer of red blood
leafy vegetables cells in the blood,
pale complexion,
tiredness, lack of
energy
Iodine (I) Sea foods, fish, • To make the hormone • Cretinishm in
shellfish and seaweed, thyroxine children: retarded
milk, eggs physical and mental
develoopment
• Goitre in adults:
swollen thryoid gland
in the neck
• Reduced metabolic
rate leading to fatigue
in adults
Sodium (Na) Na: table salt, cheese, • Needed for the • Musclar cramps
and Potassium cured meats transmission of nerve
(K) K: fruits, vegetables impulses and muscle
contraction
• Help maintin the correct
concentration of body
fluids
Fluorine (F) Fluoridated tap water, • Strengthens tooth • Tooth decay more
fluoride toothpaste enamel making it more rapidly than normal
resistant to decay
Water
Water is an inorganic compound that is essential in a balanced diet. The human
body is about 65% water.
• Water dissolves chemicals in cells so tha they can react
• Water dissolves substances so that hey can be transported around the body
(products of digestions are dissolved in blood plasma)
• Water dissolves waste substances so that they can be excerted from the body
(urea)
• Water acts as a reactant (hydrolisis which occurs during digestion)
• Waer acts as a coolant removing heat from the body when it evaportates from
sweat.

Roughage (Dietary Fibre)

Roughage is food that can not be dihgested. It consists mainly of the cellulose
of plant cell walls, lignin or plant xylem vessels, husks of brown rice and bran
of whole-grain cereals. Roughage adds bulk to the food, which stimulates
peristalsis so that food is kept moving through the digestive system. This helps
prevent constipation and reduce sthe rish of colon cancer.