Classification: Definition

• Given a collection of records (training set )

– Each record contains a set of attributes, one of the
attributes is the class.
• Find a model for class attribute as a function
of the values of other attributes.
• Goal: previously unseen records should be
assigned a class as accurately as possible.
– A test set is used to determine the accuracy of the
model. Usually, the given data set is divided into training
and test sets, with training set used to build the model
and test set used to validate it.
 Illustrating Classification Task
Tid Attrib1 Attrib2 Attrib3 Class Learning
1 Yes Large 125K No
algorithm
2 No Medium 100K No

3 No Small 70K No

4 Yes Medium 120K No

Induction
5 No Large 95K Yes

6 No Medium 60K No

7 Yes Large 220K No Learn

8 No Small 85K Yes Model
9 No Medium 75K No

10 No Small 90K Yes

Model
10

Training Set
Apply
Tid Attrib1 Attrib2 Attrib3 Class Model
11 No Small 55K ?

12 Yes Medium 80K ?

13 Yes Large 110K ? Deduction

14 No Small 95K ?

15 No Large 67K ?
10

Test Set
 Classification Techniques
• Decision Tree based Methods
• Rule-based Methods
• Memory based reasoning
• Neural Networks
• Naïve Bayes and Bayesian Belief Networks
• Support Vector Machines
 Example of a Decision Tree
Splitting Attributes
Tid Refund Marital Taxable
Status Income Cheat

1 Yes Single 125K No

2 No Married 100K No Refund
Yes No
3 No Single 70K No
4 Yes Married 120K No NO MarSt
5 No Divorced 95K Yes Single, Divorced Married
6 No Married 60K No
7 Yes Divorced 220K No
TaxInc NO
8 No Single 85K Yes < 80K > 80K
9 No Married 75K No
NO YES
10 No Single 90K Yes
10

Training Data Model: Decision Tree

 Another Example of Decision Tree
MarSt Single,
Married Divorced
Tid Refund Marital Taxable
Status Income Cheat
NO Refund
1 Yes Single 125K No
Yes No
2 No Married 100K No
3 No Single 70K No NO TaxInc
4 Yes Married 120K No < 80K > 80K
5 No Divorced 95K Yes
NO YES
6 No Married 60K No
7 Yes Divorced 220K No
8 No Single 85K Yes
9 No Married 75K No There could be more than one tree that fits
10 No Single 90K Yes the same data!
10
Decision Tree Classification Task
Tid Attrib1 Attrib2 Attrib3 Class
Tree
1 Yes Large 125K No Induction
2 No Medium 100K No algorithm
3 No Small 70K No

4 Yes Medium 120K No

Induction
5 No Large 95K Yes

6 No Medium 60K No

7 Yes Large 220K No Learn

8 No Small 85K Yes Model
9 No Medium 75K No

10 No Small 90K Yes

Model
10

Training Set
Apply Decision
Tid Attrib1 Attrib2 Attrib3 Class
Model Tree
11 No Small 55K ?

12 Yes Medium 80K ?

13 Yes Large 110K ?

Deduction
14 No Small 95K ?

15 No Large 67K ?
10

Test Set
 Apply Model to Test Data
Test Data
Start from the root of tree. Refund Marital Taxable
Status Income Cheat

No Married 80K ?
Refund 10

Yes No

NO MarSt
Single, Divorced Married

TaxInc NO
< 80K > 80K

NO YES
 Apply Model to Test Data
Test Data
Refund Marital Taxable
Status Income Cheat

No Married 80K ?
Refund 10

Yes No

NO MarSt
Single, Divorced Married

TaxInc NO
< 80K > 80K

NO YES
 Apply Model to Test Data
Test Data
Refund Marital Taxable
Status Income Cheat

No Married 80K ?
Refund 10

Yes No

NO MarSt
Single, Divorced Married

TaxInc NO
< 80K > 80K

NO YES
 Apply Model to Test Data
Test Data
Refund Marital Taxable
Status Income Cheat

No Married 80K ?
Refund 10

Yes No

NO MarSt
Single, Divorced Married

TaxInc NO
< 80K > 80K

NO YES
 Apply Model to Test Data
Test Data
Refund Marital Taxable
Status Income Cheat

No Married 80K ?
Refund 10

Yes No

NO MarSt
Single, Divorced Married

TaxInc NO
< 80K > 80K

NO YES
 Apply Model to Test Data
Test Data
Refund Marital Taxable
Status Income Cheat

No Married 80K ?
Refund 10

Yes No

NO MarSt
Single, Divorced Married Assign Cheat to “No”

TaxInc NO
< 80K > 80K

NO YES
Decision Tree Classification Task
Tid Attrib1 Attrib2 Attrib3 Class
Tree
1 Yes Large 125K No Induction
2 No Medium 100K No algorithm
3 No Small 70K No

4 Yes Medium 120K No

Induction
5 No Large 95K Yes

6 No Medium 60K No

7 Yes Large 220K No Learn

8 No Small 85K Yes Model
9 No Medium 75K No

10 No Small 90K Yes

Model
10

Training Set
Apply
Decision
Model
Tid Attrib1 Attrib2 Attrib3 Class
Tree
11 No Small 55K ?

12 Yes Medium 80K ?

13 Yes Large 110K ?

Deduction
14 No Small 95K ?

15 No Large 67K ?
10

Test Set
 Decision Tree Induction
• Many Algorithms:
– Hunt’s Algorithm (one of the earliest)
– CART
– ID3, C4.5
– SLIQ,SPRINT
 General Structure of Hunt’s Algorithm
• Let Dt be the set of training records Tid Refund Marital
Status
Taxable
Income Cheat
that reach a node t 1 Yes Single 125K No
• General Procedure: 2 No Married 100K No

– If Dt contains records that belong 3 No Single 70K No

the same class yt, then t is a leaf 4 Yes Married 120K No

5 No Divorced 95K Yes
node labeled as yt
6 No Married 60K No
– If Dt is an empty set, then t is a leaf 7 Yes Divorced 220K No
node labeled by the default class, 8 No Single 85K Yes
yd 9 No Married 75K No

– If Dt contains records that belong 10

10 No Single 90K Yes

to more than one class, use an

attribute test to split the data into Dt
smaller subsets. Recursively apply
the procedure to each subset. ?
 Tid Refund Marital Taxable
Status Income Cheat

Hunt’s Algorithm 1
2
Yes
No
Single
Married
125K
100K
No
No
Refund
Don’t 3 No Single 70K No
Yes No
Cheat 4 Yes Married 120K No
Don’t Don’t 5 No Divorced 95K Yes
Cheat Cheat
6 No Married 60K No
7 Yes Divorced 220K No
8 No Single 85K Yes

Refund Refund 9 No Married 75K No

Yes No Yes No 10 No Single 90K Yes

10

Don’t Don’t Marital

Marital
Cheat Status
Cheat Status
Single, Single,
Married Married
Divorced Divorced
Don’t Taxable Don’t
Cheat Cheat
Cheat Income
< 80K >= 80K
Don’t Cheat
Cheat
 Tree Induction
• Greedy strategy.
– Split the records based on an attribute test that
optimizes certain criterion.

• Issues
– Determine how to split the records
• How to specify the attribute test condition?
• How to determine the best split?
– Determine when to stop splitting
 Tree Induction
• Greedy strategy.
– Split the records based on an attribute test that
optimizes certain criterion.

• Issues
– Determine how to split the records
• How to specify the attribute test condition?
• How to determine the best split?
– Determine when to stop splitting
 How to Specify Test Condition?
• Depends on attribute types
– Nominal
– Ordinal
– Continuous

• Depends on number of ways to split

– 2-way split
– Multi-way split
 Splitting Based on Nominal Attributes
• Multi-way split: Use as many partitions as
distinct values.
CarType
Family Luxury
Sports

• Binary split: Divides values into two subsets.

Need to find optimal partitioning.
CarType CarType
{Sports, {Family,
Luxury} {Family} OR Luxury} {Sports}
 Splitting Based on Ordinal Attributes
• Multi-way split: Use as many partitions as distinct
values.
Size
Small Large
Medium

• Binary split: Divides values into two subsets.

Need to find optimal partitioning.
Size Size
{Small,
{Large}
OR {Medium,
{Small}
Medium} Large}

• What about this split? {Small,

Size
{Medium}
Large}
Splitting Based on Continuous Attributes

• Different ways of handling

– Discretization to form an ordinal categorical
attribute
• Static – discretize once at the beginning
• Dynamic – ranges can be found by equal interval
bucketing, equal frequency bucketing
(percentiles), or clustering.

– Binary Decision: (A < v) or (A  v)

• consider all possible splits and finds the best cut
• can be more compute intensive
Splitting Based on Continuous Attributes

Taxable Taxable
Income Income?
> 80K?
< 10K > 80K
Yes No

[10K,25K) [25K,50K) [50K,80K)

(i) Binary split (ii) Multi-way split

 Tree Induction
• Greedy strategy.
– Split the records based on an attribute test that
optimizes certain criterion.

• Issues
– Determine how to split the records
• How to specify the attribute test condition?
• How to determine the best split?
– Determine when to stop splitting
 How to determine the Best Split
Before Splitting: 10 records of class 0,
10 records of class 1

Own Car Student

Car? Type? ID?

Yes No Family Luxury c1 c20

c10 c11
Sports
C0: 6 C0: 4 C0: 1 C0: 8 C0: 1 C0: 1 ... C0: 1 C0: 0 ... C0: 0
C1: 4 C1: 6 C1: 3 C1: 0 C1: 7 C1: 0 C1: 0 C1: 1 C1: 1

Which test condition is the best?

 How to determine the Best Split
• Greedy approach:
– Nodes with homogeneous class distribution are
preferred
• Need a measure of node impurity:
C0: 5 C0: 9
C1: 5 C1: 1

Non-homogeneous, Homogeneous,
High degree of impurity Low degree of impurity
 Measures of Node Impurity
• Gini Index

• Entropy

• Misclassification error
 How to Find the Best Split
C0 N00
Before Splitting: M0
C1 N01

A? B?
Yes No Yes No

Node N1 Node N2 Node N3 Node N4

C0 N10 C0 N20 C0 N30 C0 N40

C1 N11 C1 N21 C1 N31 C1 N41

M1 M2 M3 M4

M12 M34
Gain = M0 – M12 vs M0 – M34
 Measure of Impurity: GINI
• Gini Index for a given node t :

GINI (t )  1   [ p( j | t )]2
j

(NOTE: p( j | t) is the relative frequency of class j at node t).

– Maximum (1 - 1/nc) when records are equally distributed

among all classes, implying least interesting information
– Minimum (0.0) when all records belong to one class,
implying most interesting information

C1 0 C1 1 C1 2 C1 3
C2 6 C2 5 C2 4 C2 3
Gini=0.000 Gini=0.278 Gini=0.444 Gini=0.500
 Examples for computing GINI
GINI (t )  1   [ p( j | t )]2
j

C1 0 P(C1) = 0/6 = 0 P(C2) = 6/6 = 1

C2 6 Gini = 1 – P(C1)2 – P(C2)2 = 1 – 0 – 1 = 0

C1 1 P(C1) = 1/6 P(C2) = 5/6

C2 5 Gini = 1 – (1/6)2 – (5/6)2 = 0.278

C1 2 P(C1) = 2/6 P(C2) = 4/6

C2 4 Gini = 1 – (2/6)2 – (4/6)2 = 0.444
 Splitting Based on GINI
• Used in CART, SLIQ, SPRINT.
• When a node p is split into k partitions (children), the quality of
split is computed as,
k
ni
GINI split   GINI (i )
i 1 n

where, ni = number of records at child i,

n = number of records at node p.
Binary Attributes: Computing GINI Index
 Splits into two partitions
 Effect of Weighing partitions:
– Larger and Purer Partitions are sought for.
Parent
B? C1 6
Yes No C2 6
Gini = 0.500
Node N1 Node N2
Gini(N1)
= 1 – (5/6)2 – (2/6)2
N1 N2 Gini(Children)
= 0.194
C1 5 1 = 7/12 * 0.194 +
Gini(N2) C2 2 4 5/12 * 0.528
= 1 – (1/6)2 – (4/6)2 Gini=0.333 = 0.333
= 0.528
 Categorical Attributes: Computing Gini Index

• For each distinct value, gather counts for each class in the
dataset
• Use the count matrix to make decisions
Multi-way split Two-way split
(find best partition of values)

CarType CarType CarType

Family Sports Luxury {Sports, {Family,
{Family} {Sports}
Luxury} Luxury}
C1 1 2 1 C1 3 1 C1 2 2
C2 4 1 1 C2 2 4 C2 1 5
Gini 0.393 Gini 0.400 Gini 0.419
 Continuous Attributes: Computing Gini Index

• Use Binary Decisions based on one value Tid Refund Marital

Status
Taxable
Income Cheat
• Several Choices for the splitting value 1 Yes Single 125K No
– Number of possible splitting values 2 No Married 100K No
= Number of distinct values 3 No Single 70K No
• Each splitting value has a count matrix 4 Yes Married 120K No
associated with it 5 No Divorced 95K Yes

– Class counts in each of the partitions, A 6 No Married 60K No

< v and A  v 7 Yes Divorced 220K No

• Simple method to choose best v 8 No Single 85K Yes

9 No Married 75K No
– For each v, scan the database to gather
10 No Single 90K Yes
count matrix and compute its Gini 10

index Taxable
– Computationally Inefficient! Repetition Income
of work. > 80K?

Yes No
 Continuous Attributes: Computing Gini Index...

• For efficient computation: for each attribute,

– Sort the attribute on values
– Linearly scan these values, each time updating the count matrix and
computing gini index
– Choose the split position that has the least gini index

Cheat No No No Yes Yes Yes No No No No

Taxable Income

Sorted Values 60 70 75 85 90 95 100 120 125 220

Split Positions 55 65 72 80 87 92 97 110 122 172 230

<= > <= > <= > <= > <= > <= > <= > <= > <= > <= > <= >
Yes 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 1 2 2 1 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0

No 0 7 1 6 2 5 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 4 3 5 2 6 1 7 0

Gini 0.420 0.400 0.375 0.343 0.417 0.400 0.300 0.343 0.375 0.400 0.420
 Alternative Splitting Criteria based on INFO
• Entropy at a given node t:
Entropy(t )   p( j | t ) log p( j | t )
j

(NOTE: p( j | t) is the relative frequency of class j at node t).

– Measures homogeneity of a node.
• Maximum (log nc) when records are equally distributed
among all classes implying least information
• Minimum (0.0) when all records belong to one class,
implying most information
– Entropy based computations are similar to the GINI
index computations
Examples for computing Entropy
Entropy(t )   p( j | t ) log p( j | t )
j 2

C1 0 P(C1) = 0/6 = 0 P(C2) = 6/6 = 1

C2 6 Entropy = – 0 log 0 – 1 log 1 = – 0 – 0 = 0

C1 1 P(C1) = 1/6 P(C2) = 5/6

C2 5 Entropy = – (1/6) log2 (1/6) – (5/6) log2 (1/6) = 0.65

C1 2 P(C1) = 2/6 P(C2) = 4/6

C2 4 Entropy = – (2/6) log2 (2/6) – (4/6) log2 (4/6) = 0.92
 Splitting Based on INFO...

• Information Gain:
 n 
GAIN  Entropy( p)    Entropy(i) 
k
i

 n 
split i 1

Parent Node, p is split into k partitions;

ni is number of records in partition i
– Measures Reduction in Entropy achieved because of the
split. Choose the split that achieves most reduction
(maximizes GAIN)
– Used in ID3 and C4.5
– Disadvantage: Tends to prefer splits that result in large
number of partitions, each being small but pure.
 Splitting Based on INFO...

• Gain Ratio:

GAIN n n
GainRATIO  SplitINFO    log
Split k
i i
split
SplitINFO n n i 1

Parent Node, p is split into k partitions

ni is the number of records in partition i

– Adjusts Information Gain by the entropy of the partitioning

(SplitINFO). Higher entropy partitioning (large number of
small partitions) is penalized!
– Used in C4.5
– Designed to overcome the disadvantage of Information Gain
 Splitting Criteria based on Classification Error

• Classification error at a node t :

Error (t )  1  max P(i | t )
i

• Measures misclassification error made by a node.

• Maximum (1 - 1/nc) when records are equally distributed among all
classes, implying least interesting information
• Minimum (0.0) when all records belong to one class, implying most
interesting information
 Examples for Computing Error
Error (t )  1  max P(i | t )
i

C1 0 P(C1) = 0/6 = 0 P(C2) = 6/6 = 1

C2 6 Error = 1 – max (0, 1) = 1 – 1 = 0

C1 1 P(C1) = 1/6 P(C2) = 5/6

C2 5 Error = 1 – max (1/6, 5/6) = 1 – 5/6 = 1/6

C1 2 P(C1) = 2/6 P(C2) = 4/6

C2 4 Error = 1 – max (2/6, 4/6) = 1 – 4/6 = 1/3
 Comparison among Splitting Criteria
For a 2-class problem:
 Misclassification Error vs Gini
A? Parent
C1 7
Yes No
C2 3
Node N1 Node N2 Gini = 0.42

Gini(N1)
N1 N2 Gini(Children)
= 1 – (3/3)2 – (0/3)2
C1 3 4 = 3/10 * 0
=0
C2 0 3 + 7/10 * 0.489
Gini(N2) Gini=0.361 = 0.342
= 1 – (4/7)2 – (3/7)2
= 0.489 Gini improves !!
 Tree Induction
• Greedy strategy.
– Split the records based on an attribute test that
optimizes certain criterion.

• Issues
– Determine how to split the records
• How to specify the attribute test condition?
• How to determine the best split?
– Determine when to stop splitting
Stopping Criteria for Tree Induction
• Stop expanding a node when all the records
belong to the same class

• Stop expanding a node when all the records

have similar attribute values

• Early termination (to be discussed later)

 Decision Tree Based Classification
• Advantages:
– Inexpensive to construct
– Extremely fast at classifying unknown records
– Easy to interpret for small-sized trees
– Accuracy is comparable to other classification
techniques for many simple data sets
 Example: C4.5
• Simple depth-first construction.
• Uses Information Gain
• Sorts Continuous Attributes at each node.
• Needs entire data to fit in memory.
• Unsuitable for Large Datasets.
– Needs out-of-core sorting.

• You can download the software from:

http://www.cse.unsw.edu.au/~quinlan/c4.5r8.tar.gz
 Classification Outline
Goal: Provide an overview of the classification problem
and introduce some of the basic algorithms

• Classification Problem Overview

• Classification Techniques
– Regression
– Distance
– Decision Trees
– Rules
– Neural Networks

© Prentice Hall 48
 Classification Problem
• Given a database D={t1,t2,…,tn} and a set of
classes C={C1,…,Cm}, the Classification
Problem is to define a mapping f:DgC where
each ti is assigned to one class.
• Actually divides D into equivalence classes.
• Prediction is similar, but may be viewed as
having infinite number of classes.

© Prentice Hall 49
 Classification Examples
• Teachers classify students’ grades as A, B, C, D,
or F.
• Identify mushrooms as poisonous or edible.
• Predict when a river will flood.
• Identify individuals with credit risks.
• Speech recognition
• Pattern recognition

© Prentice Hall 50
 Classification Ex: Grading
x
• If x >= 90 then grade =A.
<90 >=90
• If 80<=x<90 then grade
=B. x A

• If 70<=x<80 then grade <80 >=80

=C. x B
• If 60<=x<70 then grade
<70 >=70
=D.
x C
• If x<50 then grade =F.
<50 >=60

F D
© Prentice Hall 51
Classification Ex: Letter Recognition

View letters as constructed from 5 components:

Letter A Letter B

Letter C Letter D

Letter E Letter F

© Prentice Hall 52
 Classification Techniques
• Approach:
1. Create specific model by evaluating
training data (or using domain experts’
knowledge).
2. Apply model developed to new data.
• Classes must be predefined
• Most common techniques use DTs, NNs,
or are based on distances or statistical
methods.
© Prentice Hall 53
 Defining Classes

Distance Based

Partitioning Based

© Prentice Hall 54
 Issues in Classification
• Missing Data
– Ignore
– Replace with assumed value
• Measuring Performance
– Classification accuracy on test data
– Confusion matrix
– OC Curve

© Prentice Hall 55
 Height Example Data
Name Gender Height Output1 Output2
Kristina F 1.6m Short Medium
Jim M 2m Tall Medium
Maggie F 1.9m Medium Tall
Martha F 1.88m Medium Tall
Stephanie F 1.7m Short Medium
Bob M 1.85m Medium Medium
Kathy F 1.6m Short Medium
Dave M 1.7m Short Medium
Worth M 2.2m Tall Tall
Steven M 2.1m Tall Tall
Debbie F 1.8m Medium Medium
Todd M 1.95m Medium Medium
Kim F 1.9m Medium Tall
Amy F 1.8m Medium Medium
Wynette F 1.75m Medium Medium

© Prentice Hall 56
 Classification Performance

True Positive False Negative

False Positive True Negative

© Prentice Hall 57
 Confusion Matrix Example

Using height data example with Output1

correct and Output2 actual assignment

Actual Assignment
Membership Short Medium Tall
Short 0 4 0
Medium 0 5 3
Tall 0 1 2

© Prentice Hall 58
Classification Using Decision Trees
• Partitioning based: Divide search space into
rectangular regions.
• Tuple placed into class based on the region
within which it falls.
• DT approaches differ in how the tree is built:
DT Induction
• Internal nodes associated with attribute and
arcs with values for that attribute.
• Algorithms: ID3, C4.5, CART
© Prentice Hall 59
 Decision Tree
Given:
– D = {t1, …, tn} where ti=<ti1, …, tih>
– Database schema contains {A1, A2, …, Ah}
– Classes C={C1, …., Cm}
Decision or Classification Tree is a tree associated with
D such that
– Each internal node is labeled with attribute, Ai
– Each arc is labeled with predicate which can be
applied to attribute at parent
– Each leaf node is labeled with a class, Cj

© Prentice Hall 60
 DT Induction

© Prentice Hall 61
 DT Splits Area

M
Gender

Height

© Prentice Hall 62
 Comparing DTs

Balanced
Deep

© Prentice Hall 63
 DT Issues
• Choosing Splitting Attributes
• Ordering of Splitting Attributes
• Splits
• Tree Structure
• Stopping Criteria
• Training Data
• Pruning

© Prentice Hall 64
 Decision Tree Induction is often based on
Information Theory

So

© Prentice Hall 65
 Information

© Prentice Hall 66
 DT Induction
• When all the marbles in the bowl are mixed
up, little information is given.
• When the marbles in the bowl are all from
one class and those in the other two classes
are on either side, more information is given.

Use this approach with DT Induction !

© Prentice Hall 67
 Information/Entropy
• Given probabilitites p1, p2, .., ps whose sum is 1,
Entropy is defined as:

• Entropy measures the amount of randomness or

surprise or uncertainty.
• Goal in classification
– no surprise
– entropy = 0

© Prentice Hall 68
 Entropy

log (1/p) H(p,1-p)

© Prentice Hall 69
 ID3
• Creates tree using information theory concepts
and tries to reduce expected number of
comparison..
• ID3 chooses split attribute with the highest
information gain:

© Prentice Hall 70
 ID3 Example (Output1)
• Starting state entropy:
4/15 log(15/4) + 8/15 log(15/8) + 3/15 log(15/3) = 0.4384
• Gain using gender:
– Female: 3/9 log(9/3)+6/9 log(9/6)=0.2764
– Male: 1/6 (log 6/1) + 2/6 log(6/2) + 3/6 log(6/3) = 0.4392
– Weighted sum: (9/15)(0.2764) + (6/15)(0.4392) =
0.34152
– Gain: 0.4384 – 0.34152 = 0.09688
• Gain using height:
0.4384 – (2/15)(0.301) = 0.3983
• Choose height as first splitting attribute

© Prentice Hall 71
 C4.5
• ID3 favors attributes with large number of
divisions
• Improved version of ID3:
– Missing Data
– Continuous Data
– Pruning
– Rules
– GainRatio:

© Prentice Hall 72
 CART
• Create Binary Tree
• Uses entropy
• Formula to choose split point, s, for node t:

• PL,PR probability that a tuple in the training set will

be on the left or right side of the tree.

© Prentice Hall 73
 CART Example
• At the start, there are six choices for split
point (right branch on equality):
– P(Gender)=2(6/15)(9/15)(2/15 + 4/15 + 3/15)=0.224
– P(1.6) = 0
– P(1.7) = 2(2/15)(13/15)(0 + 8/15 + 3/15) = 0.169
– P(1.8) = 2(5/15)(10/15)(4/15 + 6/15 + 3/15) = 0.385
– P(1.9) = 2(9/15)(6/15)(4/15 + 2/15 + 3/15) = 0.256
– P(2.0) = 2(12/15)(3/15)(4/15 + 8/15 + 3/15) = 0.32
• Split at 1.8

© Prentice Hall 74