Ship Construction Basics

Terminologies:

Keel Plate is a plate which runs longitudinally from stem to stern of the ship and might has slightly more thickness than
adjoining plates as the ship sits on this area on the blocks during construction as well as in dry docks.

Base Line is a horizontal line drawn at top of keel plate. Vertical molded dimensions are measured relative to this line.

Length Overall (LOA) is the Length of vessel taken over all extremities.

After Perpendicular (AP) is a perpendicular drawn to the waterline at the point where the aft side of the rudder post
meets the summer load line. Where no rudder post is fitted it is taken as the centre line of the rudder stock.

Forward Perpendicular (FP) is the waterline at the point where the foreside of the stem meets the summer load line.

Length between Perpendiculars (LBP) is the length between FWD and AFT perpendiculars along the summer load line.

Half Breadth is the half breadth at any section, since a ship’s hull is symmetrical about the longitudinal centre line.

Freeboard is the vertical distance at the ship’s side between summer load line (service draft) and the freeboard deck.

Freeboard deck is normally the uppermost complete deck exposed to weather and sea which has permanent means of
closing all openings, and below which all openings in the ship’s side have watertight closings.

Sheer: Curvature of deck in longitudinal direction at both end of the ship compared with deck height at amidships.

Principal Dimensions Longitudinally

Tumblehome: The inward curvature of the side shell above the summer load line.

Camber: Curvature of deck in transverse direction compared with height of deck at centre above height of deck at side.

Rise of Floor is the bottom shell plating line above the base line. This rise is measured at the line of molded beam.

Freeboard is the vertical distance at the ship’s side between summer load line (service draft) and the freeboard deck.
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 Principal Dimensions Transversely

Half Siding of Keel is the horizontal flat portion of the bottom shell measured to port or starboard of the ship’s longitudinal
centre line. This is a useful dimension to know when dry-docking.

Molded Beam is measured at the midship section is the maximum molded breadth of the ship.

Molded Draft is measured from the base line to the summer load line at the midship section.

Molded Depth is measured from the base line to the heel of the upper deck beam at the ship’s side amidships.

Remarks: Molded dimensions are referred to the internal scope of a volume.

Extreme Beam is the maximum beam taken over all extremities.

Extreme Draft is taken from the lowest point of keel to the summer load line. Draft marks represent extreme drafts.

Extreme Depth is the depth of vessel at ship’s side from upper deck to lowest point of keel.

Remarks: Extreme dimensions are referred to the external (maximum) scope that a volume occupies.

Flare is the outward curvature of the side shell above the waterline. It promotes dryness and is therefore associated with
the fore end of ship.

Keel Rake is the inclination of the keel line from the horizontal. Trawlers and tugs often have keels raked aft to give greater
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depth aft where the propeller diameter is proportionately larger in this type of vessel. Small craft occasionally have
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forward rake of keel to bring propellers above the line of keel.

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 Extreme and Moulded Heights

Stem Rake: Inclination of the stem line from the vertical.

Tween Deck Height: Vertical distance between adjacent decks measured from the tops of deck beams at ships side.

Parallel Middle Body: If we cut the ship longitudinally, equidistance and symmetrically from side to side, we find that
length of the slice at centre line is longest and gets shorter as the side is approached (line D in below DRWG). Also, we find
the height of each slice is maximum at midship and reduces as we approach to the ends. Parallel body length is the length
over which the midship section remains constant in area and shape. It is draught dependent. The higher the draught the
longer the length of parallel body.

Entrance: The immersed body of the vessel forward of the parallel middle body.

Run: The immersed body of the vessel aft of the parallel middle body.

Parallel Body, Run and Entrance

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Tonnage is a measure of the enclosed internal volume of the vessel (originally computed as 100 cubic feet per ton).

Gross tonnage (abbreviated as GT) is a unit related to the ship's overall internal volume.

Net tonnage (abbreviated as NT) is a calculated representation of the internal volume of the ship’s cargo holds. It is
expressed in "tons", a unit of volume defined as 100 cubic feet (approx 2.83 m³). Net tonnage is not a measure of the
ship's weight or displacement and should not be confused with terms such as deadweight tonnage, net register tonnage,
net gross tonnage or displacement.

Deadweight is the difference between the lightweight and loaded displacement, i.e. it is the weight of cargo plus weights
of fuel, stores, water ballast, fresh water, crew and passengers, and baggage.
Deadweight tonnage at any given time is defined as the sum of the weights or masses of cargo, fuel, fresh water, ballast
water, provisions, passengers and crew. The term is often used to denote maximum deadweight.
This is the deadweight tonnage when the ship is fully loaded, such that its Plimsoll line is at the point of submersion.

Displacement is made up of lightweight plus deadweight. The lightweight is the weight of vessel as built, including boiler
water, lubricating oil, and cooling water system.

Load line is to ensure that a ship has sufficient freeboard and thus sufficient reserve buoyancy. This symbol (shown below),
also called an international load line or Plimsoll line, indicates the maximum safe draft, and therefore the minimum
freeboard for the vessel in various operating conditions.

Load Line (Plimsoll mark)

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BEAMS and NEUTRAL AXIS IN BEAMS

A beam is a structural element that primarily resists loads applied laterally to the beam's axis (an element designed to
carry primarily axial load would be a pillar or column). Its mode of deflection is primarily by bending. The loads applied to
the beam result in reaction forces at the beam's support points. The total effect of all the forces acting on the beam is to
produce shear forces and bending moments within the beams that in turn induce internal stresses, strains and deflections
of the beam.

Beams are characterized by their manner of support, profile (shape of cross-section), equilibrium conditions, length, and
their material.

Any structure may contain beams, not only ships but automobile frames, aircraft components, machine frames, and other
mechanical or structural systems. In these structures, any structural element, in any orientation, that primarily resists
loads applied laterally to the element's axis would be a beam element.

The neutral axis is an axis in the cross section of a beam (a member resisting bending) or shaft along which there are no
longitudinal stresses or strains. If the section is symmetric, isotropic and is not curved before a bend occurs, then the
neutral axis is at the geometric centroid. All fibres on one side of the neutral axis are in a state of tension, while those on
the opposite side are in compression.

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Strengthening:

Ships are basically resembling a hollow metal box that should withstand various loads and forces throughout their service
life, including rough weather, heavy loads, local stresses and sea motions.

Ships are strengthened based on experiences gained through many decades as well as advanced technologies in steel
production and formation of sections.

Ships are strengthened in four basic criteria as follow.

01- External strengthening: Camber, Rise of Floor, Tumble Home, Sheers FWD & AFT, Bilge Keel, Round of Deck edge.

02- Internal strengthening: Sections, Beams, Girders, Floors, Bulkheads, Frames, Cross Ties, Pillars, Stiffeners, Stringers,
Coamings, Beam Knees, Brackets.

03- Strengthening by MATERIAL in use: Carbon Steels, Metal Treatment, Alloys and aluminum. Each material should be
protected against corrosion.

04- Strengthening by SCANTLING chosen: Thickness, width and length.

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 SECTIONS, PROFILES OR STEEL SHAPES

Steel sections are a key component in ship construction in term of internal strengthening owing to their versatile
properties that enable ship builders to possess wide range of choices to consider in reinforcement of the vessel.

Sections are produced by ‘hot rolling’, where the steel is heated between two large rollers. During this process, the steel
sections will be rolled into the shape required for the application. They are produced as circular or square hollow section,
H or I beam, angle, channel, tee, solid bar, bulb bar, flat plate and more.

Most Common Types:

Angles are L-shaped with two steel legs at 90-degree while legs do not have to be of equal lengths.
Beams are H or I shape in cross section with a wide range of specification and application.
Channels are produced in three types i.e. Parallel Flange, C-shaped or U-shaped.
Hollow Structural Sections (HSS) either seamed or seamless have a hollow cross-section and can be made in rectangular,
round, square or hexagon shapes.
Plates are flat surfaces to construct spaces and partitions. They are produced in various dimensions and thickness.

Sections are used for framing system to achieve internal strengthening.

Most Common Sections

A collection of various sections

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Remarks: See PURSEY and EYRES for drawings of sections and profiles.

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 Shell Plating

The bottom and side shell plating consists of a series of flat and curved steel plates generally of greater length than breadth
butt welded together. The vertical welded joints are referred to as ‘butts’ and the horizontal welded joints as ‘seams’ (see
Figure 17.1). Stiffening members both longitudinal and transverse are generally welded to the shell by intermittent fillet
welds with a length of continuous weld at the ends of the stiffening member. Continuous welding of stiffening members
to the shell is found in the after peak, the bottom shell within the forward 30 per cent of the length and where higher
tensile steel is used. Framing is notched in way of welded plate butts and seams.

Seam and Butt

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Attachment of Shell Plating by welding and strengthening with frames

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BOTTOM SHELL PLATING: Throughout the length of the ship the width and thickness of the keel plate remain constant
where a flat plate keel is fitted. Its thickness is never less than that of the adjoining bottom plating.
Strakes of bottom plating to the bilges have their greatest thickness over 40 per cent of the ship’s length amidships
because the bending stresses are highest. The bottom plating then tapers to a lesser thickness at the ends of the ship,
apart from increased thickness requirements in way of the pounding region.

SIDE SHELL PLATING: As with the bottom shell plating the greater thickness of the side shell plating is maintained
within 40 per cent of the vessel’s midship length and then tapers to the rule thickness at the ends.
The thickness may be increased in regions where high vertical shear stresses occur, usually in way of transverse
bulkheads in a vessel permitted to carry heavy cargoes with some holds empty. Further shell plate thickness
increases may be found at the panting region.

Upper strake of plating adjacent to the strength deck is referred to as ‘sheerstrake’. As the sheerstrake is at a
large distance from neutral axis it has a greater thickness than other strakes of side shell plating. Being in highly
stressed region, welded attachments or cutouts (stress raisers) is avoided. That’s why Scupper above the deck
and at the ends of the superstructure are prohibited in larger vessels. The upper edge is dressed smooth and
welding of bulwarks to the edge of sheerstrake is not permitted at amidships length of the ship.

Connecting the sheerstrake and strength deck is a problem and a rounded sheerstrake may be adopted to solve
this problem where the plating is heavy. This is often the case over the midship portion of large tankers and bulk
carriers. Butt welds are then employed to make connections rather than less satisfactory fillet weld at the
perpendicular connection of the vertical sheerstrake and horizontal strength deck stringer plate. The radius of
a rounded gunwale must be adequate and any welded guardrails and fairleads are kept off the radiused plate if
possible.

Sheer Strake’s position and its attachment

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Framing: The bottom shell may be framed transversely or longitudinally.
Longitudinal framing being preferred for larger ships, and generally required when the ships length exceeds 120 metres.

The side shell framing may also be transversely or longitudinally framed, transverse framing being adopted in many
conventional cargo ships. Longitudinal framing is adopted within double hull spaces and is common within the hopper and
topside tanks of bulk carriers.

Smaller single skin bulk carriers then have transverse frames at the side shell fitted between the hopper and topside tank
(Figure below).

Framing of a Single Side Skin Bulk Carrier (combined framing system)

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TRANSVERSE FRAMING: In a general cargo ship the transverse framing will consist of main and hold frames with brackets
top and bottom, and lighter tween deck frames with brackets at the tops only (figure below).

Ship’s side plating is framed transversely

Scantlings of the main transverse frames are primarily dependent on their position, spacing, depth and rigidity of the end
connections. In way of tanks such as oil bunkers or cargo deep tanks the side frame size will be increased, except where
supporting side stringers are fitted within the tank space. Frames supporting hatch end beams and those in way of deck
transverses where the deck is framed longitudinally, also have increased scantlings.

Web frames that are built up frames consisting of plate web and face flat, where the web is considerably deeper than the
conventional transverse frame, are often introduced along the side shell, (figure below).

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Web frame on the left and Attachment of side frames to the tank top on the right

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A number of WEB frames are fitted in midship machinery spaces, generally not more than 5 frames spaces apart but may
be omitted if the size of normal framing is increased. In all cases the provision of web frames is intended to increase the
rigidity of the transverse ship section at that point.

Forward of the collision bulkhead and in any deep tank adjacent to the collision bulkhead, and in tween decks above such
tanks, WEB frames are required at not more than 5 frame spaces apart.

In the tween decks above the after peak tank, WEB frames are required at every fourth frame space abaft the aft peak
bulkhead. In all cases the provision of web frames is intended to increase the rigidity of the transverse ship section at that
point.

Tank Side Brackets: The lower end of the frame may be connected to the tank top or hopper side tank by means of a
flanged or edge stiffened tank side bracket as illustrated in DRWG on previous page.

LONGITUDINAL FRAMING: The longitudinal framing of the bottom shell is dealt with in a separate Chapter, but if the side
shell is longitudinally framed offset bulb sections will often be employed with the greater section scantlings at the lower
side shell. Direct continuity of strength is to be maintained similar to the details as are for tanker longitudinals.

TRANSVERSE WEBS are fitted to support the side longitudinals, these being spaced not more than 3.8m apart, in ships of
100 m length or less, with increasing spacing being permitted for longer ships.

In the peaks (tanks at ship’s end) the spacing is 2.5m where the length of ship is less than 100 m increasing linearly to a
spacing of 3.5m where the length exceeds 300m.

Larger ships that require to have a double hull are longitudinally framed at the sides with transverse webs arranged in line
with the floors in the double bottom to ensure continuity of transverse strength. Horizontal perforated flats are fitted
between the inner and outer side plating to support the transverse webs, (figure below).

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Longitudinal framing with transverse WEB at ship’s side

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 BOTTOM STRUCTURE:

Originally ships were constructed with single bottoms, HFO and FW being contained within separately constructed tanks.
The DB structure which provides increased safety in the event of bottom shell damage and also provides liquid tank space
low down in the ship, only evolved during the early part of the twentieth century. Today only small vessels such as tugs,
ferries, and cargo ships of less than 500 gross tonnage have a single bottom construction. Larger ocean-going vessels are
fitted with DB Tanks.

At the C/L of the bottom is located the keel, which forms the backbone of the ship that contributes mainly to the
longitudinal strength and effectively distributes local loading caused when docking. The commonest form of keel is known
as FLAT PLATE KEEL and this is fitted in the majority of ocean-going and other vessels (see Figure (a) below).

A form of keel found on smaller vessels is the bar keel (see Figure (b) below). The bar keel may be fitted in trawlers, tugs,
etc., and is found in smaller ferries too. Where grounding occurs, this type of keel is suitable with its massive scantlings,
but there is always a problem of the increased draft with no additional cargo capacity.

If a DB tank is fitted, the keel is inevitably a flat plate type. The bar keels are often associated with open floors, but a flat
plate keel can be fitted in way of open floors. Duct keels (see Figure c below) are provided in the double bottoms of some
vessels. These run from the forward engine room bulkhead to the collision bulkhead and are utilized to carry the double
bottom piping. The piping is then accessible when cargo is loaded.

An entrance to the duct being provided at the forward end of the engine room. No duct is required aft of the engine room
as the piping may be carried in the shaft tunnel. A width of not more than 2.0 m is allowed for the duct, and strengthening
is provided at the tank top and keel plate to maintain continuity of strength of the transverse floors.

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Bottom structure
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Single Bottom Structure: In small ships having single bottoms the vertical plate open floors are fitted at every frame space
and are stiffened at their upper edge. A centre line girder is fitted and one side girder is fitted each side of the centre line
where the beam is less than 10 m. Where the beam is between 10 and 17 m two side girders are fitted and if any bottom
shell panel has a width to length ratio greater than 4 additional continuous or intercostal stiffeners are fitted. The
continuous centre and intercostal side girders are stiffened at their upper edge and extend as far forward and aft as
possible. The single bottom structure is shown in below Figure (note the continuous or intercostal members. Both single
and double bottoms have continuous and intercostal material and there is often some confusion in the student’s mind as
to what is implied by these terms. A wood ceiling may be fitted across the top of the floors if cargoes are to be carried but
this does not constitute an inner bottom offering any protection if the outer bottom shell is damaged.

Double Bottom Structure: An inner bottom i.e. TANK TOP may be provided at a minimum height above the bottom shell,
and maintained watertight to the bilges. This provides a considerable margin of safety, since in the event of bottom shell
damage only the double bottom space may be flooded. The space is not wasted but utilized to carry oil fuel and fresh
water required for the ship, as well as providing ballast capacity. The minimum depth of the double bottom in a ship will
depend on the classification society’s requirement for the depth of centre girder. It may be deeper to give the required
capacities of oil fuel, fresh water, and water ballast to be carried in the bottom. Water ballast bottom tanks are commonly
provided right forward and aft for trimming purposes and if necessary, the depth of the double bottom may be increased
in these regions. In way of the machinery spaces the double bottom depth is also increased to provide appreciable
capacities of lubricating oil and fuel oil. The increase in height of the inner bottom is always by a gradual taper in the
longitudinal direction, no sudden discontinuities in the structure being tolerated. Double bottoms may be framed
longitudinally or transversely (see below Fig), but where the ship’s length exceeds 120 m it is considered desirable to adopt
longitudinal framing. The explanation of this is that on longer ships tests and experience have shown that there is a
tendency for the inner bottom and bottom shell to buckle if welded transverse framing is adopted.
This buckling occurs as a result of the longitudinal bending of the hull, and may be avoided by having the plating
longitudinally stiffened. Double bottoms in the way of machinery spaces which are adjacent to the after peak are required
to be transversely framed.

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Structure of single bottom

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INNER BOTTOM PLATING: The inner bottom plating may in a general cargo ship be sloped at the side to form a bilge for
drainage purposes. It is not uncommon however for it to be extended to the ship’s side, and individual bilge wells are then
provided for drainage purposes. In vessels requiring a passenger certificate it is a statutory requirement for the tank top
to extend to the ship’s side. This provides a greater degree of safety since there is a substantial area of bilge which may
be damaged without flooding spaces above inner bottom. At the centre line of the ship the middle strake of inner bottom
may be considered as the upper flange of the centre line docking girder, formed by the centre girder and keel plate. It may
therefore be heavier than the other strakes of inner bottom plating. Normally a wood ceiling is provided under a hatchway
in a general cargo ship, but the inner bottom plating thickness can be increased and the ceiling omitted. If grabs are used
for discharging from general cargo ships the plate thickness is further increased, or a double ceiling is fitted.

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Construction inside DB Tank

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FLOORS: Vertical transverse plate floors are provided both where the bottom is transversely and longitudinally framed.
At the ends of bottom tank spaces and under the main bulkheads, watertight or oiltight plate floors are provided. These
are made watertight or oiltight by closing any holes in the plate floor and welding collars around any members which pass
through the floors. Elsewhere ‘solid plate floors’ are fitted to strengthen the bottom transversely and support the inner
bottom. These run transversely from the continuous centre girder to the bilge, and manholes provided for access through
the tanks and lightening holes are cut in each solid plate floor. Also, small air and drain holes may be drilled at the top and
bottom respectively of the solid plate floors in the tank spaces. The spacing of the solid plate floors varies according to
the loads supported and local stresses experienced. At intermediate frame spaces between the solid plate floors, ‘bracket
floors’ are fitted. The bracket floor consists simply of short transverse plate brackets fitted in way of the centre girder and
tank sides (Figures A and B below).

TRANSVERSELY FRAMED DOUBLE BOTTOM: If the double bottom is transversely framed, then transverse solid plate
floors, and bracket floors with transverse frames, provide the principal support for the inner bottom and bottom shell
plating (Figure 16.4). Solid plate floors are fitted at every frame space in the engine room and in the pounding region (see
the end of this chapter). Also, they are introduced in way of boiler seats, transverse bulkheads, toes of brackets supporting
stiffeners on deep tank bulkheads, and in way of any change in depth of the double bottom. Where a ship is regularly
discharged by grabs, solid plate floors are also fitted at each frame. Elsewhere the solid plate floors may be spaced up to
3.0 m apart, with bracket floors at frame spaces between the solid floors. The plate brackets of bracket floors are flanged
and their breadth is at least 75 per cent of the depth of the centre girder at the bracket floors. To reduce the span of the
frames, which should not exceed 2.5 meters, at the bracket floor, vertical angle or channel bar struts may be fitted. Vertical
stiffeners usually in the form of welded flats will be attached to the solid plate floors, which are further strengthened if
they form a watertight or oiltight tank boundary. One intercostal side girder is provided port and starboard where the
ship’s breadth exceeds 10 m but does not exceed 20 m and two are fitted port and starboard where the ship’s breadth is
greater. In way of the bracket floors a vertical welded flat stiffener is attached to the side girder. Additional side girders
are provided in the engine room, and also in the pounding region.

Fig A: Double Bottom Transversely Framed

LONGITUDINALLY FRAMED DOUBLE BOTTOM: In a longitudinally framed double bottom, solid plate floors are fitted at
every frame space under the main engines, and at alternate frames outboard of the engine seating. They are also fitted
under boiler seats, transverse bulkheads and the toes of stiffener brackets on deep tank bulkheads. Elsewhere the spacing
of solid plate floors does not exceed 3.8 m, except in the pounding region where they are on alternate frame spaces. At
intermediate frame spaces brackets are fitted at the tank side and at the centre girder where they are 1.25 m apart.
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Each bracket is flanged and will extend to the first longitudinal (Figure B below). One intercostal side girder is fitted port
and starboard if the ship’s breadth exceeds 14 m, and where the breadth exceeds 21 m two are fitted port and starboard.
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These side girders always extend as far forward and aft as possible. Additional side girders are provided in the engine
room, and under the main machinery, and they should run the full length of the engine room, extending three frame
spaces beyond this space. Forward the extension tapers into the longitudinal framing system. In the pounding region there
will also be additional intercostal side girders. As the unsupported span of the bottom longitudinals should not exceed 2.5
m, vertical angle or channel bar struts may be provided to support the longitudinals between widely spaced solid floors.

Fig B: Double Bottom Longitudinally Framed

BOTTOM STRUCTURE OF BULK CARRIERS: Where a ship is classed for the carriage of heavy, or ore, cargoes longitudinal
framing is adopted for the double bottom. A closer spacing of solid plate floors is required, the maximum spacing being
2.5 m, and also additional intercostal side girders are provided, the spacing not exceeding 3.7 m (see below Figure). The
double bottom will be somewhat deeper than in a conventional cargo ship, a considerable ballast capacity being required;
and often a pipe tunnel is provided through this space. Inner bottom plating, floors, and girders all have substantial
scantlings as a result of the heavier cargo weights to be supported.

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Double Bottom of Bulk Carrier

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Machinery Seats: In machinery spaces additional transverse floors and longitudinal intercostal side girders are provided
to support the machinery and ensure rigidity of structure. The M/E seating are integral with this double bottom structure
and inner bottom IWO engine foundation has a substantially increased thickness. The engine is built up on seating forming
longitudinal bearers which are supported transversely by tripping brackets in line with DB floors, longitudinal bearers
being in line with the double bottom side girders (below Fig). Boiler bearers are similarly fabricated with support from
transverse brackets and longitudinal members. Much attention is given to the reduction of noise and vibration emanating
from the machinery installation. To this end resilient mounting and flexible couplings are now common in such ships.

Double Bottom Engine Seats

TESTING DOUBLE BOTTOM COMPARTMENTS: Each compartment is tested with a head of water representing the
maximum pressure head i.e. to top of the air pipe. Air pressure may be raised to 0.21kg/cm2 and lowered to 0.14kg/cm2.
Suspicious joints are soap tested. Water head structural test is carried out on tanks in conjunction with the air test.

ADDITIONAL STIFFENING, IN THE POUNDING REGION:

The dominating factor for strengthening is the Minimum Draught Forward in Ballast Condition i.e. (Min.DFBC).

If Min.DFBC < 4.5% ship’s length: Bottom structure for 30% of ship’s length forward exceeding 65 m in length has to be
additionally strengthened as follow.

A- If DB is transversely framed:
A1- Solid plate floors are fitted at every frame space.
A2- Intercostal side girders are fitted at a maximum spacing of 3 times the transverse floor spacing.
A3- Half height intercostal side girders are provided midway between the full height side girders.

B- If DB is longitudinally framed:
B1- Where Min.DFBC < 4% ship’s length, solid plate floors are fitted at alternate frame spaces.
B2- Intercostal side girders fitted at a maximum spacing of 3 times the transverse floor spacing.
B3- Where (4% < Min.DFBC < 4.5%) ship’s length, solid plate floors may be fitted at every third frame space.
B4- Intercostal side girders may have a maximum spacing of 4 times the transverse floor spacing.

In ships framed longitudinally, less side girders are provided, compared with ships framed transversely.

If Min.DFBC < 1% ship’s length: Additional strengthening of the pounding region is given special consideration. Greater
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slamming forces (i.e. pounding) are experienced when the ship is in the lighter ballast condition, and is long and slender,
by reason of the increased submersion of the bow in heavy weather with impact also on the bow flare.
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ADDITIONAL STIFFENING FOR PANTING: Additional stiffening is provided in the fore peak structure, the transverse side
framing being supported by any, or a combination of the following arrangements:

A: Side stringers spaced vertically about 2 m apart and supported by struts or beams fitted at alternate frames. These
‘panting beams’ are connected to the frames by brackets and if long may be supported at the ships centre line by a partial
wash bulkhead. Intermediate frames are bracketed to the stringer (see below Fig).

B: Side stringers spaced vertically about 2 m apart and supported by web frames.

C: Perforated flats spaced not more than 2.5m apart. The area of perforations being not less than 10 per cent of the total
area of the flat.

Aft of the forepeak in the lower hold or deep tank spaces, panting stringers are fitted in line with each stringer or
perforated flat in the fore peak extending back over 15 per cent of the ship length from forward. These stringers may be
omitted if the shell plating thickness is increased by 15 per cent for vessels of 150 m length or less decreasing linearly to
5 per cent increase for vessels of 215 m length or more.

Where the unsupported length of the main frames exceeds 9 m panting stringers in line with alternate stringers or flats in
the fore peak are to be fitted over 20 per cent of the ship’s length from forward whether the shell thickness is increased
or not. Stringers usually take the form of a web plate with flat facing bar.

In tween deck spaces in the forward 15 per cent of the ship’s length intermediate panting stringers are fitted where the
unsupported length of tween frame exceeds 2.6 m in lower tween decks or 3 m in upper tween decks. Alternatively, the
shell thickness may be increased as above. In the aft peak space and in deep tween decks above the aft peak similar
panting arrangements are required for transverse framing except that the vertical spacing of panting stringers may be up
to 2.5 m apart.

If the fore peak has longitudinal framing and the depth of tank exceeds 10 m the transverse webs supporting the
longitudinals are to be supported by perforated flats or an arrangement of transverse struts or beams.

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Panting region Stiffening at the Bow

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Bilge Keel:
It is a flat bulb bar or angle bar vertically attached externally to the round of bilge that runs over the midship portion of
the hull, often extending further aft than forward of amidships.

Most ships are fitted with a bilge keel with below functions;
A- Damp the rolling motion.
B- Protection of the bilge in case of grounding.
C- Increased longitudinal strength.

The damping against rolling is relatively small but effective while virtually without cost after the construction of the ship.
It has to be carefully positioned so as to avoid excessive drag when the ship is under way.
Various positions of the bilge keel may be tested on the ship model used to predict power requirements.
Care is taken in the design of the bilge keel because although it is not a critical strengthening member, it is highly stressed
owing to its distance from the neutral axis.
Cracks can easily originate at the bilge keel and propagate into the bilge plate causing failure of the main structure.

Bilge keels are attached to a

continuous ground bar with the butt
welds in the shell plating, ground bar
and bilge keel staggered (Fig in front).

Direct connection is avoided between

the ground bar butt welds and the bilge
plate and between the bilge keel butt
welds and the ground bar.

In ships over 65 m long, holes are

drilled in the bilge keel butt welds as
shown (fig in front).

The ground bar thickness is at least that

of the bilge plate or 14 mm whichever
is the less and the material grade is the
same as that of the bilge plate.

Connection of the ground bar to the

shell is by continuous fillet welds and
the bilge keel is connected to the
ground bar by light continuous or
staggered intermittent weld. The latter
lighter weld ensures that should the
bilge keel be fouled failure occurs at
this joint without the bilge plate being
damaged.

Bilge keels are gradually tapered (3 to

1) at their ends and finish in way of an
internal stiffener (figure in the middle).

Bilge Keel
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 BULKHEAD B/H

B/H is a vertical partition (transverse or longitudinal) to provide below purposes and functions.
Strengthening against transvers stresses (Racking, Docking and Local stress)
Dividing the ship into W/T compartment
Protecting the whole ship against flooding / bilging.
Resisting against transvers deformation.
Carrying and transferring ship’s vertical load to bottom structure.
Act as a barrier against spread of fire from one compartment to adjacent compartment.
Major B/H divide the ship into number of holds and tanks.
Minor B/H provides subdivision of stores, accommodation and small spaces.

Numbers and scantling of Bulkheads is a major criterion in condition of assignment to award free board by classification
societies. The higher the number of B/H the less free board is assigned by C/S.

Most important bulkheads which require careful judgment and construction are collision bulkhead, AP bulkhead and those
at either end of the machinery space.

Number of B/H on Cargo Ships

Above Below
65 m 3
65 m 85 m 4
85 m 105 m 5
105 m 115 m 5
115 m 125 m 6
125 m 145 m 6
145 m 165 m 7
165 m 190 m 8
190 m Class to decide
Schematic diagram, showing transvers B/H

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Transvers B/H in a Bulk Carrier Corrugated B/H

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Plain Water Tight B/H

Corrugated W/T B/H

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Hatches and Hatch Covers

A cargo hatch or deck hatch or hatchway is the type of opening used on ships to provide access into the cargo hold, cargo
tank and other compartments and under-deck stores.
Since an opening on deck requires removal of steel material and consequently will reduce the strength, C/S is very sensitive
about compensation of strength and has significant rules in this regard and stipulates minimum scantlings for beams,
frames, girders (under deck), coaming and hatch cover. Coaming is the vertical boundary around a hatch with specific
height. Hatch Cover is the means by which the hatch is closed tight in order to prevent the SW, rain water and any other
unwanted media to enter the cargo hold or cargo tank.
Construction and means of closing hatches in weathertight decks are contained within the Conditions of Assignment of
Freeboard of the Load Line Convention. In other words, hatch and its cover is a dominating factor affecting the assignment
of Free Board by C/S.

C/S looks into hatches and their covers with following viewpoints (in brief).

01- Deck Opening: The strength of the hull is dependent on the size of the deck opening. High tensile steel must be
used to provide adequate longitudinal strength even in ships where the hatch width is more than 70% of the ship’s
breadth. Detailed structural design and strength analysis should be carried out on ships with large hatchways.
Stress concentration points are usually located at the corners of the openings which can be eliminated by
providing thick elliptical or parabolic plates.

02- Coaming Height: Height is measured above the upper surface of the deck. They are closed by steel covers fitted
with direct securing arrangements. However, the coaming can also be omitted as long as the safety of the ship is
not at risk (like opening of ballast tanks or void spaces). Majority of ships have coaming height of about 1-1.8 m
in order to accommodate more cargo, especially, in bulk carriers.

03- Hatch Corner Construction: The builders should avoid sudden discontinuity of longitudinal strength at the ends
of side coaming. The girders are extended to a suitable end beyond the hatch end for structural continuity. Usually,
taper brackets are used to extend the hatch coaming in order to reduce stress concentration. As mentioned earlier
elliptical or parabolic plates at the corners also help in reducing stress concentration which would otherwise lead
to fatigue followed by fracture.

04- Drainage: Proper drainage facility should be provided in order to prevent the damage of sensitive cargo. This can
be done by providing a channel around the peripheral seal of the hatch cover which ensures that the water is
discharged onto the weather deck through a hole in the coaming.

05- Hatch Coamings: Heights of coamings and cover closing arrangements in some instances depend on the hatch
position. The positions differentiate between regions which are more exposed to sea and weather than others.
For instance 25% of ship’s length from forward indicates that the hatch is on the exposed vicinity and requires
more attention in terms of coaming height and covering system.

06- Hatch Covers: This is a technology that doesn’t require ship builders to have their own workshop in the shipyard.
There are patent brands of manufacturers that possess their own factory who produce and supply to shipyards
worldwide. Famous brands are MacGregor Group AB, TTS Marine ASA, Peak Marine Tech AS. Types of Hatch
Covers are (LIFTING type, ROLLING type, FOLDING type, SLIDING type and ROLL STOWING type).
Hatch Covers provide a primary structural and weathertight barrier to prevent water ingress into cargo holds.
Although hatch covers might look big and heavy, they are sensitive to misalignment.
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 Hatch Cornet is a critical structure

24

Attachment of the Hatch Coaming with Top Side Tank

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 Single Pull Hatch Cover (Components)

1. Rising track 2. Panel side chains, 3. Falling track (behind coaming),

4. Balancing roll, 5. Eccentric wheel, 6. Screw cleat,
7. Wheel guide rail, 8. Compression bar, 9. Coaming bar, coaming stiffener,
10. Coaming hatch stay, 11. Coaming, 12. Sheave,
13. Cross joint cleat, 14. Panel top plate, 15. Backhaul wire,
16. Wire to winch or crane hooks, 17. Rubber gasket, 18. Stowage bay,

25

Hatch Cover employed on Ballast Tanks Hatch Cover employed on Cargo Oil Tank
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Hatch Covers on Bulk Carriers

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 Classification Society
The Classification concept comprises the development of independent technical standards for ships and
the verification of compliance with these standards throughout the ship’s life. The Rules are aimed at ensuring
safety against hazards to the ship, personnel, passengers and cargo, and against hazards to the environment as
a consequence of sea transport.

Classification societies are non-governmental organizations that set and apply design and construction
rules during construction to ensure that vessel structures and their Shipbuilders comply with those rules. The
society will also validate that construction is according to these standards and carry out regular surveys in service
to ensure compliance with the standards.

The classification of ships is performed in accordance with the requirements of the Rules and any other
standards to which reference is made by IMO.

Main and major purpose of C/S is to keep vessels in SEAWORTHY condition.

Lloyd's Register of Shipping, world's first and largest ship-classification society, begun in 1760 as a
registry for ships likely to be insured by marine insurance underwriters meeting at Lloyd's coffeehouse in
London.

Having assigned the class, the society will issue a classification certificate and enter the main particulars
and details of class for the ship in the Society's Register Book.

Entering into force and application of Rules and amendments accepted by the Board will come into force
when decided by the Board (IMO), normally six months after acceptance.

Having assigned a specific class implies that the Society has been satisfied that the ship meets the Rule
requirements for the particular class and will, through a system of surveys, verify that the requirements
stipulated for retention of class are complied with.

Periodic surveys and inspections of ships are carried out to ensure the safety and seaworthiness of
vessels. With maritime laws becoming more stringent with each passing year, sea-going vessels have to go
through a series of inspections to meet minimum requirements to continue sailing.

Periodic surveys and inspections of ships are carried out to ensure the safety and seaworthiness of
vessels. With maritime laws becoming more stringent with each passing year, sea-going vessels have to go
through a series of inspections to meet minimum requirements to continue sailing.

Annual surveys by classification society are a vital part of a ship’s trading eligibility. Thus for a vessel to
continue trading, various periodical surveys and certifications by classification society are mandatory to ensure
its continued compliance with International regulations and endorsement.

Annual servicing and inspection of equipment systems can be performed by various institutions such as
accredited laboratory, service company, maker or manufacturer trained personnel, shore-based maintenance
provider, class approved service applier, and service personnel authorized by the flag.
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 When a vessel is taken into class, appropriate CLASS NOTATION will be provided to the vessel which
includes type, cargo, special feature, service restriction notations. In addition, a descriptive class notation will
be provided based on the type and intended service of the vessel.

All ships will be given a main class consisting of a construction symbol, a main character of class, and
where applicable, a service area restriction notation.

Ships also found to satisfy relevant requirements may be given additional class notations related to
special service and type of ship, special systems and equipment or to special features.
The complete class notation will thus consist of (as an example) * 1A1 R2 Tanker for Oil ESP EO EP.

(*) will be given to ships built under the supervision of Class.

1A1 is given to ships with machinery and equipment found to be in compliance with the class rules.
R followed by a number or a letter is given to ships for trading in specified area e.g. North Atlantic or Arctic area.
Tanker for Oil is given to a tanker designed to carry oil cargo.
ESP is given to vessels under (Enhanced Survey Program).
EO is related to propulsion, power generation and auxiliary systems
EP is assigned to ships complying with the Environment Protection Systems

There are numerous certificates of different categories, but few examples of Class Certificates are as follow:

Certificate of Class: states that the vessel is complying with the rules of the classification society.

International Tonnage Certificate: Issued by the Class Society indicating compliance with the International
Tonnage Convention stating the gross and net tonnage of the vessel. The certificate does not expire.

International Load Line Certificate: Issued by the Class Society indicating compliance with the Load Line
Convention stating the loading marks. The certificate is valid for five years and is subject to periodical (annual)
surveys.

Cargo Ship Safety Construction Certificate: Issued by the Class Society indicating compliance with the SOLAS
Convention. The certificate is valid for five years and is subject to periodical (annual) surveys.

Cargo Ship Safety Equipment Certificate: Issued by the Class Society indicating compliance with the SOLAS
Convention and COLREG. The certificate is valid for five years and is subject to periodical (annual) surveys.

Cargo Ship Safety Radio Certificate: Issued by the Class Society indicating compliance with the SOLAS
Convention. The certificate is valid for five years.

International Safety Management Certificate: Issued by the Class indicating compliance with SOLAS 1974,
Regulation IX/4, ISM Code, paragraph 13. The certificate is valid for five years subject to an Internal Audit.

International Oil Pollution Certificate (IOPP): Issued by the Class Society indicating compliance with MARPOL
Convention Annex I. The certificate is valid for five years and is subject to periodical (annual/intermediate)
surveys
28

Note: Above list is incomplete.

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 LIST OF CLASSIFICATION SOCIETY

Name Abbr Date Head office IACS

Lloyd’s Register of Shipping LR 1760 London √

Bureau Veritas BV 1828 Paris √

Registro Italiano Navale RINA 1861 Genoa √

American Bureau of Shipping ABS 1862 Houston √

Det Norske Veritas DNV 1864 Oslo √

Germanischer Lloyd GL 1867 Hamburg √

Nippon Kaiji Kyokai NKK 1899 Tokyo √

Russian Maritime Register of RS 1913 Saint √

Hellenic Register of Shipping HR 1919 Piraeus x

Polish Register of Shipping PRS 1936 Gdansk x

Croatian Register of Shipping CRS 1949 Split x

China Corporation Registrar CR 1951 Taipei x

China Classification Society CCS 1956 Beijing √

Korean Register of Shipping KR 1960 Daejeon √

Turk Loydu TL 1962 Istanbul x

Biro Klasifikasi Indonesia BKI 1964 Jakarta x

Registo Internacional Naval RINAVE 1973 Lisbon x

Indian Register of Shipping IRS 1975 Mumbai √

International Naval Surveys Bureau INSB 1977 Piraeus x

Asia Classification Society ACS 1980 Tehran x

Brazilian Register of Shipping RBNA 1982 Rio de x

International Register of Shipping IROS 1993 Miami x

Ships Classification Malaysia SCM 1994 Shah Alam x

Iranian Classification Society ICS 2007 Tehran x

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Note: IACS means International Association of Classification Societies.

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 SHEARING FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT

If the weight and buoyancy forces applied along the length of a ship are not equal (due to uneven distribution of
weights) both weight and buoyancy forces will be unbalanced. There will be a resultant force or load, either an excess of
buoyancy or excess of load. Vertical upward and downward forces that tend to distort the vessel which is referred to as
vertical SHEARING FORCE.

When a ship is hogged or sagged either due to uneven distribution of weights or due to moving through sea waves
the buoyancy and weight forces in each compartment will be unequal and the beam of the ship will tend to bend with
moments equal to the force multiplied into the distance from mid-ship and the resultant moment is called BENDING
MOMENT.

SHEARING FORCE

BENDING MOMENT

Schematic sketch of SF and BM

Both bending moment and shearing force are destructive sources to ship’s structure and can cause permanent
damage on sections, girders, bulkheads and shell plating in forms of cracks and buckling.

Bending stresses are greater over the middle portion of the length and it is owing to this variation that C/S gives
maximum scantlings over 40 per cent of the length amidships. Other scantlings may taper towards the ends of the ship,
apart from locally highly stressed regions where other forms of loading are encountered.

With the growth of ship’s size based on world’s commercial demands and progress of technology in building huge
vessels, the larger the vessel the higher the risk of exposure to damages due to SF and BM. Tankers and Bulk Carriers are
the most suffering categories of these forces.

Ship Masters and Mates have to be aware of SF/BM during cargo operation and while moving through sea waves
in rough seas. More important is the plan of loading, discharging and ballast operation and should not allow SF/BM to
exceed the threshold limits assigned by C/S and ship builders.
30

Regular and planned internal inspection of HOLDS, TANKS and VOID SPACES has to be carried out in order to give
early indication of damage on sections, bulkheads and welding.
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 There have been numerous survey reports showing cracks, breakage and welding failures of girders and bulkheads
on tankers and bulk carriers. A number of losses on tankers and bulk carriers in the late 1980s prompted the IMO to take
various steps to improve the safety of such ships, including interim measures to improve the safety of these categories of
ships and the enhanced survey program (ESP). Concerned over the continued loss of ships often without forewarning,
trace or apparent cause, the IMO agreed to conduct a feasibility study on the use of HULL STRESS MONITORING SYSTEM
(SENSORS, MONITOR AND RECORDER) on board ships so as to provide a record of the ships’ loading condition, motion
and global stress levels enabling the determination of the cause of loss.

A VLCC Hull failure due to excessive BM (from Marine Insight)

IMO recommends ship owners to fit HULL STRESS MONITORING SYSTEM on bulk carriers of 20,000 DWT and
above. Hull Stress Monitoring System (HSMS) is a system to provide real-time information to the master and officers of
the ship of the motions and global stress the ship experiences while navigating and during loading and unloading
operations. The HSMS is to be considered as an aid to the master.

Calculation of SF/BM is a monitoring means to determine ship’s condition under such forces and to take guard for
corrective action. Although there are computerized facilities in form of LOADICATOR and HSMS to provide accurate
calculations to mariners, but knowing how to work it out manually will prove an independent way of obtaining SF/BM to
mariners. See a simplified form of calculation in the next page.
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 SF/BM Calculation (Example)
Box shaped vessel, L 72 m, B 12 m, floating EK at 1 m draught. Loading 432 MT Cargo in a mid-ship compartment of 24 m long. Produce curve of
SF/BM and indicate points at which MAX/MIN values occur. Light DISP = 72 x 12 x1 x 1 = 864 MT
Structure / Unit Length = 864 / 72 = 12 MT Cargo / Unit Length = 432 / 24 = 18 MT
Load DISP = Lt DISP + Cargo = 864 + 432 = 1296 h = length of stations = 72 / 12 = 6
A B C D E F G H I
Structure Cargo Weight Buoyanc Load d. SF SF d. BM BM Derivations
STN
T/M T/M T/M y T/M T/M T T T/M T/M
00 000 0000
12 00 12 18 06 36 108
01 036 0108
12 00 12 18 06 36 324
02 072 0432
A = Lt Δ/L
12 00 12 18 06 36 540
03 108 0972 B = Cargo/L
12 00 12 18 06 36 756
04 144 1728 C = A+B
12 18 30 18 -12 -72 648
05 072 2376 D = Δ/L
12 18 30 18 -12 -72 216
06 000 2592 E = D-C
12 18 30 18 -12 -72 -216
07 -072 2376 F = E x INTRL
12 18 30 18 -12 -72 -648
08 -144 1728 G = F x STN
12 00 12 18 06 36 -756
09 -108 0972 H = h/2 (g1+g2)
12 00 12 18 06 36 -540
10 -072 0432 I = 00 + H
12 00 12 18 06 36 -324
11 -036 0108
12 00 12 18 06 36 -108
12 000 0000

432 MT Weight
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
20
10 Buoyanc
00
10
20 Weight
30

10 Load
00
-10 3000
-20
150 BM
2000

100 SF BM
1000
50
t T/M

-50
32

-100
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Stress concentrations occur when there are irregularities in the geometry or material of a structural component that cause
an interruption to the flow of stress.
Geometric discontinuities cause an object to experience a localized increase in stress. Examples of shapes that cause stress
concentrations are sharp internal corners, holes, and sudden changes in the cross-sectional area of the object as well as
unintentional damage such as nicks, scratches and cracks. High local stresses can cause objects to fail quickly.

Sharp Corner
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Opening on deck over cargo hold, cargo and fuel tanks

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