Edexcel​ ​IGCSE​ ​Chemistry

Topic​ ​1:​ ​Principles​ ​of​ ​chemistry

Atomic​ ​structure

Notes

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1.14​ ​know​ ​what​ ​is​ ​meant​ ​by​ ​the​ ​terms​ ​atom​ ​and​ ​molecule

● All​ ​substances​ ​are​ ​made​ ​of​ ​atoms

● A​ ​substance​ ​with​ ​only​ ​one​ ​sort​ ​of​ ​atom​ ​=​ ​element
o An​ ​atom​ ​is​ ​the​ ​smallest​ ​piece​ ​of​ ​an​ ​element​ ​that​ ​can​ ​exist
● A​ ​molecule​ ​=​ ​formed​ ​when​ ​atoms​ ​join​ ​together​ ​by​ ​chemical​ ​bonds​ ​(can​ ​be​ ​made
of​ ​atoms​ ​of​ ​the​ ​same​ ​element)

1.15​ ​know​ ​that​ ​the​ ​structure​ ​of​ ​an​ ​atom​ ​in​ ​terms​ ​of​ ​the​ ​positions,​ ​relative
masses​ ​and​ ​relative​ ​charges​ ​of​ ​sub-atomic​ ​particles

subatomic​ ​particle relative​ ​mass relative​ ​charge position

proton 1 +1 in​ ​the​ ​nucleus

neutron 1 0 in​ ​the​ ​nucleus

electron 1/1836 -1 in​ ​shells​ ​around

nucleus

1.16​ ​know​ ​what​ ​is​ ​meant​ ​by​ ​the​ ​terms​ ​atomic​ ​number,​ ​mass​ ​number,
isotopes​ ​and​ ​relative​ ​atomic​ ​mass​ ​(Ar)

● Atomic​ ​(proton)​ ​Number​ ​=​ ​number​ ​of​ ​protons​ ​(=​ ​number​ ​of​ ​electrons​ ​if​ ​it’s​ ​an
atom,​ ​because​ ​atoms​ ​are​ ​neutral)
● Mass​ ​(nucleon)​ ​Number​ ​=​ ​number​ ​of​ ​protons​ ​+​ ​neutrons
● Isotopes​ ​=​ ​different​ ​atoms​ ​of​ ​the​ ​same​ ​element​ ​containing​ ​the​ ​same​ ​number​ ​of
protons​ ​but​ ​different​ ​numbers​ ​of​ ​neutrons​ ​in​ ​their​ ​nuclei
● Relative​ ​atomic​ ​mass​ ​(of​ ​an​ ​element)​ ​=​ ​an​ ​average​ ​value​ ​that​ ​takes​ ​account​ ​of
the​ ​abundance​ ​of​ ​the​ ​isotopes​ ​of​ ​the​ ​element

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1.17​ ​be​ ​able​ ​to​ ​calculate​ ​the​ ​relative​ ​atomic​ ​mass​ ​of​ ​an​ ​element​ ​(Ar)​ ​from
isotopic​ ​abundances

e.g.
A​ ​sample​ ​of​ ​chlorine​ ​gas​ ​is​ ​a​ ​mixture​ ​of​ ​2​ ​isotopes,​ ​chlorine-35​ ​and
chlorine-37.​ ​These​ ​isotopes​ ​occur​ ​in​ ​specific​ ​proportions​ ​in​ ​the​ ​sample​ ​i.e.
75%​ ​chlorine-35​ ​and​ ​25%​ ​chlorine-37.​ ​Calculate​ ​the​ ​R.A.M.​ ​of​ ​chlorine​ ​in
the​ ​sample.

The​ ​average​ ​mass,​ ​or​ ​R.A.M.​ ​of​ ​chlorine​ ​can​ ​be​ ​calculated​ ​using​ ​the
following​ ​equation:

​ ​ ​(mass​ ​of​ ​isotope-A ​ ​x​ ​ ​%​ ​of​ ​isotope-A)​ ​+​ ​(mass​ ​of​ ​isotope-B​ ​ ​x​ ​ ​%​ ​of​ ​isotope-B)
R.A.M. =
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​100

(35​ ​x​ ​75)​ ​+​ ​(37​ ​x​ ​25)

​ ​ ​=
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​100

3550
=
100

R.A.M. = 35.5

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 Edexcel​ ​IGCSE​ ​Chemistry

Topic​ ​1:​ ​Principles​ ​of​ ​chemistry

Chemical​ ​formulae,​ ​equations​ ​and​ ​calculations

Notes

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1.25​ ​write​ ​word​ ​equations​ ​and​ ​balanced​ ​chemical​ ​equations​ ​(including​ ​state
symbols):​ ​for​ ​reactions​ ​studied​ ​in​ ​this​ ​specification,​ ​for​ ​unfamiliar​ ​reactions
where​ ​suitable​ ​information​ ​is​ ​provided

● (g)​ ​means​ ​gas,​ ​(s)​ ​means​ ​solid,​ ​(l)​ ​means​ ​liquid,​ ​(aq)​ ​means​ ​aqueous
● Example​ ​of​ ​word​ ​equation:​ ​hydrochloric​ ​acid​ ​+​ ​sodium​ ​hydroxide​ ​->​ ​sodium
chloride​ ​+​ ​water
● Example​ ​of​ ​balanced​ ​chemical​ ​equation:​ ​HCl​ ​+​ ​NaOH​ ​->​ ​NaCl​ ​+​ ​H​2​O
● to​ ​balance​ ​an​ ​equation:​ ​you​ ​need​ ​to​ ​make​ ​sure​ ​there​ ​are​ ​the​ ​same​ ​number​ ​of
each​ ​element​ ​on​ ​each​ ​side​ ​of​ ​the​ ​equation​ ​and​ ​if​ ​there​ ​isn’t​ ​use​ ​big​ ​numbers​ ​at
the​ ​front​ ​of​ ​a​ ​compound​ ​to​ ​balance​ ​it​ ​e.g.​ ​3H​2​O

1.26​ ​calculate​ ​relative​ ​formula​ ​masses​ ​(including​ ​relative​ ​molecular​ ​masses)

(Mr)​ ​from​ ​relative​ ​atomic​ ​masses​ ​(Ar)

● Relative​ ​formula​ ​mass​ ​(Mr)​ ​of​ ​a​ ​compound:​ ​sum​ ​of​ ​the​ ​relative​ ​atomic​ ​masses​ ​of
the​ ​atoms​ ​in​ ​the​ ​numbers​ ​shown​ ​in​ ​the​ ​formula
● In​ ​a​ ​balanced​ ​chemical​ ​equation:
sum​ ​of​ ​Mr​ ​of​ ​reactants​ ​in​ ​quantities​ ​shown​ ​=​ ​sum​ ​of​ ​Mr​ ​of​ ​products​ ​in​ ​quantities
shown

1.27​ ​know​ ​that​ ​the​ ​mole​ ​(mol)​ ​is​ ​the​ ​unit​ ​for​ ​the​ ​amount​ ​of​ ​a​ ​substance

● Chemical​ ​amounts​ ​are​ ​measured​ ​in​ ​moles​ ​(therefore​ ​it​ ​is​ ​the​ ​amount​ ​of
substance).​ ​The​ ​symbol​ ​for​ ​the​ ​unit​ ​mole​ ​is​ ​mol.
● The​ ​mass​ ​of​ ​one​ ​mole​ ​of​ ​a​ ​substance​ ​in​ ​grams​ ​is​ ​numerically​ ​equal​ ​to​ ​its​ ​relative
formula​ ​mass.
● For​ ​example,​ ​the​ ​Ar​ ​of​ ​Iron​ ​is​ ​56,​ ​so​ ​one​ ​mole​ ​of​ ​iron​ ​weighs​ ​56g.
● The​ ​Mr​ ​of​ ​nitrogen​ ​gas​ ​(N​2​)​ ​is​ ​28​ ​(2x14),​ ​so​ ​one​ ​mole​ ​is​ ​28g.
● One​ ​mole​ ​of​ ​a​ ​substance​ ​contains​ ​the​ ​same​ ​number​ ​of​ ​the​ ​stated​ ​particles,
atoms,​ ​molecules​ ​or​ ​ions​ ​as​ ​one​ ​mole​ ​of​ ​any​ ​other​ ​substance

1.28​ ​understand​ ​how​ ​to​ ​carry​ ​out​ ​calculations​ ​involving​ ​amount​ ​of
substance,​ ​relative​ ​atomic​ ​mass​ ​(Ar)​ ​and​ ​relative​ ​formula​ ​mass​ ​(Mr)
● You​ ​can​ ​convert​ ​between​ ​moles​ ​and​ ​grams​ ​by​ ​using​ ​this​ ​triangle
or​ ​the​ ​equation:
moles​ ​=​ ​mass​ ​÷​ ​relative​ ​atomic​ ​mass
mass​ ​=​ ​moles​ ​x​ ​relative​ ​atomic​ ​mass
o E.g​ ​how​ ​many​ ​moles​ ​are​ ​there​ ​in​ ​42g​ ​of​ ​carbon?
▪ Moles​ ​=​ ​Mass​ ​/​ ​Mr​ ​=​ ​42/12​ ​=​ ​3.5​ ​moles

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1.29​ ​calculate​ ​reacting​ ​masses​ ​using​ ​experimental​ ​data​ ​and​ ​chemical
equations

● Chemical​ ​equations​ ​can​ ​be​ ​interpreted​ ​in​ ​terms​ ​of​ ​moles

o E.g.​ ​Mg​ ​+​ ​2HCl​ ​→MgCl​2​​ ​+​ ​H​2​​ ​shows​ ​that​ ​1​ ​mol.​ ​Mg​ ​reacts​ ​with​ ​2​ ​mol.​ ​HCl
to​ ​produce​ ​1​ ​mol.​ ​MgCl​2​​ ​and​ ​1​ ​mol.​ ​H​2
● Masses​ ​of​ ​reactants​ ​&​ ​products​ ​can​ ​be​ ​calculated​ ​from​ ​balanced​ ​symbol
equations.​ ​If​ ​you​ ​are​ ​given​ ​the​ ​reacting​ ​mass​ ​of​ ​one​ ​reactant​ ​and​ ​asked​ ​to​ ​find
the​ ​mass​ ​of​ ​one​ ​product​ ​formed:
o Find​ ​moles​ ​of​ ​that​ ​one​ ​substance:​ ​moles​ ​=​ ​mass​ ​/molar​ ​mass
o Use​ ​balancing​ ​numbers​ ​to​ ​find​ ​the​ ​moles​ ​of​ ​desired​ ​reactant​ ​or​ ​product
(e.g.​ ​if​ ​you​ ​had​ ​the​ ​equation:2NaOH​ ​+​ ​Mg​ ​→​ ​Mg(OH)​2​​ ​+​ ​2Na,​ ​if​ ​you​ ​had​ ​2
moles​ ​of​ ​Mg,​ ​you​ ​would​ ​form​ ​2x2=4​ ​moles​ ​of​ ​Na)
o Mass​ ​=​ ​moles​ ​x​ ​molar​ ​mass(of​ ​the​ ​product)​ ​to​ ​find​ ​mass

1.30​ ​calculate​ ​percentage​ ​yield

Percentage​ ​yield​ ​=​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​Amount​ ​of​ ​product​ ​produced​​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​x​ ​100
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​Maximum​ ​amount​ ​of​ ​product​ ​possible
● It​ ​is​ ​not​ ​always​ ​possible​ ​to​ ​obtain​ ​the​ ​calculated​ ​amount​ ​of​ ​a​ ​product​ ​for​ ​3
reasons…
o Reaction​ ​may​ ​not​ ​go​ ​to​ ​completion​ ​because​ ​it​ ​is​ ​reversible
o Some​ ​of​ ​the​ ​product​ ​may​ ​be​ ​lost​ ​when​ ​it​ ​is​ ​separated​ ​from​ ​the​ ​reaction
mixture
o Some​ ​of​ ​the​ ​reactants​ ​may​ ​react​ ​in​ ​ways​ ​different​ ​to​ ​the​ ​expected
reaction
● Amount​ ​of​ ​product​ ​obtained​ ​is​ ​known​ ​as​ ​yield

1.31​ ​understand​ ​how​ ​the​ ​formulae​ ​of​ ​simple​ ​compounds​ ​can​ ​be​ ​obtained
experimentally,​ ​including​ ​metal​ ​oxides,​ ​water​ ​and​ ​salts​ ​containing​ ​water​ ​of
crystallisation
example​ ​experiment​ ​to​ ​find​ ​formula​ ​of​ ​magnesium​ ​oxide:
● weigh​ ​some​ ​pure​ ​magnesium
● Heat​ ​magnesium​ ​to​ ​burning​ ​in​ ​a​ ​crucible​ ​to​ ​form​ ​magnesium​ ​oxide,​ ​as​ ​the
magnesium​ ​will​ ​react​ ​with​ ​the​ ​oxygen​ ​in​ ​the​ ​air
● weigh​ ​the​ ​mass​ ​of​ ​the​ ​magnesium​ ​oxide
● Known​ ​quantities:​ ​ mass​ ​of​ ​magnesium​ ​used​ ​&​ ​mass​ ​of​ ​magnesium​ ​oxide
produced​ ​
● Required​ ​calculations:​ ​
○ mass​ ​oxygen​ ​=​ ​mass​ ​magnesium​ ​oxide​ ​-​ ​mass​ ​magnesium
○ moles​ ​magnesium​ ​=​ ​mass​ ​magnesium​ ​÷​ ​molar​ ​mass​ ​magnesium​ ​
○ moles​ ​oxygen​ ​=​ ​mass​ ​oxygen​ ​÷​ ​molar​ ​mass​ ​oxygen​ ​

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 ○ calculate​ ​ratio​ ​of​ ​moles​ ​of​ ​magnesium​ ​to​ ​moles​ ​of​ ​oxygen
○ use​ ​ratio​ t​ o​ ​form​ ​empirical​ ​formula

1.32​ ​know​ ​what​ ​is​ ​meant​ ​by​ ​the​ ​terms​ ​empirical​ ​formula​ ​and​ ​molecular
formula

● molecular​ ​formula-​ ​the​ ​number​ ​of​ ​atoms​ ​of​ ​each​ ​element​ ​in​ ​a​ ​compound
● empirical​ ​formula-​ ​the​ ​simplest​ ​whole​ ​number​ ​ratio​ ​of​ ​atoms​ ​of​ ​each​ ​element​ ​in
a​ ​compound

1.33​ ​calculate​ ​empirical​ ​and​ ​molecular​ ​formulae​ ​from​ ​experimental​ ​data

● Empirical​ ​formula​ ​from​ ​the​ ​formula​ ​of​ ​molecule:

● if​ ​you​ ​have​ ​a​ ​common​ ​multiple​ ​e.g.​ ​Fe​2​O​4​,​ ​the​ ​empirical​ ​formula​ ​is​ ​the
simplest​ ​whole​ ​number​ ​ratio,​ ​which​ ​would​ ​be​ ​FeO​2
● if​ ​there​ ​is​ ​no​ ​common​ ​multiple,​ ​you​ ​already​ ​have​ ​the​ ​empirical​ ​formula
● Molecular​ ​formula​ ​from​ ​empirical​ ​formula​ ​and​ ​relative​ ​molecular​ ​mass
● Find​ ​relative​ ​molecular​ ​mass​ ​of​ ​the​ ​empirical​ ​formula
● Divide​ ​relative​ ​molecular​ ​mass​ ​of​ ​compound​ ​by​ ​that​ ​of​ ​the​ ​empirical
formula
● Multiply​ ​the​ ​number​ ​of​ ​each​ ​type​ ​of​ ​atom​ ​in​ ​the​ ​empirical​ ​formula​ ​by​ ​this
number
● e.g.​ ​if​ ​answer​ ​was​ ​2​ ​and​ ​the​ ​empirical​ ​formula​ ​was​ ​Fe​2​O​3​​ ​then​ ​the
molecular​ ​formula​ ​would​ ​be​ ​empirical​ ​formula​ ​x​ ​2​ ​=​ ​Fe​4​O​6

1.34​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​understand​ ​how​ ​to​ ​carry​ ​out​ ​calculations​ ​involving
amount​ ​of​ ​substance,​ ​volume​ ​and​ ​concentration​ ​(in​ ​mol/dm3​ ​)​ ​of​ ​solution

● Concentration​ ​of​ ​a​ ​solution​ ​can​ ​be​ ​measured​ ​in​ ​mass​ ​per​ ​given​ ​volume​ ​of
solution​ ​e.g.​ ​grams​ ​per​ ​dm​3​​ ​(g/dm​3​)
● to​ ​calculate​ ​concentration​ ​of​ ​a​ ​solution​ ​use​ ​the​ ​equation
concentration​ ​(g​ ​dm​-3​)​ ​=​ ​mass​ ​of​ ​solute​ ​(g)​ ​• ​ ​volume​ ​(dm​3​)
● To​ ​calculate​ ​mass​ ​of​ ​solute​ ​in​ ​a​ ​given​ ​volume​ ​of​ ​a​ ​known
concentration​ ​use​ ​the​ ​equation:​ ​ ​mass​ ​=​ ​conc​ ​x​ ​vol​​ ​i.e.​ ​g​ ​=
g/dm​3​​ ​x​ ​dm​3​​ ​ ​(think​ ​about​ ​the​ ​units!)
1.35​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​understand​ ​how​ ​to​ ​carry​ ​out​ ​calculations​ ​involving​ ​gas
volumes​ ​and​ ​the​ ​molar​ ​volume​ ​of​ ​a​ ​gas​ ​(24dm​3​​ ​and​ ​24000​ ​cm3​ ​​ ​at​ ​room
temperature​ ​and​ ​pressure​ ​(rtp))

● Equal​ ​amounts​ ​in​ ​mol.​ ​of​ ​gases​ ​occupy​ ​the​ ​same​ ​volume​ ​under​ ​the​ ​same
conditions​ ​of​ ​temperature​ ​and​ ​pressure​ ​(e.g.​ ​RTP)
● Volume​ ​of​ ​1​ ​mol.​ ​of​ ​any​ ​gas​ ​at​ ​RTP​ ​(room​ ​temperature​ ​and​ ​pressure:​ ​20​ ​degrees
C​ ​and​ ​1​ ​atmosphere​ ​pressure)​ ​is​ ​24​ ​dm​3
● This​ ​sets​ ​up​ ​the​ ​equation:

Volume​ ​(dm​3​)​ ​of​ ​gas​ ​at​ ​RTP​ ​=​ ​Mol.​ ​x​ ​24

● Use​ ​this​ ​equation​ ​to​ ​calculate​ ​the​ ​volumes​ ​of​ ​gaseous​ ​reactants​ ​and​ ​products​ ​at
RTP
o e.g.​ ​5​ ​moles​ ​of​ ​H​2​​ ​would​ ​occupy​ ​a​ ​volume​ ​of​ ​24​ ​x​ ​5​ ​=​ ​120​ ​dm​3​​ ​at​ ​RTP

1.36​ ​practical:​ ​know​ ​how​ ​to​ ​determine​ ​the​ ​formula​ ​of​ ​a​ ​metal​ ​oxide​ ​by
combustion​ ​(e.g.​ ​magnesium​ ​oxide)​ ​or​ ​by​ ​reduction​ ​(e.g.​ ​copper(II)​ ​oxide)

● see​ ​1.31

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 Edexcel​ ​IGCSE​ ​Chemistry

Topic​ ​1:​ ​Principles​ ​of​ ​chemistry

Ionic​ ​bonding

Notes

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1.37​ ​understand​ ​how​ ​ions​ ​are​ ​formed​ ​by​ ​electron​ ​loss​ ​or​ ​gain

● Ions​​ ​–​ ​Atoms​ ​that​ ​have​ ​lost​ ​or​ ​gained​ ​electron/electrons.

● Metal​ r​ eacting​ ​with​ ​a​ ​nonmetal:​ ​electrons​ ​in​ ​the​ ​outer​ ​shell​ ​of​ ​the​ ​metal​ ​atom
are​ ​transferred
o Metal​ ​atoms​ ​lose​ ​electrons​ ​to​ ​become​ ​positively​ ​charged​ ​ions
o Nonmetal​ ​atoms​ ​gain​ ​electrons​ ​to​ ​become​ ​negatively​ ​charged​ ​ions
● Cation​ ​=​ ​positive​ ​ion​ ​(+​ ​→​ ​ca+ion)
● Anion​ ​=​ ​negative​ ​ion​ ​(Negative​ ​→​ ​aNion)

1.38​ ​know​ ​the​ ​charges​ ​of​ ​these​ ​ions:​ ​metals​ ​in​ ​Groups​ ​1,​ ​2​ ​and​ ​3,​ ​nonmetals
in​ ​Groups​ ​5,​ ​6​ ​and​ ​7,​ ​Ag+​ ​,​ ​Cu2+
​ ​,​ ​Fe2+
​ ​,​ ​Fe3+
​ ​,​ ​Pb2+​ ​,​ ​Zn2+
​ ​,​ ​hydrogen​ ​(H+​ ​),​ ​hydroxide
(OH-​ ​),​ ​ammonium​ ​(NH​4+​ ​),​ ​carbonate​ ​(CO​32-) ​ ,​ ​nitrate​ ​(NO​3​ ),​ ​sulfate​ ​(SO​4​ )
​ -​ 2-​

● group​ ​1​ ​→​ ​+1

● group​ ​2​ ​→​ ​+2
● group​ ​3​ ​→​ ​+3
● group​ ​5​ ​→​ ​-3
● group​ ​6​ ​→​ ​-2
● group​ ​7​ ​→​ ​-1
● the​ ​rest​ ​above​ ​just​ ​need​ ​to​ ​be​ ​learnt

1.39​ ​write​ ​formulae​ ​for​ ​compounds​ ​formed​ ​between​ ​the​ ​ions​ ​listed​ ​above
● compounds​ ​have​ ​no​ ​overall​ ​charge,​ ​therefore​ ​charges​ ​of​ ​ions​ ​must​ ​cancel​ ​out

1.40​ ​draw​ ​dot-and-cross​ ​diagrams​ ​to​ ​show​ ​the​ ​formation​ ​of​ ​ionic
compounds​ ​by​ ​electron​ ​transfer,​ ​limited​ ​to​ ​combinations​ ​of​ ​elements​ ​from
Groups​ ​1,​ ​2,​ ​3​ ​and​ ​5,​ ​6,​ ​7​ ​only​ ​outer​ ​electrons​ ​need​ ​to​ ​be​ ​shown

● ionic​ ​compounds​ ​are​ ​formed​ ​when​ ​a​ ​metal​ ​and​ ​nonmetal

react.
● Ionic​ ​bonds​ ​are​ ​formed​ ​by​ ​the​ ​transfer​ ​of​ ​electrons​ ​from
the​ ​outer​ ​shell​ ​of​ ​the​ ​metal​ ​to​ ​the​ ​outer​ ​shell​ ​of​ ​the
nonmetal.
● The​ ​metal​ ​therefore​ ​forms​ ​a​ ​positive​ ​ion​ ​and​ ​the
nonmetal​ ​forms​ ​a​ ​negative​ ​ion

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1.41​ ​understand​ ​ionic​ ​bonding​ ​in​ ​terms​ ​of​ ​electrostatic​ ​attractions

● A​ ​giant​ ​structure​ ​of​ ​ions​ ​=​ ​ionic​ ​compound

● Held​ ​together​ ​by​ ​strong​ ​electrostatic​ ​forces​ ​of​ ​attraction​ ​between​ ​oppositely
charged​ ​ions
● The​ ​forces​ ​act​ ​in​ ​all​ ​directions​ ​in​ ​the​ ​lattice,​ ​and​ ​this​ ​is​ ​called​ ​ionic​ ​bonding.

An​ ​example​ ​is​ ​sodium​ ​chloride​ ​(salt):

Na​+​​ ​(small​ ​blue​ ​particles)​ ​and​ ​Cl​-​​ ​(larger​ ​green​ ​ones)

1.42​ ​understand​ ​why​ ​compounds​ ​with​ ​giant​ ​ionic​ ​lattices​ ​have​ ​high​ ​melting
and​ ​boiling​ ​points

● Strong​ ​electrostatic​ ​forces​ ​of​ ​attraction​ ​between​ ​oppositely​ ​charged​ ​ions

● Requires​ ​a​ ​lot​ ​of​ ​energy​ ​to​ ​overcome​ ​these​ ​forces​ ​of​ ​attraction
● Therefore,​ ​the​ ​compounds​ ​have​ ​high​ ​melting​ ​and​ ​boiling​ ​points

1.43​ ​know​ ​that​ ​ionic​ ​compounds​ ​do​ ​not​ ​conduct​ ​electricity​ ​when​ ​solid,​ ​but
do​ ​conduct​ ​electricity​ ​when​ ​molten​ ​and​ ​in​ ​aqueous​ ​solution

● As​ ​a​ ​solid,​ ​the​ ​ions​ ​are​ ​in​ ​fixed​ ​positions​ ​so​ ​can’t​ ​conduct​ ​electricity
● when​ ​molten​ ​or​ ​in​ ​aqueous​ ​solution​ ​the​ ​ions​ ​are​ ​free​ ​to​ ​move​ ​carrying​ ​charge
and​ ​conducting​ ​electricity

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 Edexcel​ ​IGCSE​ ​Chemistry

Topic​ ​1:​ ​Principles​ ​of​ ​chemistry

Covalent​ ​bonding

Notes

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1.44​ ​know​ ​that​ ​a​ ​covalent​ ​bond​ ​is​ ​formed​ ​between​ ​atoms​ ​by​ ​the​ ​sharing​ ​of
a​ ​pair​ ​of​ ​electrons

● Covalent​ ​bonding​ ​occurs​ ​in​ ​most​ ​non-metallic​ ​elements​ ​and​ ​in​ ​compounds​ ​of
nonmetals
● When​ ​atoms​ ​share​ ​pairs​ ​of​ ​electrons,​ ​they​ ​form​ ​covalent​ ​bonds.​ ​These​ ​bonds
between​ ​atoms​ ​are​ ​strong.

1.45​ ​understand​ ​covalent​ ​bonds​ ​in​ ​terms​ ​of​ ​electrostatic​ ​attractions

● Strong​ ​bonds​ ​between​ ​atoms​ ​that​ ​are​ ​covalently​ ​bonded​ ​are​ ​the​ ​result​ ​of
electrostatic​ ​attraction​ ​between​ ​the​ ​positive​ ​nuclei​ ​of​ ​the​ ​atoms​ ​and​ ​the​ ​pairs​ ​of
negative​ ​electrons​ ​that​ ​are​ ​shared​ ​between​ ​them

1.46​ ​understand​ ​how​ ​to​ ​use​ ​dot-and-cross​ ​diagrams​ ​to​ ​represent​ ​covalent
bonds​ ​in:​ ​diatomic​ ​molecules,​ ​including​ ​hydrogen,​ ​oxygen,​ ​nitrogen,
halogens​ ​and​ ​hydrogen​ ​halides,​ ​inorganic​ ​molecules​ ​including​ ​water,
ammonia​ ​and​ ​carbon​ ​dioxide,​ ​organic​ ​molecules​ ​containing​ ​up​ ​to​ ​two
carbon​ ​atoms,​ ​including​ ​methane,​ ​ethane,​ ​ethene​ ​and​ ​those​ ​containing
halogen​ ​atoms

some​ ​from​ ​the​ ​above​ ​list:

hydrogen​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​hydrogen​ ​chloride

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​water​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​methane

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​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​oxygen​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​carbon​ ​dioxide

1.47​ ​explain​ ​why​ ​substances​ ​with​ ​a​ ​simple​ ​molecular​ ​structures​ ​are​ ​gases​ ​or
liquids,​ ​or​ ​solids​ ​with​ ​low​ ​melting​ ​and​ ​boiling​ ​points;​ ​the​ ​term
intermolecular​ ​forces​ ​of​ ​attraction​ ​can​ ​be​ ​used​ ​to​ ​represent​ ​all​ ​forces
between​ ​molecules

● Substances​ ​that​ ​consist​ ​of​ ​small​ ​molecules​ ​are​ ​usually​ ​gases​ ​or​ ​liquids​ ​that​ ​have
low​ ​boiling​ ​and​ ​melting​ ​points.
● Substances​ ​that​ ​consist​ ​of​ ​small​ ​molecules​ ​have​ ​weak​ ​intermolecular​ ​forces
between​ ​the​ ​molecules.​ ​These​ ​are​ ​broken​ ​in​ ​boiling​ ​or​ ​melting,​ ​not​ ​the​ ​covalent
bonds.
● Substances​ ​that​ ​consist​ ​of​ ​small​ ​molecules​ ​don’t​ ​conduct​ ​electricity,​ ​because
small​ ​molecules​ ​do​ ​not​ ​have​ ​an​ ​overall​ ​electric​ ​charge.

1.48​ ​explain​ ​why​ ​the​ ​melting​ ​and​ ​boiling​ ​points​ ​of​ ​substances​ ​with​ ​simple
molecular​ ​structures​ ​increase,​ ​in​ ​general,​ ​with​ ​increasing​ ​relative​ ​molecular
mass
● The​ ​intermolecular​ ​forces​ ​increase​ ​with​ ​the​ ​size​ ​of​ ​the​ ​molecules,​ ​so​ ​larger
molecules​ ​(i.e.​ ​molecules​ ​with​ ​greater​ ​relative​ ​molecular​ ​masses)​ ​have​ ​higher
melting​ ​and​ ​boiling​ ​points.

1.49​ ​explain​ ​why​ ​substances​ ​with​ ​giant​ ​covalent​ ​structures​ ​are​ ​solids​ ​with
high​ ​melting​ ​and​ ​boiling​ ​points

● Substances​ ​that​ ​consist​ ​of​ ​giant​ ​covalent​ ​structures​ ​are​ ​solids​ ​with​ ​very​ ​high
melting​ ​points.
● All​ ​of​ ​the​ ​atoms​ ​in​ ​these​ ​structures​ ​are​ ​linked​ ​to​ ​other​ ​atoms​ ​by​ ​strong​ ​covalent
bonds.
● These​ ​bonds​ ​must​ ​be​ ​overcome​ ​to​ ​melt​ ​or​ ​boil​ ​these​ ​substances.

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1.50​ ​explain​ ​how​ ​the​ ​structures​ ​of​ ​diamond,​ ​graphite​ ​and​ ​C60​ ​fullerene
influence​ ​their​ ​physical​ ​properties,​ ​including​ ​electrical​ ​conductivity​ ​and
hardness

Diamond
● In​ ​diamond​ ​(right),​ ​each​ ​carbon​ ​is​ ​joined​ ​to​ ​4​ ​other​ ​carbons
covalently.
o It’s​ ​very​ ​hard,​ ​has​ ​a​ ​very​ ​high​ ​melting​ ​point​ ​and​ ​does​ ​not
conduct​ ​electricity.

Graphite
● In​ ​graphite,​ ​each​ ​carbon​ ​is​ ​covalently​ ​bonded​ ​to​ ​3​ ​other​ ​carbons,​ ​forming​ ​layers
of​ ​hexagonal​ ​rings,​ ​which​ ​have​ ​no​ ​covalent​ ​bonds​ ​between​ ​the​ ​layers.
o The​ ​layers​ ​can​ ​slide​ ​over​ ​each​ ​other​ ​due​ ​to​ ​no​ ​covalent​ ​bonds​ ​between
the​ ​layers,​ ​but​ ​weak​ ​intermolecular​ ​forces.​ ​Meaning​ ​that​ ​graphite​ ​is​ ​soft
and​ ​slippery.
● One​ ​electron​ ​from​ ​each​ ​carbon​ ​atom​ ​is​ ​delocalised.
o This​ ​makes​ ​graphite​ ​similar​ ​to​ ​metals,​ ​because​ ​of​ ​its​ ​delocalised
electrons.
o It​ ​can​ ​conduct​ ​electricity​ ​–​ ​unlike​ ​Diamond.
Graphene
● Single​ ​layer​ ​of​ ​graphite
● Has​ ​properties​ ​that​ ​make​ ​it​ ​useful​ ​in​ ​electronics​ ​and​ ​composites

Carbon​ ​can​ ​also​ ​form​ ​fullerenes​ ​with​ ​different​ ​numbers​ ​of​ ​carbon​ ​atoms​.
● Molecules​ ​of​ ​carbon​ ​atoms​ ​with​ ​hollow​ ​shapes
● They​ ​are​ ​based​ ​on​ ​hexagonal​ ​rings​ ​of​ ​carbon​ ​atoms,​ ​but​ ​they​ ​may​ ​also​ ​contain
rings​ ​with​ ​five​ ​or​ ​seven​ ​carbon​ ​atoms
● The​ ​first​ ​fullerene​ ​to​ ​be​ ​discovered​ ​was​ ​Buckminsterfullerene​ ​(C60),​ ​which​ ​has​ ​a
spherical​ ​shape

Carbon​ ​nanotubes
● Cylindrical​ ​fullerenes​ ​with​ ​very​ ​high​ ​length​ ​to​ ​diameter​ ​ratios
● Their​ ​properties​ ​make​ ​them​ ​useful​ ​for​ ​nanotechnology,​ ​electronics​ ​and​ ​materials

1.51​ ​know​ ​that​ ​covalent​ ​compounds​ ​do​ ​not​ ​usually​ ​conduct​ ​electricity
● exceptions​ ​include:​ ​graphite​ ​and​ ​graphene

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 Edexcel​ ​IGCSE​ ​Chemistry

Topic​ ​1:​ ​Principles​ ​of​ ​chemistry

Metallic​ ​bonding

Notes

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1.52​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​know​ ​how​ ​to​ ​represent​ ​a​ ​metallic​ ​lattice​ ​by​ ​a​ ​2-D
diagram

● Metals​ ​consist​ ​of​ ​giant​ ​structures​ ​of​ ​atoms​ ​arranged​ ​in​ ​a​ ​regular​ ​pattern.
● The​ ​electrons​ ​in​ ​the​ ​outer​ ​shell​ ​of​ ​metal​ ​atoms​ ​are​ ​delocalised​ ​and​ ​so​ ​are​ ​free​ ​to
move​ ​through​ ​the​ ​whole​ ​structure.
● The​ ​sharing​ ​of​ ​delocalised​ ​electrons​ ​gives​ ​rise​ ​to​ ​strong​ ​metallic​ ​bonds.

1.53​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​understand​ ​metallic​ ​bonding​ ​in​ ​terms​ ​of​ ​electrostatic
attractions

● Strong​ ​electrostatic​ ​attraction​ ​between​ ​negatively​ ​charged​ ​electrons​ ​and

positive​ ​metal​ ​ions

1.54​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​explain​ ​typical​ ​physical​ ​properties​ ​of​ ​metals,​ ​including
electrical​ ​conductivity​ ​and​ ​malleability

● Metals​ ​have​ ​giant​ ​structures​ ​of​ ​atoms​ ​with​ ​strong​ ​metallic​ ​bonding.
o Therefore,​ ​most​ ​metals​ ​have​ ​high​ ​melting​ ​and​ ​boiling​ ​points.
o They​ ​can​ ​conduct​ ​heat​ ​and​ ​electricity​ ​because​ ​of​ ​the​ ​delocalised
electrons​ ​in​ ​their​ ​structures.
o The​ ​layers​ ​of​ ​atoms​ ​in​ ​metals​ ​are​ ​able​ ​to​ ​slide​ ​over​ ​each​ ​other,​ ​so​ ​metals
can​ ​be​ ​bent​ ​and​ ​shaped.

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 Edexcel​ ​IGCSE​ ​Chemistry

Topic​ ​1:​ ​Principles​ ​of​ ​chemistry

Electrolysis

Notes

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1.55​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​understand​ ​why​ ​covalent​ ​compounds​ ​do​ ​not​ ​conduct
electricity

● They​ ​do​ ​not​ ​have​ ​free​ ​electrons​ ​–​ ​the​ ​electrons​ ​are​ ​shared​ ​in​ ​a​ ​covalent​ ​bond

1.56​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​understand​ ​why​ ​ionic​ ​compounds​ ​conduct​ ​electricity

only​ ​when​ ​molten​ ​or​ ​in​ ​aqueous​ ​solution

● Ions​ ​are​ ​fixed​ ​when​ ​ionic​ ​compounds​ ​are​ ​solid,​ ​meaning​ ​they​ ​can’t​ ​move​ ​so​ ​can’t
conduct​ ​electricity
● when​ ​the​ ​compounds​ ​are​ ​molten​ ​or​ ​in​ ​aqueous​ ​solution,​ ​the​ ​ions​ ​(that​ ​are
electrically​ ​charged)​ ​are​ ​able​ ​to​ ​move​ ​and​ ​carry​ ​charge

1.57​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​know​ ​that​ ​anion​ ​and​ ​cation​ ​are​ ​terms​ ​used​ ​to​ ​refer​ ​to
negative​ ​and​ ​positive​ ​ions​ ​respectively

● aNion​ ​=​ ​Negatively​ ​charged​ ​ion​ ​(-)

● ca+ion​ =​ ​ ​posi+ively​ ​charged​ ​ion​ ​(+)

1.58​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​describe​ ​experiments​ ​to​ ​investigate​ ​electrolysis,​ ​using

inert​ ​electrodes,​ ​of​ ​molten​ ​compounds​ ​(including​ ​lead(II)​ ​bromide)​ ​and
aqueous​ ​solutions​ ​(including​ ​sodium​ ​chloride,​ ​dilute​ ​sulfuric​ ​acid​ ​and​ ​copper
(II)​ ​sulfate)​ ​and​ ​to​ ​predict​ ​the​ ​products

● During​ ​electrolysis,​ ​positively​ ​charged​​ ​ions​ ​move​ ​to​ ​the​ ​negative​ ​electrode
(cathode)​,​ ​and​ ​negatively​ ​charged​ ​ions​ ​move​ ​to​ ​the​ ​positive​ ​electrode​ ​(anode).
● Ions​ ​are​ ​discharged​ ​at​ ​the​ ​electrodes​ ​producing​ ​elements,​ ​this​ ​process​ ​is​ ​called
electrolysis
● When​ ​you​ ​have​ ​a​ ​ionic​ ​solution​ ​(NOT​ ​a​ ​molten​ ​ionic​ ​compound),​ ​your​ ​solution
will​ ​contain:​ ​the​ ​ions​ ​that​ ​make​ ​up​ ​the​ ​ionic​ ​compound,​ ​and​ ​the​ ​ions​ ​in​ ​water
(OH​-​​ ​and​ ​H+​​ )
● at​ ​the​ ​cathode​ ​(-):
○ hydrogen​ ​(from​ ​H+​​ ​ ​in​ ​water)​ ​is​ ​produced​ ​UNLESS​ ​the​ ​+​ ​ions​ ​in​ ​the​ ​ionic
compound​ ​are​ ​from​ ​a​ ​metal​ ​less​ ​reactive​ ​than​ ​hydrogen
○ if​ ​the​ ​metal​ ​is​ ​less​ ​reactive,​ ​it​ ​will​ ​be​ ​produced​ ​instead
● at​ ​the​ ​anode​ ​(+):
○ oxygen​ ​(from​ ​OH​-​​ ​in​ ​water)​ ​will​ ​be​ ​produced​ ​UNLESS​ ​the​ ​ionic​ ​compound
contains​ ​halide​ ​ions​ ​(Cl​-​,​ ​Br​-​,​ ​I​-​)
○ if​ ​there​ ​are​ ​halide​ ​ions,​ ​the​ ​halogen​ ​will​ ​be​ ​produced​ ​instead​ ​(e.g.​ ​Cl​2​)

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 ● Using​ ​the​ ​logic​ ​above…
● Electrolysis​ ​of:
○ Sodium​ ​chloride​ ​solution
■ H​+​​ ​ions​ ​go​ ​to​ ​cathode​,​ ​H2​​ ​ ​(g)​ ​is​ ​produced​ ​(Na​ ​is​ ​more​ ​reactive​ ​than
hydrogen)
■ Cl​-​​ ​ions​ ​go​ ​to​ ​anode​,​ ​Cl​2​​ ​(g)​ ​is​ ​produced​ ​(Cl​-​​ ​are​ ​halide​ ​ions)
○ Copper​ ​(II)​ ​sulfate​ ​solution
■ Cu​+​​ ​ions​ ​go​ ​to​ ​cathode​,​ ​Cu​ ​(s)​ ​is​ ​produced​ ​(Cu​ ​is​ ​less​ ​reactive​ ​than
hydrogen)
■ OH​-​​ ​ions​ ​go​ ​to​ ​anode​,​ ​O​2​​ ​(g)​ ​is​ ​produced​ ​(SO​4​2-​​ ​ions​ ​are​ ​not​ ​halide
ions)
○ Water​ ​acidified​ ​with​ ​sulfuric​ ​acid
■ H​+​​ ​to​ ​cathode​,​ ​H2​​ ​ ​(g)​ ​is​ ​produced​ ​(these​ ​are​ ​the​ ​other​ ​ions​ ​present
in​ ​sulfuric​ ​acid​ ​H​2​SO​4​)
■ OH​-​​ ​to​ ​anode​,​ ​O​2​​ ​(g)​ ​is​ ​produced​ ​(SO​4​2-​​ ​ions​ ​are​ ​not​ ​halide​ ​ions)
○ Molten​ ​lead​ ​(II)​ ​bromide​ ​(demonstration)
■ Pb​2+​​ ​to​ ​cathode​,​ ​Pb​ ​(s)​ ​is​ ​produced​ ​(not​ ​in​ ​solution​ ​so​ ​these​ ​are
the​ ​only​ ​+​ ​ions​ ​present)
■ Br​-​​ ​to​ ​anode​,​ ​Br​2​​ ​(l)​ ​is​ ​produced​ ​ ​(not​ ​in​ ​solution​ ​so​ ​these​ ​are​ ​the
only​ ​-​ ​ions​ ​present)

1.59​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​write​ ​ionic​ ​half-equations​ ​representing​ ​the​ ​reactions

at​ ​the​ ​electrodes​ ​during​ ​electrolysis​ ​and​ ​understand​ ​why​ ​these​ ​reactions​ ​are
classified​ ​as​ ​oxidation​ ​or​ ​reduction

● This​ ​is​ ​an​ ​example​ ​of​ ​a​ ​half​ ​equation;​ ​the​ ​small​ ​number​ ​is
always​ ​the​ ​same​ ​as​ ​the​ ​2​ ​larger​ ​numbers​ ​within​ ​the
equation.​ ​&​ ​electrons​ ​are​ ​represented​ ​by​ ​the​ ​symbol​ ​‘e-‘

● Oxidation​ ​Is​ ​Loss​ ​(of​ ​electrons)

● Reduction​ I​ s​ ​Gain​ ​(of​ ​electrons)

● writing​ ​half​ ​equations​ ​for​ ​the​ ​reactions​ ​at​ ​each​ ​electrode:

○ negative​ ​electrode:​ ​X​+​​ ​->​ ​X,​ ​so​ ​ionic​ ​equation​ ​must​ ​be:
X​+​​ ​+​ ​e-​​ ​ ​->​ ​X,​ ​electrons​ ​gained,​ ​so​ ​positive​ ​ions​ ​are​ ​reduced
○ positive​ ​electrode:​ ​X​-​​ ​->​ ​X,​ ​so​ ​ionic​ ​equation​ ​must​ ​be:
X​-​​ ​->​ ​e-​​ ​ ​+​ ​X,​ ​electrons​ ​are​ ​lost,​ ​so​ ​negative​ ​ions​ ​are​ ​oxidised

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1.60​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​practical:​ ​investigate​ ​the​ ​electrolysis​ ​of​ ​aqueous
solutions

example-​ ​copper​ ​sulfate​ ​solution​ ​using​ ​copper​ ​electrodes

● set​ ​up:
○ anode​ ​is​ ​made​ ​of​ ​impure​ ​copper​ ​(that​ ​you​ ​are​ ​purifying)
○ cathode​ ​is​ ​made​ ​of​ ​pure​ ​copper
○ the​ ​solution​ ​is​ ​copper​ ​sulfate
● what​ ​happens:
○ Cu​2+​​ ​ions​ ​from​ ​the​ ​anode​ ​move​ ​to​ ​the​ ​cathode,​ ​where​ ​they​ ​gain​ ​electrons
and​ ​are​ ​discharged​ ​as​ ​pure​ ​copper
○ impurities​ ​form​ ​as​ ​sludge​ ​below​ ​the​ ​anode
● the​ ​cathode​ ​will​ ​increase​ ​in​ ​mass​ ​as​ ​it​ ​gains​ ​pure​ ​copper,​ ​whilst​ ​the​ ​anode​ ​will
lose​ ​mass​ ​as​ ​copper​ ​ions​ ​are​ ​lost​ ​(they​ ​replace​ ​the​ ​ones​ ​from​ ​the​ ​CuSO​4​​ ​solution
that​ ​go​ ​to​ ​the​ ​cathode)​ ​and​ ​so​ ​are​ ​impurities

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Edexcel​ ​IGCSE​ ​Chemistry

Topic​ ​3:​ ​Physical​ ​chemistry

Rates​ ​of​ ​reaction

Notes

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3.9​ ​describe​ ​experiments​ ​to​ ​investigate​ ​the​ ​effects​ ​of​ ​changes​ ​in​ ​surface
area​ ​of​ ​a​ ​solid,​ ​concentration​ ​of​ ​a​ ​solution,​ ​temperature​ ​and​ ​the​ ​use​ ​of​ ​a
catalyst​ ​on​ ​the​ ​rate​ ​of​ ​a​ ​reaction

● Use​ ​equations​ ​below​ ​to​ ​find​ ​the​ ​rate​ ​of​ ​reaction​ ​to​ ​compare​ ​the​ ​effect​ ​of
changes​ ​in​ ​surface​ ​area,​ ​concentration,​ ​temperature,​ ​use​ ​of​ ​a​ ​catalyst​ ​etc…
● Rates​ ​of​ ​reactions​ ​can​ ​be​ ​measured​ ​using​ ​the​ ​amount​ ​of​ ​product​ ​used,​ ​or
amount​ ​of​ ​product​ ​formed​ ​over​ ​time:
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​Rate​ ​of​ ​reaction​ ​=​ ​amount​ ​of​ ​reactant​ ​used
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​Time

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​Rate​ ​of​ ​reaction​ ​=​ ​amount​ ​of​ ​product​ ​formed

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​Time
o Quantity​ ​of​ ​reactant​ ​or​ ​product​ ​can​ ​be​ ​measured​ ​by​ ​the​ ​mass​ ​in​ ​grams​ ​or
by​ ​a​ ​volume​ ​in​ ​cm​3
o Units​ ​of​ ​rate​ ​of​ ​reaction​ ​may​ ​be​ ​given​ ​as​ ​g/s​ ​or​ ​cm​3​/s
o Use​ ​quantity​ ​of​ ​reactants​ ​in​ ​terms​ ​of​ ​moles​ ​and​ ​therefore,​ ​units​ ​for​ ​rate
of​ ​reaction​ ​in​ ​mol/s

3.10​ ​describe​ ​the​ ​effects​ ​of​ ​changes​ ​in​ ​surface​ ​area​ ​of​ ​a​ ​solid,​ ​concentration
of​ ​a​ ​solution,​ ​pressure​ ​of​ ​a​ ​gas,​ ​temperature​ ​and​ ​the​ ​use​ ​of​ ​a​ ​catalyst​ ​on
the​ ​rate​ ​of​ ​a​ ​reaction

● Increasing​ ​the​ ​temperature​ ​increases​ ​the

rate​ ​of​ ​reaction.​ ​As​ ​increasing​ ​temperature
increases​ ​the​ ​speed​ ​of​ ​the​ ​moving​ ​particles,​ ​so
they​ ​collide​ ​more​ ​frequently​ ​and​ ​energetically.
● Increasing​ ​pressure​ ​in​ ​reacting​ ​gases
increases​ ​the​ ​rate​ ​of​ ​reaction,​ ​as​ ​it​ ​increases​ ​the​ ​frequency​ ​of​ ​collisions.
● Increasing​ ​concentration​ ​of​ ​reacting​ ​solutions​ ​increases​ ​the​ ​rate​ ​of​ ​reaction,​ ​as
it​ ​increases​ ​the​ ​frequency​ ​of​ ​collisions.
● Increasing​ ​the​ ​surface​ ​area​ ​of​ ​solid​ ​reactants​ ​increases​ ​the​ ​rate​ ​of​ ​reaction,​ ​as​ ​it
increases​ ​the​ ​frequency​ ​of​ ​collisions.
● Catalysts​ ​speed​ ​up​ ​chemical​ ​reactions

3.11​ ​explain​ ​the​ ​effects​ ​of​ ​changes​ ​in​ ​surface​ ​area​ ​of​ ​a​ ​solid,​ ​concentration
of​ ​a​ ​solution,​ ​pressure​ ​of​ ​a​ ​gas​ ​and​ ​temperature​ ​on​ ​the​ ​rate​ ​of​ ​a​ ​reaction​ ​in
terms​ ​of​ ​particle​ ​collision​ ​theory
● see​ ​3.10

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3.12​ ​know​ ​that​ ​a​ ​catalyst​ ​is​ ​a​ ​substance​ ​that​ ​increases​ ​the​ ​rate​ ​of​ ​a
reaction,​ ​but​ ​is​ ​chemically​ ​unchanged​ ​at​ ​the​ ​end​ ​of​ ​the​ ​reaction
● Catalysts​ ​are​ ​substances​ ​that​ ​speed​ ​up​ ​chemical​ ​reactions​ ​without​ ​being
changed​ ​or​ ​used​ ​up​ ​during​ ​the​ ​reaction

3.13​ ​know​ ​that​ ​a​ ​catalyst​ ​works​ ​by​ ​providing​ ​an​ ​alternative​ ​pathway​ ​with
lower​ ​activation​ ​energy
● Catalysts​ ​provide​ ​an​ ​alternative​ ​pathway​ ​for​ ​a​ ​chemical​ ​reaction​ ​with​ ​a​ ​lower
activation​ ​energy.
● this​ ​increases​ ​the​ ​proportion​ ​of​ ​particles​ ​with​ ​energy​ ​to​ ​react.

3.14​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​draw​ ​and​ ​explain​ ​reaction​ ​profile​ ​diagrams​ ​showing
∆H​ ​and​ ​activation​ ​energy

3.15​ ​practical:​ ​investigate​ ​the​ ​effect​ ​of​ ​changing​ ​the​ ​surface​ ​area​ ​of​ ​marble
chips​ ​and​ ​of​ ​changing​ ​the​ ​concentration​ ​of​ ​hydrochloric​ ​acid​ ​on​ ​the​ ​rate​ ​of
reaction​ ​between​ ​marble​ ​chips​ ​and​ ​dilute​ ​hydrochloric​ ​acid
● using​ ​smaller​ ​marble​ ​chips​ ​(larger​ ​surface​ ​area),​ ​you​ ​should​ ​see​ ​an​ ​increase​ ​in
reaction​ ​rate
● increasing​ ​the​ ​concentration​ ​of​ ​hydrochloric​ ​acid​ ​should​ ​increase​ ​the​ ​reaction
rate

3.16​ ​practical:​ ​investigate​ ​the​ ​effect​ ​of​ ​different​ ​solids​ ​on​ ​the​ ​catalytic
decomposition​ ​of​ ​hydrogen​ ​peroxide​ ​solution

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Edexcel​ ​IGCSE​ ​Chemistry

Topic​ ​4:​ ​Organic​ ​chemistry

Introduction

Notes

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4.1​ ​know​ ​that​ ​a​ ​hydrocarbon​ ​is​ ​a​ ​compound​ ​of​ ​hydrogen​ ​and​ ​carbon​ ​only

● Hydrocarbon​ ​=​ ​compound​ ​of​ ​hydrogen​ ​and​ ​carbon​ ​ONLY

4.2​ ​understand​ ​how​ ​to​ ​represent​ ​organic​ ​molecules​ ​using

empirical​ ​formulae,​ ​molecular​ ​formulae,​ ​general​ ​formulae,
structural​ ​formulae​ ​and​ ​displayed​ ​formulae
● Empirical​ ​formula​ ​=​ ​simplest​ ​whole​ ​number​ ​ratio​ ​of​ ​each​ ​element​ ​in​ ​a​ ​compound
(e.g.​ ​for​ ​ethene​ ​=​ ​CH​2​)
● Molecular​ ​formulae​ ​=​ ​actual​ ​numbers​ ​of​ ​each​ ​element​ ​in​ ​a​ ​compound​ ​(e.g.​ ​for
ethene​ ​=​ ​C2​​ H​4​)
● General​ ​formulae​ ​=​ ​a​ ​type​ ​of​ ​empirical​ ​formula​ ​that​ ​represents​ ​the​ ​composition
of​ ​any​ ​member​ ​of​ ​an​ ​entire​ ​class​ ​of​ ​compounds​ ​(e.g.​ ​for​ ​ethene​ ​=​ ​Cn​​ H​2n​)
● Structural​ ​formulae​ ​=​ ​formula​ ​which​ ​shows​ ​the​ ​arrangement​ ​of​ ​atoms​ ​in​ ​the
molecule​ ​of​ ​a​ ​compound​ ​(e.g.​ ​for​ ​ethene​ ​=​ ​CH​2​CH​2​)
● Displayed​ ​formulae​ ​=​ ​shows​ ​the​ ​symbols​ ​for​ ​each​ ​atom​ ​in​ ​a​ ​compound,​ ​with
straight​ ​lines​ ​representing​ ​covalent​ ​bonds

E.g.​ ​for​ ​ethene…

4.3​ ​know​ ​what​ ​is​ ​meant​ ​by​ ​the​ ​terms​ ​homologous​ ​series,​ ​functional​ ​group
and​ ​isomerism

● Homologous​ ​series​ ​=​ ​series​ ​of​ ​compounds​ ​with​ ​the​ ​same​ ​general​ ​formula​ ​and
similar​ ​properties
● Functional​ ​group​ ​=​ ​a​ ​group​ ​of​ ​atoms​ ​responsible​ ​for​ ​the​ ​chemical​ ​reactions​ ​of​ ​a
compound
● Isomerism​ ​=​ ​compounds​ ​with​ ​the​ ​same​ ​molecular​ ​formula​ ​exist​ ​in​ ​different
forms​ ​due​ ​to​ ​different​ ​arrangements​ ​of​ ​atoms​ ​(different​ ​forms​ ​of​ ​isomerism
exist)

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4.4​ ​understand​ ​how​ ​to​ ​name​ ​compounds​ ​relevant​ ​to​ ​this​ ​specification​ ​using
the​ ​rules​ ​of​ ​International​ ​Union​ ​of​ ​Pure​ ​and​ ​Applied​ ​Chemistry​ ​(IUPAC)
nomenclature;​ ​students​ ​will​ ​be​ ​expected​ ​to​ ​name​ ​compounds​ ​containing​ ​up
to​ ​six​ ​carbon​ ​atoms

● Prefixes​ ​(beginning​ ​of​ ​the​ ​name)

o Any​ ​compound​ ​with​ ​1​ ​carbon​ ​has​ ​the​ ​prefix​ ​of:​ ​Meth-
o 2​ ​carbons:​ ​Eth-
o 3​ ​carbons:​ ​Prop-
o 4​ ​carbons:​ ​But-
o (Then​ ​follow​ ​the​ ​same​ ​rules​ ​as​ ​shapes​ ​in​ ​mathematics)​ ​5​ ​carbons:​ ​Pent-​ ​6
carbons:​ ​Hex-
o remember​ ​the​ ​first​ ​4​ ​prefixes​ ​using​ ​MEPB​ ​Monkeys​ ​Eat​ ​Peanut​ ​Butter
● The​ ​suffix​ ​of​ ​any​ ​compound​ ​refers​ ​to​ ​the​ ​functional​ ​group
o Alkanes​ ​–​ ​ane​ ​(C-C​ ​//​ ​C-H)​ ​e.g.​ ​ethane
o Alkenes​ ​–​ ​ene​ ​(C=C)​ ​e.g.​ ​ethene
o Alcohols​ ​–​ ​ol​ ​(OH)​ ​e.g.​ ​ethanol
o Carboxylic​ ​acids​ ​–​ ​anoic​ ​acid​ ​(-COOH)​ ​e.g.​ ​ethanoic​ ​acid

4.5​ ​understand​ ​how​ ​to​ ​write​ ​the​ ​possible​ ​structural​ ​and​ ​displayed​ ​formulae
of​ ​an​ ​organic​ ​molecule​ ​given​ ​its​ ​molecular​ ​formula
● use​ ​information​ ​provided​ ​above
● e.g.​ i​ f​ ​given​​ ​molecular​ ​formula​ ​C2​​ H​6​,​ ​structural​ ​formula​ ​would​ ​be​ ​CH​3​CH​3​ and
​
displayed​ ​formula​ ​would​ ​be:

4.6​ ​understand​ ​how​ ​to​ ​classify​ ​reactions​ ​of​ ​organic​ ​compounds​ ​as
substitution,​ ​addition​ ​and​ ​combustion;​ ​knowledge​ ​of​ ​reaction​ ​mechanisms
is​ ​not​ ​required
● Addition​ ​reactions​ ​involve​ ​only​ ​ONE​ ​PRODUCT
o I.e.​ ​2​ ​reactants​ ​→​ ​1​ ​product
o I.e.​ ​addition​ ​of​ ​hydrogen​ ​to​ ​ethene​ ​to​ ​produce​ ​ethane​ ​(H​2​​ ​is​ ​added​ ​onto
C=C​ ​to​ ​form​ ​H-C-C-H)
● Substitution​ ​reactions​ ​involve​ ​TWO​ ​PRODUCTS
o I.e.​ ​2​ ​reactants​ ​→​ ​2​ ​products
o I.e.​ ​Hydrogen​ ​chloride​ ​+​ ​ethanol​ ​→​ ​chloroethane​ ​+​ ​water​ ​(Cl​ ​replaces​ ​OH
–​ ​they​ ​switch​ ​places)
● Combustion​ ​involves​ ​the​ ​reaction​ ​of​ ​a​ ​fuel​ ​with​ ​OXYGEN
o Products​ ​are​ ​water​ ​and​ ​carbon​ ​dioxide​ ​only​ ​from​ ​hydrocarbons​ ​(if
combustion​ ​is​ ​COMPLETE)

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Edexcel​ ​IGCSE​ ​Chemistry

Topic​ ​4:​ ​Organic​ ​chemistry

Crude​ ​oil

Notes

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4.7​ ​know​ ​that​ ​crude​ ​oil​ ​is​ ​a​ ​mixture​ ​of​ ​hydrocarbons

● Crude​ ​oil​ ​is​ ​a​ ​complex​ ​mixture​ ​of​ ​hydrocarbons

● It​ ​contains​ ​molecules​ ​in​ ​which​ ​carbon​ ​atoms​ ​are​ ​in​ ​chains​ ​or​ ​rings​ ​(names,
formulae​ ​and​ ​structures​ ​of​ ​specific​ ​ring​ ​molecules​ ​not​ ​required)
● An​ ​important​ ​source​ ​of​ ​useful​ ​substances​ ​(fuels​ ​and​ ​feedstock​ ​for​ ​the
petrochemical​ ​industry)
● A​ ​finite​ ​resource

4.8​ ​describe​ ​how​ ​the​ ​industrial​ ​process​ ​of​ ​fractional​ ​distillation​ ​separates
crude​ ​oil​ ​into​ ​fractions

● The​ ​oil​ ​is​ ​heated​ ​in​ ​the​ ​fractionating​ ​column​ ​and​ ​the​ ​oil​ ​evaporates​ ​and
condenses​ ​at​ ​a​ ​number​ ​of​ ​different​ ​temperatures.
● The​ ​many​ ​hydrocarbons​ ​in​ ​crude​ ​oil​ ​can​ ​be​ ​separated​ ​into​ ​fractions​ ​each​ ​of
which​ ​contains​ ​molecules​ ​with​ ​a​ ​similar​ ​number​ ​of​ ​carbon​ ​atoms
● The​ ​fractionating​ ​column​ ​works​ ​continuously,​ ​heated​ ​crude​ ​oil​ ​is​ ​piped​ ​in​ ​at​ ​the
bottom.​ ​The​ ​vaporised​ ​oil​ ​rises​ ​up​ ​the​ ​column​ ​and​ ​the​ ​various​ ​fractions​ ​are
constantly​ ​tapped​ ​off​ ​at​ ​the​ ​different​ ​levels​ ​where​ ​they​ ​condense.
● The​ ​fractions​ ​can​ ​be​ ​processed​ ​to​ ​produce​ ​fuels​ ​and​ ​feedstock​ ​for​ ​the
petrochemical​ ​industry.

4.9​ ​know​ ​the​ ​names​ ​and​ ​uses​ ​of​ ​the​ ​main​ ​fractions​ ​obtained​ ​from​ ​crude​ ​oil:

● Refinery​ ​gases
o Domestic​ ​heating​ ​and​ ​cooking
● Gasoline​ ​/​ ​Petrol
o Fuel​ ​for​ ​cars
● Kerosene
o Fuel​ ​for​ ​aircraft
● Diesel
o Fuel​ ​for​ ​some​ ​cars​ ​and​ ​trains
● Fuel​ ​oil
o Fuel​ ​for​ ​large​ ​ships​ ​and​ ​in​ ​some​ ​power​ ​stations
● Bitumen
o Surface​ ​roads​ ​and​ ​roofs

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4.10​ ​know​ ​the​ ​trend​ ​in​ ​colour,​ ​boiling​ ​point​ ​and​ ​viscosity​ ​of​ ​the​ ​main
fractions

● Some​ ​properties​ ​of​ ​hydrocarbons​ ​depend​ ​on​ ​the​ ​size​ ​of​ ​their​ ​molecules.​ ​These
properties​ ​influence​ ​their​ ​use​ ​as​ ​fuels.
● The​ ​shorter​ ​the​ ​molecules,​ ​the​ ​lower​ ​the​ ​temperature​ ​at​ ​which​ ​that​ ​fraction
vaporises​ ​or​ ​condenses​ ​–​ ​and​ ​the​ ​lower​ ​its​ ​boiling​ ​point.
● Shorter​ ​the​ ​molecules,​ ​the​ ​less​ ​viscous​ ​it​ ​is.​ ​(more​ ​runny)
● Colours​ ​are​ ​darker​ ​at​ ​the​ ​bottom​ ​fractions​ ​–​ ​longer​ ​molecules

4.11​ ​know​ ​that​ ​a​ ​fuel​ ​is​ ​a​ ​substance​ ​that,​ ​when​ ​burned,​ ​releases​ ​heat
energy

● Fuel:​ ​substance​ ​that​ ​releases​ ​heat​ ​energy​ ​when​ ​burned

4.12​ ​know​ ​the​ ​possible​ ​products​ ​of​ ​complete​ ​and​ ​incomplete​ ​combustion​ ​of
hydrocarbons​ ​with​ ​oxygen​ ​in​ ​the​ ​air

● Complete​ ​combustion
o CO​2​​ ​and​ ​H​2​O​ ​are​ ​produced
● Incomplete​ ​combustion
o If​ ​there’s​ ​not​ ​enough​ ​oxygen,​ ​some​ ​of​ ​the​ ​fuel​ ​doesn’t​ ​burn​ ​–​ ​this​ ​is
partial​ ​combustion.​ ​Here,​ ​solid​ ​particles​ ​of​ ​soot​ ​(carbons)​ ​and​ ​unburnt
fuel​ ​are​ ​released.​ ​Carbon​ ​monoxide​ ​is​ ​also​ ​released.

4.13​ ​understand​ ​why​ ​carbon​ ​monoxide​ ​is​ ​poisonous,​ ​in​ ​terms​ ​of​ ​its​ ​effect​ ​on
the​ ​capacity​ ​of​ ​blood​ ​to​ ​transport​ ​oxygen;​ ​references​ ​to​ ​haemoglobin​ ​are
not​ ​required

● Carbon​ ​monoxide​ ​prevents​ ​red​ ​blood​ ​cells​ ​carrying​ ​oxygen​ ​around​ ​the​ ​body.​ ​This
is​ ​carbon​ ​monoxide​ ​poisoning,​ ​which​ ​can​ ​lead​ ​to​ ​breathing​ ​difficulties​ ​and
eventually​ ​death.

4.14​ ​know​ ​that,​ ​in​ ​car​ ​engines,​ ​the​ ​temperature​ ​reached​ ​is​ ​high​ ​enough​ ​to
allow​ ​nitrogen​ ​and​ ​oxygen​ ​from​ ​air​ ​to​ ​react,​ ​forming​ ​oxides​ ​of​ ​nitrogen

● Temperature​ ​reached​ ​in​ ​car​ ​engines​ ​is​ ​high​ ​enough​ ​to​ ​allow​ ​nitrogen​ ​and​ ​oxygen
from​ ​air​ ​to​ ​react​ ​forming​ ​oxides​ ​of​ ​nitrogen​ ​e.g.​ ​nitrogen​ ​monoxide​ ​NO​ ​or
nitrogen​ ​dioxide​ ​NO​2

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4.15​ ​explain​ ​how​ ​the​ ​combustion​ ​of​ ​some​ ​impurities​ ​in​ ​hydrocarbon​ ​fuels
results​ ​in​ ​the​ ​formation​ ​of​ ​sulfur​ ​dioxide

● Most​ ​fuels,​ ​including​ ​coal,​ ​contain​ ​carbon​ ​and/or​ ​hydrogen​ ​and​ ​may​ ​also​ ​contain
some​ ​sulfur.​ ​This​ ​means​ ​when​ ​the​ ​fuels​ ​are​ ​burnt​ ​the​ ​sulfur​ ​is​ ​oxidised​ ​to
produce​ ​sulfur​ ​dioxide

4.16​ ​understand​ ​how​ ​sulfur​ ​dioxide​ ​and​ ​oxides​ ​of​ ​nitrogen​ ​contribute​ ​to
acid​ ​rain

● When​ ​sulfur​ ​dioxide​ ​and​ ​oxides​ ​of​ ​nitrogen​ ​are​ ​emitted​ ​into​ ​the​ ​atmosphere
they​ ​react​ ​with​ ​rain​ ​water​ ​to​ ​create​ ​H+​​ ​ ​ions
● When​ ​the​ ​rain​ ​falls​ ​the​ ​acid​ ​can​ ​corrode​ ​rocks​ ​and​ ​buildings
● The​ ​acid​ ​can​ ​also​ ​alter​ ​the​ ​pH​ ​in​ ​soil​ ​or​ ​rivers​ ​which​ ​can​ ​affect​ ​an​ ​ecosystem
● Acid​ ​rain​ ​corrodes​ ​limestone,​ ​which​ ​damages​ ​buildings​ ​and​ ​statues​ ​etc

4.17​ ​describe​ ​how​ ​long-chain​ ​alkanes​ ​are​ ​converted​ ​to​ ​alkenes​ ​and
shorter-chain​ ​alkanes​ ​by​ ​catalytic​ ​cracking​ ​(using​ ​silica​ ​or​ ​alumina​ ​as​ ​the
catalyst​ ​and​ ​a​ ​temperature​ ​in​ ​the​ ​range​ ​of​ ​600-700˚C)

● Hydrocarbons​ ​can​ ​be​ ​cracked​ ​to​ ​produce​ ​smaller,​ ​more​ ​useful​ ​molecules.​ ​This
process​ ​involved​ ​heating​ ​the​ ​hydrocarbons​ ​to​ ​vaporise​ ​them.
● The​ ​vapours​ ​are:
o Either​ ​passed​ ​over​ ​a​ ​hot​ ​catalyst​ ​(silica​ ​or​ ​alumina)
o Mixed​ ​with​ ​steam​ ​and​ ​heated​ ​to​ ​a​ ​very​ ​high​ ​temperature​ ​(temperature
in​ ​the​ ​range​ ​of​ ​600-700˚C)​ ​so​ ​that​ ​thermal​ ​decomposition​ ​reactions​ ​can
occur.
● The​ ​products​ ​of​ ​cracking​ ​include​ ​alkanes​ ​and​ ​unsaturated​ ​hydrocarbons​ ​called
alkenes.​ ​Alkenes​ ​have​ ​the​ ​general​ ​formula​ ​Cn​​ H​2n

4.18​ ​explain​ ​why​ ​cracking​ ​is​ ​necessary,​ ​in​ ​terms​ ​of​ ​the​ ​balance​ ​between
supply​ ​and​ ​demand​ ​for​ ​different​ ​fractions

● Demand​ ​for​ ​smaller​ ​chained​ ​alkanes​ ​is​ ​much​ ​greater​ ​than​ ​that​ ​for​ ​longer​ ​chained
alkanes​ ​–​ ​however,​ ​supply​ ​for​ ​longer​ ​chained​ ​alkanes​ ​is​ ​greater​ ​than​ ​that​ ​for
smaller​ ​chained​ ​alkanes,​ ​therefore​ ​an​ ​alternative​ ​to​ ​produce​ ​smaller​ ​chained
alkanes​ ​is​ ​required​ ​(i.e.​ ​cracking)

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Edexcel​ ​IGCSE​ ​Chemistry

Topic​ ​4:​ ​Organic​ ​chemistry

Alkanes

Notes

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4.19​ ​know​ ​the​ ​general​ ​formula​ ​for​ ​alkanes

● C​n​H​2n+2​​ ​is​ ​the​ ​general​ ​formula

● E.g.​ ​ethane​ ​is​ ​C2​​ H​6

4.20​ ​explain​ ​why​ ​alkanes​ ​are​ ​classified​ ​as​ ​saturated​ ​hydrocarbons

● Contain​ ​no​ ​C=C​ ​double​ ​bonds,​ ​therefore​ ​the​ ​carbons​ ​are​ ​saturated,​ ​because
each​ ​carbon​ ​has​ ​formed​ ​its​ ​maximum​ ​of​ ​4​ ​single​ ​bonds

4.21​ ​understand​ ​how​ ​to​ ​draw​ ​the​ ​structural​ ​and​ ​displayed​ ​formulae​ ​for
alkanes​ ​with​ ​up​ ​to​ ​five​ ​carbon​ ​atoms​ ​in​ ​the​ ​molecule,​ ​and​ ​to​ ​name​ ​the
unbranched-chain​ ​isomers

● Alkane​ ​molecules​ ​can​ ​be​ ​represented​ ​in​ ​the​ ​following​ ​forms:

● The​ ​first​ ​4​ ​alkanes​ ​are​ ​methane,​ ​ethane,​ ​propane​ ​and​ ​butane​ ​(MEPB:​ ​Monkeys
Eat​ ​Peanut​ ​Butter)

alkane structural​ ​formula displayed​ ​formula

methane CH​4

ethane CH​3​CH​3

propane CH​3​CH​2​CH​3

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 butane CH​3​CH​2​CH​2​CH​3

pentane CH​3​CH​2​CH​2​CH​2​CH​3

4.22​ ​describe​ ​the​ ​reactions​ ​of​ ​alkanes​ ​with​ ​halogens​ ​in​ ​the​ ​presence​ ​of
ultraviolet​ ​radiation,​ ​limited​ ​to​ ​mono-substitution;​ ​knowledge​ ​of​ ​reaction
mechanisms​ ​is​ ​not​ ​required

● Br​2​​ ​+​ ​C2​​ H​6​​ ​ ​-(UV)->​ ​C2​​ H​5​Br​ ​+​ ​HBr

● Halogen​ ​+​ ​alkane​ ​–(UV)->​ ​halogenoalkane​ ​+​ ​hydrogen​ ​halide

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Edexcel​ ​IGCSE​ ​Chemistry

Topic​ ​4:​ ​Organic​ ​chemistry

Alkenes

Notes

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4.23​ ​know​ ​that​ ​alkenes​ ​contain​ ​the​ ​functional​ ​group​ ​>C=C<

● Functional​ ​group​ ​of​ ​alkenes​ ​is:​ ​C=C

4.24​ ​know​ ​the​ ​general​ ​formula​ ​for​ ​alkenes

● C​n​H​2n​​ ​e.g.​ ​ethene​ ​is​ ​C2​​ H​4

4.25​ ​explain​ ​why​ ​alkenes​ ​are​ ​classified​ ​as​ ​unsaturated​ ​hydrocarbons

● Contain​ ​one​ ​or​ ​more​ ​C=C​ ​double​ ​bonds

4.26​ ​understand​ ​how​ ​to​ ​draw​ ​the​ ​structural​ ​and​ ​displayed​ ​formulae​ ​for
alkenes​ ​with​ ​up​ ​to​ ​four​ ​carbon​ ​atoms​ ​in​ ​the​ ​molecule,​ ​and​ ​name​ ​the
unbranched-chain​ ​isomers;​ ​knowledge​ ​of​ ​cis/trans​ ​or​ ​E/Z​ ​notation​ ​is​ ​not
required

● The​ ​first​ ​2​ ​alkenes​ ​are​ ​ethene​ ​and​ ​propene.

● Unsaturated​ ​carbons​ ​can​ ​be​ ​represented​ ​in​ ​the​ ​following​ ​forms:

alkene structural​ ​formula displayed​ ​formula

ethene CH​2​CH​2

propene CH​3​CHCH​2

butene CH​3​CHCHCH​3

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4.27​ ​describe​ ​the​ ​reactions​ ​of​ ​alkenes​ ​with​ ​bromine​ ​to​ ​produce
dibromoalkanes

● alkene​ ​+​ ​bromine​ ​→​ ​dibromoalkane

○ E.g.​ ​Ethene​ ​+​ ​bromine​ ​->​ ​1,2-dibromoethane
● Addition​ ​reaction
● Involves​ ​the​ ​removal​ ​of​ ​C=C​ ​double​ ​bond
● remember​ ​bromine​ ​exists​ ​as​ ​Br​2

4.28​ ​describe​ ​how​ ​bromine​ ​water​ ​can​ ​be​ ​used​ ​to​ ​distinguish​ ​between​ ​an
alkane​ ​and​ ​an​ ​alkene
● alkenes​ ​react​ ​with​ ​bromine​ ​water,​ ​turning​ ​it​ ​from​ ​orange​ ​to​ ​colourless​ ​–​ ​alkanes
DO​ ​NOT​ ​react​ ​with​ ​bromine​ ​water-​ ​it​ ​remains​ ​orange

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Edexcel​ ​IGCSE​ ​Chemistry

Topic​ ​4:​ ​Organic​ ​chemistry

​ ​Alcohols

Notes

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4.29​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​know​ ​that​ ​alcohols​ ​contain​ ​the​ ​functional​ ​group​ ​–OH

4.30​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​understand​ ​how​ ​to​ ​draw​ ​structural​ ​and​ ​displayed
formulae​ ​for​ ​methanol,​ ​ethanol,​ ​propanol​ ​(propan-1-ol​ ​only)​ ​and​ ​butanol
(butan-1-ol​ ​only),​ ​and​ ​name​ ​each​ ​compound;​ ​the​ ​names​ ​propanol​ ​and
butanol​ ​are​ ​acceptable

● Alcohols​ ​contain​ ​the​ ​functional​ ​group​ ​–OH

● The​ ​first​ 4
​ ​ ​members​ ​of​ ​the​ ​series​ ​are​ ​methanol,​ ​ethanol,​ ​propanol​ ​and​ ​butanol.

alcohol structural​ ​formula displayed​ ​formula

methanol CH​3​OH

ethanol CH​3​CH​2​OH

propanol CH​3​CH​2​CH​2​OH

butanol CH​3​CH​2​CH​2​CH​2​OH

4.31​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​know​ ​that​ ​ethanol​ ​can​ ​be​ ​oxidised​ ​by:

● Burning​ ​in​ ​air​ ​or​ ​oxygen​ ​(complete​ ​combustion)

● Reaction​ w​ ith​ ​oxygen​ ​in​ ​the​ ​air​ ​to​ ​form​ ​ethanoic​ ​acid​ ​(microbial​ ​oxidation)
● Heating​ ​with​ ​potassium​ ​dichromate(VI)​ ​in​ ​dilute​ ​sulfuric​ ​acid​ ​to​ ​form​ ​ethanoic
acid

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4.32​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​know​ ​that​ ​ethanol​ ​can​ ​be​ ​manufactured​ ​by:

● Reacting​ ​ethene​ ​with​ ​steam​ ​in​ ​the​ ​presence​ ​of​ ​a​ ​phosphoric​ ​acid​ ​catalyst​ ​at​ ​a
temperature​ ​of​ ​about​ ​300˚C​ ​and​ ​a​ ​pressure​ ​of​ ​about​ ​60-70​ ​atm
● The​ ​fermentation​ ​of​ ​glucose,​ ​in​ ​the​ ​absence​ ​of​ ​air,​ ​at​ ​an​ ​optimum​ ​temperature
of​ ​about​ ​30˚C​ ​and​ ​using​ ​the​ ​enzymes​ ​in​ ​yeast

4.33​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​understand​ ​the​ ​reasons​ ​for​ ​fermentation,​ ​in​ ​the
absence​ ​of​ ​air,​ ​and​ ​at​ ​an​ ​optimum​ ​temperature

● Glucose​ ​→​ ​carbon​ ​dioxide​ ​+​ ​ethanol

● Optimum​ t​ emperature​ ​of​ ​25˚C​ ​to​ ​50˚C
o If​ ​too​ ​low​ ​=​ ​yeast​ ​that​ ​is​ ​used​ ​would​ ​be​ ​inactive
o If​ ​too​ ​high​ ​=​ ​enzymes​ ​in​ ​yeast​ ​would​ ​be​ ​denatured​ ​/​ ​would​ ​no​ ​longer
function
● Absence​ ​of​ ​oxygen​ ​(air​ ​must​ ​be​ ​kept​ ​out)
o If​ ​air​ ​got​ ​in,​ ​it​ ​would​ ​cause​ ​the​ ​ethanol​ ​to​ ​oxidise​ ​to​ ​ethanoic​ ​acid

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Edexcel​ ​IGCSE​ ​Chemistry

Topic​ ​4:​ ​Organic​ ​chemistry

​ ​Carboxylic​ ​acids

Notes

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4.34​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​know​ ​that​ ​carboxylic​ ​acids​ ​contain​ ​the​ ​functional
group​ ​–COOH

4.35​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​understand​ ​how​ ​to​ ​draw​ ​structural​ ​and​ ​displayed
formulae​ ​for​ ​unbranched-chain​ ​carboxylic​ ​acids​ ​with​ ​up​ ​to​ ​four​ ​carbon
atoms​ ​in​ ​the​ ​molecule,​ ​and​ ​name​ ​each​ ​compound
● First​ ​four​ ​members​ ​are:​ ​methanoic​ ​acid,​ ​ethanoic​ ​acid,​ ​propanoic​ ​acid​ ​and
butanoic​ ​acid

carboxylic​ ​acid structural​ ​formula displayed​ ​formula

methanoic​ ​acid HCOOH

ethanoic​ ​acid CH​3​COOH

propanoic​ ​acid CH​3​CH​2​COOH

butanoic​ ​acid CH​3​CH​2​CH​2​COOH

4.36​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​describe​ ​the​ ​reactions​ ​of​ ​aqueous​ ​solutions​ ​of
carboxylic​ ​acids​ ​with​ ​metals​ ​and​ ​metal​ ​carbonates
● Dissolve​ ​in​ ​water​ ​to​ ​produce​ ​acidic​ ​solutions
● React​ ​with​ ​metal​ ​carbonates​ ​to​ ​produce​ ​a​ ​salt​ ​+​ ​carbon​ ​dioxide(g)​ ​(bubbles​ ​are
formed​ ​/​ ​effervesces)
● React​ ​with​ ​more​ ​reactive​ ​metals​ ​to​ ​produce​ ​a​ ​salt​ ​+​ ​hydrogen

4.37​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​know​ ​that​ ​vinegar​ ​is​ ​an​ ​aqueous​ ​solution​ ​containing
ethanoic​ ​acid

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Edexcel​ ​IGCSE​ ​Chemistry

Topic​ ​4:​ ​Organic​ ​chemistry

Esters

Notes

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 4.38​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​know​ ​that​ ​esters​ ​contain​ ​the​ ​functional​ ​group​ ​–COO-

● They​ ​have​ ​the​ ​functional​ ​group​ ​–COO-.

4.39​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​know​ ​that​ ​ethyl​ ​ethanoate​ ​is​ ​the​ ​ester​ ​produced​ ​when
ethanol​ ​and​ ​ethanoic​ ​acid​ ​react​ ​in​ ​the​ ​presence​ ​of​ ​an​ ​acid​ ​catalyst
● Carboxylic​ ​acids​ ​react​ ​with​ ​alcohols​ ​in​ ​the​ ​presence​ ​of​ ​an​ ​acid​ ​catalyst​ ​to
produce​ ​esters
● ethyl​ ​ethanoate​ ​is​ ​produced​ ​when​ ​ethanol​ ​and​ ​ethanoic​ ​acid​ ​react:

4.40​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​understand​ ​how​ ​to​ ​write​ ​the​ ​structural​ ​and​ ​displayed
formulae​ ​of​ ​ethyl​ ​ethanoate
structural​ ​formula:​ ​CH​3​COOCH​2​CH​3
displayed​ ​formula:

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4.41​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​understand​ ​how​ ​to​ ​write​ ​the​ ​structural​ ​and​ ​displayed
formulae​ ​of​ ​an​ ​ester,​ ​given​ ​the​ ​name​ ​or​ ​formula​ ​of​ ​the​ ​alcohol​ ​and
carboxylic​ ​acid​ ​from​ ​which​ ​it​ ​is​ ​formed​ ​and​ ​vice​ ​versa
● naming​ ​esters:
○ first​ ​part​ ​comes​ ​from​ ​alcohol,​ ​remove​ ​-anol​ ​and​ ​replace​ ​with​ ​-yl​ ​e.g.
propanol​ ​→​ ​propyl
○ second​ ​part​ ​comes​ ​from​ ​carboxylic​ ​acid,​ ​remove​ ​-oic​ ​acid​ ​and​ ​replace
with​ ​-oate​ ​e.g.​ ​methanoic​ ​acid​ ​→​ ​methanoate
○ full​ ​name​ ​from​ ​propanol​ ​and​ ​methanoic​ ​acid​ ​would​ ​be​ ​propyl
methanoate
● structure​ ​of​ ​esters:
○ H​ ​is​ ​lost​ ​from​ ​alcohol​ ​and​ ​OH​ ​from​ ​carboxylic​ ​acid,​ ​bond​ ​forms​ ​between​ ​C
in​ ​carboxylic​ ​acid​ ​and​ ​O​ ​in​ ​alcohol

4.42​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​know​ ​that​ ​esters​ ​are…

● Volatile​ ​compounds​ ​with​ ​distinctive​ ​smells

● Used​ ​as​ f​ ood​ ​flavourings​ ​and​ ​in​ ​perfumes

4.43​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​practical:​ ​prepare​ ​a​ ​sample​ ​of​ ​an​ ​ester​ ​such​ ​as​ ​ethyl
ethanoate

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Edexcel​ ​IGCSE​ ​Chemistry

Topic​ ​4:​ ​Organic​ ​chemistry

​ ​Synthetic​ ​polymers

Notes

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4.44​ ​know​ ​that​ ​an​ ​addition​ ​polymer​ ​is​ ​formed​ ​by​ ​joining​ ​up​ ​many​ ​small
molecules​ ​called​ ​monomers

● Alkenes​ ​can​ ​be​ ​used​ ​to​ ​make​ ​polymers​ ​such​ ​as​ ​poly(ethane)​ ​and​ ​poly(propene)
by​ ​addition​ ​polymerisation.​ ​In​ ​this​ ​reaction,​ ​many​ ​small​ ​molecules​ ​(monomers)
join​ ​together​ ​to​ ​create​ ​very​ ​large​ ​molecules​ ​(polymers).​ ​For​ ​example:

● The​ ​repeat​ ​unit​ ​has​ ​the​ ​same​ ​atoms​ ​as​ ​the​ ​monomer​ ​because​ ​no​ ​other​ ​molecule
is​ ​formed​ ​in​ ​the​ ​reaction

4.45​ ​understand​ ​how​ ​to​ ​draw​ ​the​ ​repeat​ ​unit​ ​of​ ​an​ ​addition​ ​polymer,
including​ ​poly(ethene),​ ​poly(propene),​ ​poly(chloroethene)​ ​and
(poly)tetrafluoroethene

tetrafluoroethene​ ​ ​ ​poly(tetrafluoroethene)

4.46​ ​understand​ ​how​ ​to​ ​deduce​ ​the​ ​structure​ ​of​ ​a​ ​monomer​ ​from​ ​the​ ​repeat
unit​ ​of​ ​an​ ​addition​ ​polymer​ ​and​ ​vice​ ​versa

▪ Monomer​ ​is​ ​just​ ​repeat​ ​unit,​ ​replacing​ ​C-C​ ​with​ ​C=C​ ​and​ ​removing​ ​brackets​ ​and
“n”

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4.47​ ​explain​ ​problems​ ​in​ ​the​ ​disposal​ ​of​ ​addition​ ​polymers,​ ​including:

● Unable​ ​to​ ​biodegrade,​ ​because​ ​they​ ​are​ ​inert​ ​/​ ​unable​ ​to​ ​react​ ​therefore,
microorganisms​ ​and​ ​bacteria​ ​are​ ​unable​ ​to​ ​break​ ​them​ ​down
● The​ ​production​ ​of​ ​toxic​ ​gases​ ​when​ ​they​ ​are​ ​burned
● Carbon​ ​dioxide​ ​is​ ​released​ ​when​ ​burnt–​ ​which​ ​adds​ ​to​ ​global​ ​warming

4.48​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​know​ ​that​ ​condensation​ ​polymerisation,​ ​in​ ​which​ ​a

dicarboxylic​ ​acid​ ​reacts​ ​with​ ​a​ ​diol,​ ​produces​ ​a​ ​polyester​ ​and​ ​water

● In​ ​condensation​ ​polymerisation,​ ​a​ ​small​ ​molecule​ ​is​ ​formed​ ​as​ ​a​ ​by-product​ ​each
time​ ​a​ ​bond​ ​is​ ​formed​ ​between​ ​two​ ​monomers
● diol-​ ​molecule​ ​with​ ​2​ ​alcohol​ ​OH​ ​functional​ ​groups
● dicarboxylic​ ​acid-​ ​molecule​ ​with​ ​2​ ​carboxylic​ ​acid​ ​COOH​ ​functional​ ​groups
● When​ ​you​ ​react​ ​a​ ​diol​ ​and​ ​a​ ​dicarboxylic​ ​acid,​ ​the​ ​alcohol​ ​and​ ​carboxylic​ ​acid
functional​ ​groups​ ​react,​ ​losing​ ​a​ ​small​ ​molecule​ ​–​ ​water
● This​ ​is​ ​an​ ​ester​ ​–​ ​therefore​ ​a​ ​polyester​ ​is​ ​a​ ​lot​ ​of​ ​these​ ​monomers​ ​(esters)
○ the​ ​dicarboxylic​ ​acid​ ​loses​ ​the​ ​OH​ ​group​ ​off​ ​of​ ​each​ ​COOH​ ​group
○ the​ ​di-alcohol​ ​loses​ ​the​ ​H​ ​off​ ​of​ ​each​ ​OH​ ​group
○ the​ ​remaining​ ​molecules​ ​join​ ​together​ ​to​ ​make​ ​a​ ​polyester
○ the​ ​H​ ​and​ ​OH​ ​join​ ​to​ ​form​ ​water

4.49​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​understand​ ​how​ ​to​ ​write​ ​the​ ​structural​ ​and​ ​displayed
formula​ ​of​ ​a​ ​polyester,​ ​showing​ ​the​ ​repeat​ ​unit​ ​given​ ​the​ ​formulae​ ​of​ ​the
monomers​ ​from​ ​which​ ​it​ ​is​ ​formed​ ​including​ ​the​ ​reaction​ ​of​ ​ethanedioic​ ​acid
and​ ​ethanediol
● similar​ ​to​ ​polymers
● from​ ​the​ ​monomers,​ ​identify​ ​the​ ​OH​ ​(from​ ​carboxylic​ ​acids)​ ​and​ ​H​ ​(from
alcohols)​ ​that​ ​will​ ​be​ ​lost​ ​and​ ​join​ ​up​ ​the​ ​molecules​ ​at​ ​these​ ​points
● the​ ​repeat​ ​unit​ ​is​ ​simply​ ​one​ ​of​ ​each​ ​diol​ ​and​ ​dicarboxylic​ ​acid​ ​joined​ ​together,
with​ ​a​ ​bond​ ​sticking​ ​out​ ​at​ ​each​ ​end​ ​(the​ ​same​ ​as​ ​for​ ​polymers)

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4.50​ ​(chemistry​ ​only)​ ​know​ ​that​ ​some​ ​polyesters,​ ​known​ ​as​ ​biopolyesters,
are​ ​biodegradable

● Biopolyesters​ ​are​ ​biodegradable,​ ​making​ ​them​ ​easier​ ​to​ ​dispose​ ​of​ ​than​ ​other
polyesters

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