BREAD

The invention of leavened bread is attributed to the Egyptians. The Greeks baked on grids in
an oven like stricture. Romans cooked their bread is household ovens made of brick and
earth. It was in the Middle Ages that the bakery trade began to develop, bread became very
varied and many different kinds of bread were produced.

Definition: Bread is food made from flour and water dough with yeast, which is fermented,
kneaded and baked in the oven. The action of yeast gives bread its characteristic texture and
flavour.

Bread is the only food, which, like wine, is present on the table from start to finish of any
meal; bread constitutes the traditional accompaniment to all dishes. It is also the basic
ingredient in sandwiches, canapés, toasts, croutons & breadcrumbs. In addition to this it is
used widely in the preparations of the other dishes like, soups, gazpacho & garlic soup,
panadas, stuffing‘s & forcemeats, timbales, charlottes & pudding and even in sauces. Good
bread must have a crisp crust, an attractive golden colour and as soft crumb. Growing state to
quickly is a sign of bad quality. Most bread should be served fresh but not hot. A daily intake
of 300 gms provides 125gms carbohydrates 25gms proteins, 2 gms fat calcium, phosphorus,
magnesium potassium and it gives 750 calories.

The baking/making of bread comprises of 3 main operations kneading fermentation

and baking.

The following ingredients are necessary for bread making

1. Maida

2. Yeast

3. Sugar

4. Fat

5. Salt

Refined flour or Maida

Only strong and not weak flour is used for making bread. Strong flour has reference to the
character of flour. Wheat flour contains both soluble and insoluble proteins. Proteins along
with other components join when water is added. When this occurs, two of the insoluble
proteins namely glutenin and gliadin join in the presence of water forming a tough, somewhat
rubbery material called gluten. Glutenin gives solidity to the product whilst gliadin is the
binding imparting the soft, sticky character to gluten. The gluten of strong flour is tough,
resists extension is capable of withstanding prolonged periods of fermentation without
breaking down producing good loafs. Flour containing such gluten is capable of absorbing a
high percentage of water.
Diastatic enzymes present in the wheat flour affect the gassing power of the flour. If flour is
deficient in diastase the final proving of the bread will be unsatisfactory. On the other hand, if
too much diastatic action occurs the bread will still be unsatisfactory having a strictly crumb.

SALT

Why salt is used in Bread making?

Bread made without salt is insipid and flavourless; therefore, salt makes bread palatable and
appetizing. The quantity of salt needed is also the right quantity to exercise adequate
control over the speed of yeast action (1 Kg of flour is to 30 gm of salt) If too much salt is
added the bread will be too salty for pleasant eating whilst there will also be slowing down of
yeast action.

Dough with too little salt in them suffers because of the lack of control over yeast activity and
fermentation, allowing the production of excessive acidity. Sat has a physical effect on the
gluten of flour. In reasonable quantities, it strengthens gluten and increases its resistance to
the general softening effects of fermentation. Too much salt will completely rob it of its
power of holding gas.

If salt is not added at all, then the yeast in the dough will be able to consume excessive
quantities of sugar during its uncontrolled speedy action during fermentation that there may
be insufficient sugar left at baking time to give perfect crust colour.
Loaves made from dough containing too little salt will lack volume because the gluten has
not been strengthened sufficiently. The weak gluten strands will break down giving crumbly
bread with large holes in texture.

Dough made with rather too much salt will have toughened gluten, which will have been
insufficiently ripened, producing bread of subnormal volume and with unsightly holes in the
texture.

Yeast

Yeast is living microorganism, the one used for bread making is known as baker‘s yeast or
scientifically as ―Saccharomycees Cerevisiae.

Like all living things yeast can only work well between certain temperatures. The ideal and
optimum temp, for the working of yeast is between 780 and 820 F. It works steadily at 760F
but rather too slowly. Above 84°F the speed of fermentation is very great but fermentation of
dough may be undesirable. Above 1400F the proteins in yeast get coagulated, the cells cease
to function and then die. Yeast grows better in a slightly acid medium.

Yeast may be stored in a refrigerator at 36 to 400 F. If no refrigerator is available, remove

from packet and press it into a clean, dry earthenware vessel. Stand the jar in cold water and
cover with a piece of clean muslin the ends of which dip into water.

For fermentation to occur normally dough must be made at a suitable temperature. In very
cold weather very hot water may be needed. But under no conditions should the water
temperature be above 1100F.
 If salt comes into direct contact with yeast in sufficient concentrations the yeast will be
destroyed. This is because salt will deprive the yeast cells of its water. The salt should be
dissolved in water separate from the yeast solution. When salt is approx 3% of the solution its
effect on yeast is not deadly but merely restrictive.

After making dough at the right temperature it is essential to see that the dough retains that
temperature during fermentation. If it becomes chilled yeast action will slow down. The
dough should be protected from draught of air especially cold air. They should preferably be
fermented in bowls, which are bad conductors of heat.

Fats

Fats used in small quantities, act as a gluten lubricant, the strands of which then slide over
one another and so appear to extend more easily, and the dough ripens more readily. The
crumb is made moister, is wither and more even in texture. Crust are thinner and more biscuit
like owing to the shortening properties of fats, and the general build of the loaf is better. If
fats are used in heavy quantities it causes bread to be clammy and alter its eating qualities.

The undesirable characteristics that would be apparent when using large quantities of fat can
be counteracted by the use of milk powder. Milk powder imparts bloom to the crust, makes
the crumb a delicate creamy yellow colour but makes the bread crumbly. Where both fat and
milk are used the crumb is creamy, soft, and even in texture crusts are thin and short eating
and the loaf volume very satisfactory.

SUGAR

There must be sufficient sugar in the dough at the final proving stage from which the yeast
can generate gas. Sucrose or glucose may be added to dough if greater gassing powers are
required. Therefore sugar is needed for final proving to give sufficient volume to the loaf and
for caramelization on the crust of the bread during baking. The quantity of sugar used in
dough should be small. Sugar has a dispersing action on the gluten of flour and large
quantities can completely destroy its tenacity and extensibility.

BREAD MAKING

A method is a process of converting raw material into a final product through various steps or a flow chart.

STEPS IN BREAD MAKING

1. Scaling ingredients:
It is very important to scale or measure ingredients accurately when making yeast bread.

2. Mixing and kneading dough:

Dough must be mixed properly in order to combine the ingredients uniformly, distribute the
yeast and develop gluten.
Dough mixing methods:
 Straight dough method: all the ingredients ate just combined and kneaded

 Sponge method: flour, yeast, sugar, water- kept for sponge then it is used.
 Flaky dough method: it is same as rolled in dough method.
3. Fermenting dough:
Fermentation is the process by which yeast converts sugar to alcohol and carbon dioxide.
During fermentation, the dough is allowed to rise. Fermentation is resting of whole dough but
proofing is resting of shaped dough (balls and knotted). The whole yeasted dough is kept in
an oiled container to allow fermentation in a warm place it reaches double in size.

4. Punching down dough:

After fermentation, the dough is folded down to expel and redistribute the gas pockets with a
technique known as punching down or knockback. Punching down help to even out the
dough’s temperature and relaxes the gluten.

5. Portioning dough:
Dough is now ready to be divided into portions. For loaves, the dough is scaled to the desired
weight. For rolls, equal small portions.

6. Rounding portions:
The portions of dough must be shaped into smooth, round balls in a technique known as
rounding. Rounding stretches the outside layer of gluten into a smooth coating.

7. Shaping portions:
Lean dough and some rich dough can be shaped in varieties of form – large loaves, small
loaves, dinner rolls, etc.

8. Proofing products:
Proofing is the final rise of shaped yeast product before baking. The temperature should be
35-46 degree centigrade. Proofing chamber- temperature and humidity can be controlled with
a special cabinet known as a proof chamber. Proofing should be continued until double in
size.

9. Baking product:
As yeast bread bake, a variety of physical, chemical changes occurs. Oven spring- when yeast
rolls or dough is lace inside a hot oven, suddenly yeast product experiences a rise in size, is
called oven spring.
The temperature increases, the yeast dies, gluten fiber becomes firm, and the starches
gelatinize.

10. Cooling and storing finished product:

Yeast produced should be cooled at room temperature. Once cool, should be stored at room
temperature and on freeze if need to be stored for a longer time.

METHODS OF BREAD MAKING

There are many satisfactory methods of making bread given below are details of each of the
methods that may be employed for making bread

I. Straight Dough Method

When the whole of the flour, yeast, salt, water yeast food and enriching materials are taken
and, at one operation, amalgamated by hand or machine into dough, the method is called the
straight dough method of bread making. It is the least complicate of all dough making
processes. The greater the quantity of yeast the shorter the length of time the dough will
require in which to reach maturity and vice-versa. Excellent bread can be made by suing extra
yeast in a cool dough and adding a little extra salt. However to obtain good results it is not
advisable to speed up fermentation by use of high temperature and a small quantity of salt.

II. Delayed Salt Method

A simple but very effective variation of the straight dough process is the delayed salt method.
In this the whole of the ingredients except the salt are mixed together to make the dough
which is then allowed to ferment for approx 30 min the salt is then sieved over the surface of
the dough and thoroughly mixed.

By this process stronger flour are ripened more quickly and extra flavour is produced in the
bread. This is achieved because no salt is present for most of the fermentation period hence
yeast works more rapidly as do acid forming bacteria present in the dough.

III. FERMENT AND DOUGH

Ferment is a thin liqueur prepared at a suitable temp containing all the essential food that is
required by yeast. It is generally prepared with only a portion of the water that must
eventually be used to make the finished dough. All he yeast, yeast food and some of the flour
are mixed in to the selected quantity of water and a period to time allowed to elapse during
which the yeast can set to work and reach an active, vigorous condition before it is called
upon to undertake the more serious and difficult work of fermenting the whole of the flour.
Ferment offers yeast a period to recuperate, so that when the remaining ingredients are added
to make the dough it can get on with the heavier work efficiently. The ferment is usually
allowed to work until it has risen up the vessel in which it is contained to the fullest limits of
the extensibility of the gluten. When this point is reached and passed the gluten strands break
and the mixture subsides. The ferment is then ready for dough making.

IV. Sponge & Dough

A quarter of the amount of the total flour needed for the final dough is removed and mixed
with sufficient water to make very a soft dough. Into this mixture a small quantity yeast and
salt are mixed and allowed to ferment slowly over a long period. The time can be regulated
by the amount of yeast used and the temperature at which the sponge is set. When the sponge
has cradled the production of an increased army of yeast cells, the remaining ingredients are
added and the dough is made.

V. Flying Sponge

Instead of making a sponge to lie for many hours a similar mixture can be prepared with
larger quantities of yeast that are normal for straight dough process, and allowed to lie for an
hour. They are referred to as flying sponges because it takes less time to prepare the dough.

VI. No time dough method

In this method dough is not fermented in the usual manner. It is allowed to ferment for a short
period so the twin function of fermentation i.e. production of gas and conditioning of gluten
are achieved to some extent by increasing the amount of yeast and by vigorously beating the
dough using mechanical dough mixers so that the dough becomes a little slack and warm.
The dough is then shaped and directly deposited in bread moulds for final proving before
they are baked. It is possible to get a good product using this method but the product has poor
keeping quality and lacks aroma due to short fermentation time, the gluten and starch are not
conditioned to hold moisture and there is no flavour because flavour producing bi-products of
fermentation are absent because of increased quantity of yeast present. The bread may have a
strong yeast flavour.

Staling of Bakery Products and Mold Infection

There are three ways in which bakery products stale. They are, Starch Retrogradation
(firming of the crumb), getting infected by molds and rope;
In simple terms, staling of crumb (firming of crumb) is the process the starch molecules go
through when they shrink upon cooling. Starch molecule consists of a very long chain of
Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen that are stretched out when warm and feel soft. Upon cooling,
the chain shrinks and thus become firm which is called staling. You have probably
experienced that when a stale product is warmed, it becomes soft. The starch chain has
stretched again. Upon cooling, it shrinks again and become firm.

Anti-Staling Ingredients:

1. Emulsifiers. For the past several years bakers used emulsifiers called bread softeners to
produce bread that will remain soft for a longer period of time. It is added to the dough
during mixing. Some of the more common ones are monoglycrides, calcium stearoyl
lactylate, and sodium stearoyl lactylate. The softening action takes place after the bread is
baked. Also, Potato bread will resist staling because potatoes act as anti-staling ingredients to
some degree. Some anti-staling ingredients also perform as dough conditioners or dough
strengtheners.

2. Enzymes. Enzyme manufacturers are hard at work on generic engineering and protein
engineering producing enzymes to extend the shelf life of bread many fold. In a paper
presented at the 1999 American Society of Baking's Annual Convention, it was stated that
some of these enzymes are available now. However, since every baker wants to have one
better, enzyme manufacturers will continue to work on developing better ones. It was also
stated that there is a lag time of between 2 and 3 years between the time a specific enzyme is
identified and actually having it available for the baker to use.
Advantages of Using Enzymes instead of Chemicals.
Since enzymes are produced from natural ingredients, they will find greater acceptance by the
housewife than when chemicals are used.

3. Mold and Mold Inhibitors. Sanitation plays a very important role in preventing mold in
bread. Mold spores do not survive baking temperatures. The interior of the loaf, when it
comes out of the oven is about 210 to 212 degrees F. which will destroy any mold spores
which may be present in the dough. Therefore, bread and other bakery products can only be
contaminated after they leave the oven.

Some of the more dangerous areas for mold contamination are storage rooms, and slicing
machine blades which come in direct contact with the interior of the loaf where there is an
abundant supply of food and moisture. Mold spores also thrive in dark places. You can
extend the length of time that it takes bakery products to mold by several days by using Mold
Inhibitors such as Calcium Propionate for yeast raised doughs and sodium propionate in
chemically leavened products. Propionates are present in many foods, but in very small
amounts. Swiss Cheese, however is an exception. For this reason, Swiss Cheese rarely molds,
unless it is improperly developed. Propionates may be obtained by the oxidization of propyl
alcohol, forming propionic acid. The propionic acid is in turn combined with other chemicals
to form the well-known Sodium and Calcium propionates sold under different Trades Names.
Mold Inhibitors react as an alkaline in doughs, and since yeast doesn't like an alkaline
condition, Mineral Yeast Foods containing monocalcium phosphate are added to the dough.
Monocalcium Phosphate reacts as an acid in doughs therefore counter-acting the alkaline
which is formed by the propionates. Also, vinegar can be used at the rate of about 1 pint per
100 pounds of flour. Inhibitors are called inhibitors, because not enough is used to kill the
mold. They only retard the growth of molds. Bread will mold eventually if kept in a warm
moist invironment. The amounts of Calcium Propionates to use in bread varies with the
climate, season of the year, or type of product. Dark Breads require more than White Breads.
For average climates, 2.5 to 3.5 ounces are used per 100 pounds of flour in White Breads and
4.0 to 5.0 ounces are used in Dark Breads.

Types and Color of Molds. There are many different types of molds and they have
different colors. Mold spores are practically everywhere, because they are very tiny and are
carried in the air. They are so tiny that they can only be seen under a microscope. Mold
Spores are like seeds that you plant in the garden. When they come in contact with the proper
food, moisture and warmth, the spores produce mold plants which you can see with the naked
eye.

Rope. Rope is a bread disease caused by the bacteria, Bacillus mesentericus. This disease
breaks down the cells of the bread and leaves a sticky, pasty mass. When the crumb is
pressed together and pulled apart, it will stretch into long, sticky, web-like strands. The
product will have the odor of over-ripe cantalope. The rope bacteria are too small to see with
the naked eye, but they can be seen with a microscope. The bacteria can be present in the
ingredients, especially flour and yeast. Unlike mold, rope spores are not destroyed by baking
temperatures. Calcium propionate, sodium diacetate or one pint of vinegar per 100 pounds of
flour can be used in bread doughs to increase the shelf life of the product. If the bakery is
contaminated, thorough cleaning with special chemicals will be necessary and/or the bakery
may have to be steam cleaned.

External Bread Faults

Symptoms Causes
 Crust too dark  Oven temperature too high
 Excessive milk or sugar
 Excessive baking time
 Over proofing
 Crust too light  Over temperature too high
 Insufficient milk or sugar
 Insufficient baking time
 Insufficient proofing
 Crust broken  Insufficient proofing
 Insufficient liquid
 Crust too hard  Oven temperature too high
 Insufficient proofing
 Insufficient sugar or shortening.
 Excessive steam
 Insufficient liquid
 Baking time too long
 Crust too soft  Oven temperature too low
 Excessive sugar/egg yolk/ shortening.
 Excessive oil/ margarine as a wash
 Insufficient steam during baking
 Baking time too short or wrong bread
machine setting
Internal Bread Faults:-

Symptoms Causes
 Coarse and irregular grain  Improper mixing procedures
 Stiff batter
 Careless or poor depositing in the pans.
 Oven too cool,(baked too slowly)
 Dense grain  Excessive liquid in the batter.
 Improper mixing procedure.
 Off-colour breads  Improper mixing procedure.
 Oven too cool( baked too slowly)
 Unclean equipment
 If raisin, nuts or dried fruit  Pieces of fruit were too large and too heavy.
sunk to the bottom  Sugary syrup on the outside of the fruit was not
washed off- causing the pieces of fruit to slide
through the mixture as it heated.
 Washed and dried fruit was not dusted with
flour before being added to the mixture.
 Bread mixture was over beaten or was too wet
so it could not hold the fruit in place.
 Oven temperature was too low, causing the
mixture to melt before it set to hold the fruit in
place.

General Bread Faults:-

Symptoms Causes
 Batter over flowed the  Wrong adjustments to recipes (too much liquid, flour
pans etc.)
 Wrong size pan used, mixture should fill 2/3 of pan.
 Poor flavour  Improper mixing procedure.
 Improper cleaning and greasing of the pans.
 Faulty baking conditions.
 Improper cleaning of the equipment.
 Breads too tough  Excessive mixing.
 Batter too stiff( insufficient water)
 Batter too thin( excessive water)