MAC 2103

Module 6
Euclidean Vector Spaces I

Learning Objectives

Upon completing this module, you should be able to:

1. Use vector notation in ℜn.
2. Find the inner product of two vectors in ℜn.
3. Find the norm of a vector and the distance between
two vectors in ℜn.
4. Express a linear system in ℜn in dot product form.
5. Find the standard matrix of a linear transformation
from ℜn to ℜm .
6. Use linear transformations such as reflections,
projections, and rotations.
7. Use the composition of two or more linear
transformations .
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 Euclidean Vector Spaces I

There are two major topics in this module:

-Space, ℜn
Euclidean n-Space,
Linear Transformations from ℜn to ℜm

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Some Important
Properties of Vector Operations in ℜn

If u, v, and w are vectors in ℜn and k and s are scalars, then

the following hold: (See Theorem 4.1.1)
a) u + v = v + u b) u + ( v + w ) = (u + v) + w
c) u + 0 = 0 + u = u d) u + (-u) = 0
e) k(su) =(ks)u f) k(u + v) = ku + kv
g) (k + s)u = ku + su h) 1u = u

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 Basic Vector Operations in ℜn
Two vectors u = (u1, u2, … , un ) and v = (v1, v2,… , vn )
are equal if and only if

u1 = v1 , u2 = v2 , … , un = vn .

Thus,
u + v = (u1 + v1 , u2 + v2,…, un + vn)
u - v = (u1 - v1 , u2 - v2,…, un - vn)
and
5v - 2u = (5u1 - 2v1, 5u2 - 2v2,…, 5un - 2vn)
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How to Find the Inner Product of

Two Vectors in ℜn ?
• The inner product of two vectors u = (u1,u2,…,un) and v =
(v1,v2,…,vn), u · v, in ℜn is also known as the Euclidean inner
product or dot product.
• The inner product, u · v, can be computed as follows:
!! ! !
u·v = u1 ! v1 + u2 ! v2 + ... + un ! vn = u T v
Example: Find the Euclidean inner product of u and v in ℜ4 , if
u = (2, -3, 6, 1) and v = (1, 9, -2, 4).
Solution: !!
u·v = (2)(1) + (!3)(9) + (6)(!2) + (1)(4) = !33
" 1 $
& '
9
= "# 2 !3 6 1 $% & '
& !2 '
& 4 '
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 How to Find the Norm of a Vector in ℜn ?

As we have learned in a previous module, the norm of a vector

in ℜ2 and ℜ3 can be obtained by taking the square root of the
sum of square of the components as follows:

! ! ! u1 $
u = u12 + u 22 , u = (u1 ,u2 ) = # &
#" u2 &%
! u1 $
! ! # &
u = u12 + u 22 + u32 , u = (u1 ,u2 ,u3 ) = # u2 &
# u &
" 3 %
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How to Find the Norm of a Vector in ℜn?

(Cont.)
Similarly, the Euclidean norm of u = (u1,u2,…,un), ||u||, in ℜn can
be computed as follows:

Example: Find the Euclidean norm of u = (2, -3, 6, 1) in ℜ4.

Solution:
! !
u = u12 + u 22 + ... + un2 , u = (u1 ,u2 ,...,un )

!
u = 2 2 + (!3)2 + 6 2 + 12 = 4 + 9 + 36 + 1 = 50 = 5 2

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 How to Find the Distance Between
Two Vectors in ℜn ?
• The distance between u = (u1,u2,…,un) and v = (v1,v2,…,vn)
in ℜn , d(u,v), is also known as the Euclidean distance.

• The Euclidean distance, d(u,v), can be computed as

follows:
! ! ! !
d(u, v) = u ! v = (u1 ! v1 )2 + (u2 ! v2 )2 + ... + (un ! vn )2
Example: Suppose u = (2, -3, 6, 1) and v = (1, 9, -2, 4).
Find the Euclidean distance between u and v in ℜ4 ,
Solution:
! ! ! !
d(u, v) = u ! v = (2 ! 1)2 + ((!3) ! 9)2 + (6 ! (!2))2 + (1 ! 4)2
= 1 + 144 + 64 + 9 = 218

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How to Express a Linear System

in ℜn in Dot Product Form?
Example: Express the following linear system in dot product
form.
x1 ! 5x2 + 2x3 + 9x4 = 2
3x1 + 2x2 + 6x3 ! 2x4 = 5
!4x1 + x2 + 2x4 = !1
8x1 ! 1x2 + 3x3 ! 7x4 = 0
Solution:
# (1, !5, 2, 9) " (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) & #
% ( 2 &
% (3, 2, 6, !2) " (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) ( % ( ! ! !
% =%
5 ( ) [ ai " x ] = b,i = 1, 2, 3, 4
(!4,1, 0, 2) " (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) ( % !1 (
% ( %
% (
(8, !1, 3, !7) " (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) ( $ 0 '
$ '
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 How to Express a Linear Transformation
from ℜ3 to ℜ4 in Matrix Form?

The linear transformation T: ℜ3 → ℜ4 defined by the

equations w1 = 2x1 ! x2 + x3
w2 = x1 + 8x2 ! 3x3
w3 = !x1 + 2x2 ! 2x3
w4 = 6x1 ! x2 + 2x3
can be expressed in matrix form as follows:
! w1 $ ! $! x $
# & 2 '1 1
# w2 & # 1 8 '3
&# 1 & ! ! ! ! ! !
# =# & # x2 & ( w = Ax, wi = aiT x = ai ) x,i = 1, 2, 3, 4
w3 & # '1 2 '2 &# &
# &
# # '1 & " x3 %
w4 & " 6 2 %
" %
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What is the Standard Matrix for

a Linear Transformation?

Based on our example in previous slide, the standard matrix

can be found from the linear transformation T: ℜ3 → ℜ4
expressed in matrix form.
! w1 $ !
# & 2 '1 1 $! x $
# w2 & # 1 8 '3
&# 1 & ! !
# =# & # x2 & ( w = Ax
w3 & # '1 2 '2 &# &
# & #
# '1 & " x3 %
w4 & " 6 2 %
" %
The standard matrix for T is: " 2 !1 1 %
$ '
1 8 !3
A=$ '
$ !1 2 !2 '
$ 6 !1 2 '
# &
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 Example and Notations

Example: Find the standard matrix for the Note:

linear transformation T defined by the formula A linear
as follows: transformation
T (x1 , x2 ) = (3x1 ! 2x2 , 7x1 + x2 ) = (w1 , w2 ) T: ℜn → ℜm
Solution: In this case, the linear operator T is also known
assigns a unique point (w1, w2) in ℜ2 to each as a linear
point (x1, x2) in ℜ2 according to the rule operator.
(w1 , w2 ) = (3x1 ! 2x2 , 7x1 + x2 ),

or as a linear system, it is as follows:

w1 = 3x1 ! 2x2
w2 = 7x1 + x2
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Example and Notations (Cont.)

A linear system can be expressed in matrix form.

! w1 $ ! 3 '2 $ ! x1 $ ! ! ! ! !
# &=# &# & ( w = Ax = TA ( x) = T ( x) = [T ]x
#" w2 &% " 7 1 % # x2
" &%

In this case, the standard matrix for T is

" 3 !2 %
[T ] = [TA ] = A = $ '
# 7 1 &

In general, the linear transformation is represented by T: ℜn → ℜm or

TA: ℜn → ℜm; the matrix A = [aij] is called the standard matrix for the
linear transformation, and T is called multiplication by A.
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 Zero Transformation and Identity Operator
If 0 is the m x n zero matrix, then for every vector x in ℜn, we
will have the zero transformation from ℜn to ℜm, T0: ℜn →
ℜm, where T0 is called multiplication by 0.
! ! !
T0 ( x) = 0 x = 0
If I is the n x n identity matrix, then for every vector x in ℜn,
we will have an identity operator on ℜn , TI: ℜn → ℜn, where
TI is called multiplication by I.
! ! !
TI ( x) = Ix = x

Next, we will look at some important operators on ℜ2 and ℜ3, namely

the linear operators that produce reflections, projections, and
rotations.
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Linear Operators for Reflection

If the linear operator T: ℜ2 → ℜ2 maps each vector into its
symmetric image about the y-axis, we can construct a
reflection operator or linear transformation as follows:
! !
T (u) = w = (w1 , w2 ) = (!x + 0y, 0x + y)
w1 = !x + 0y " w1 = !x
w2 = 0x + y " w2 = y
y

(-x,y) (x,y)
! w1 $ ! '1 0 $ ! x $
# &=# &# &
w u #" w2 &% " 0 1 % #" y &%
x ! '1 0 $
[T ] = # &
" 0 1 %
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 Linear Operators for Reflection (Cont.)
If the linear operator T: ℜ2 → ℜ2 maps each vector into its
symmetric image about the x-axis, we can construct a
reflection operator or linear transformation as follows:
! !
T (u) = w = (w1 , w2 ) = (x + 0y, 0x ! y)

y
w1 = x + 0y ! w1 = x
w2 = 0x " y ! w2 = "y
(x,y)

u ! w1 $ ! 1 0 $ ! x $
x # &=# &# &
#" w2 &% " 0 '1 % #" y &%
w
! 1 0 $
(x,-y)
[T ] = # &
" 0 '1 %
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Linear Operators for Reflection (Cont.)

If the linear operator T: ℜ2 → ℜ2 maps each vector into its
symmetric image about the line y = x, we can construct a
reflection operator or linear transformation as follows:
! !
T (u) = w = (w1 , w2 ) = (0x + y, x + 0y)

y (y,x)
w1 = 0x + y ! w1 = y
y=x w2 = x + 0y ! w2 = x
w

u (x,y) ! w1 $ ! 0 1 $ ! x $
# &=# &# &
x #" w2 &% " 1 0 % #" y &%
! 0 1 $
[T ] = # &
" 1 0 %
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 Linear Operators for Reflection (Cont.)
If the linear operator T: ℜ3 → ℜ3 maps each vector into its
symmetric image about the xy-plane, we can construct a
reflection operator or linear transformation as follows:
! !
T (u) = w = (w1 , w2 , w3 ) = (x + 0y + 0z, 0x + y + 0z, 0x + 0y ! z)
w1 = x + 0y + 0z ! w1 = x
z w2 = 0x + y + 0z ! w2 = y
w3 = 0x + 0y " z ! w3 = "z
u
(x,y,z) ! w1 $ ! 1 0 0 $ ! x $
y # & # &# &
w # w2 & = # 0 1 0 & # y &
(x,y,-z)
# w & #" 0 0 '1 &% # z &
" 3 % " %
! 1 0 0 $
x [T ] = # 0 1 0 &
# &
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" 0 '1 &% 19
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Orthogonal Projection Operator

If the linear operator T: ℜ3 → ℜ3 maps each vector into its
orthogonal projection on the xy-plane, we can construct a
projection operator or linear transformation as follows:
! !
T (u) = w = (w1 , w2 , w3 ) = (x + 0y + 0z, 0x + y + 0z, 0x + 0y + 0z)
w1 = x + 0y + 0z ! w1 = x
z w2 = 0x + y + 0z ! w2 = y
w3 = 0x + 0y + 0z ! w3 = 0
u
(x,y,z) ! w1 $ ! $! x $
y # & # 1 0 0 &# &
w =
# 2 & # 0 1 0 y &
w &#
# w & # 0 0 0 &# z &
" 3 % " %"
(x,y,0) %
! 1 0 0 $
x [T ] = # 0 1 0 &
# &
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 Orthogonal Projection Operator (Cont.)
Example: Use matrix multiplication to find the orthogonal
projection of (-9,4,3) on the xy-plane.

From previous slide, the standard matrix for the linear

operator T mapping each vector into its orthogonal projection
on the xy-plane in ℜ3 is obtained: ! 1 0 0 $
[T ] = # 0 1 0 &
# &
#" 0 0 0 &%
So the orthogonal projection, w, of (-9,4,3) on the xy-plane
is: ! w1 $ ! $! $ ! $
# & # 1 0 0 & # '9 & # '9 &
# w2 & = # 0 1 0 & # 4 & = # 4 &
# w & # 0 0 0 &# 3 & # 0 &
" 3 % " %" % " %
Thus, T(-9,4,3) = (-9,4,0).
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Linear Operators for Rotation

If the linear operator T: ℜ2 → ℜ2 rotates each vector
counterclockwise in ℜ2 through a fixed angle θ in ℜ2, we can
construct a rotation operator or linear transformation as
follows: ! !
T (u) = w = (w1 , w2 ) = (r cos(! + " ), r sin(! + " ))
= (x cos(! ) # ysin(! ), x sin(! ) + y cos(! ))
y (w1,w2)
w1 = r cos(! + " )
w
= r cos(! )cos(" ) # r sin(! )sin(" )
θ u (x,y) = x cos(! ) # ysin(! )
ɸ
x w2 = r sin(! + " )
Hint: Let r = ||u||=||w||, then use x = r = r sin(! )cos(" ) + r cos(! )sin(" )
cos(ɸ), y = r sin(ɸ), w1=r
cos(θ+ɸ), w2= r sin(θ+ɸ), and = x sin(! ) + y cos(! )
trigonometry identities.
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 Linear Operators for Rotation (Cont.)

w1 = r cos(! + " ) = x cos(! ) # ysin(! )

w2 = r sin(! + " ) = x sin(! ) + y cos(! )

y (w1,w2)
! w1 $ ! cos(' ) ( sin(' ) $! x $
w # &=# &# &
#" w2 &% #" sin(' ) cos(' ) &% #" y &%
θ u (x,y)
ɸ ! cos(' ) ( sin(' ) $
x [T ] = # &
#" sin(' ) cos(' ) &%

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Linear Operators for Rotation (Cont.)

Example: Use matrix multiplication to find the image of the
vector (3,-4) when it is rotated through an angle, θ, of 30°.

Since the standard matrix for the linear operator T rotating

each vector through an angle of θ (counterclockwise) in ℜ2
has been obtained:
# 3 1 &
% (
# cos(! ) " sin(! ) & # cos(30 ) " sin(30 ) & % 2 " 2
! !
(
[T ] = % (=% (=
% (
%$ sin(! ) cos(! ) (' %$ sin(30 ) cos(30 ) (' % 1
! !
3 (
%$ 2 2 ('

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 Linear Operators for Rotation (Cont.)
It follows that the image, w, of (3,-4) when it is rotated
through an angle of 30° (counterclockwise) in ℜ2 can be
found as:
" 3 1 % " 3 1 % " 3 3+4 %
$ ! ' $ 3( ) ! 4(! ) ' $ '
! $ 2 2 '" 3 % $ 2 2 '=$ 2 '
w=$ ' $ '=$ ' $ 3! 4 3 '
$ 1 3 ' # !4 & $ 1 3 ' $ '
3( ) ! 4( )
$# 2 2 '& $# 2 2 '& $# 2 '&

Thus,
" 3 3 + 4 3! 4 3%
T (3, !4) = $ ,
# 2 2 '&
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Composition of Linear Transformations

If TA: ℜn → ℜk and TB: ℜk → ℜm are linear transformations,
then the application of TA followed by TB produces a
transformation from ℜn to ℜm; this transformation is called
the composition of TB with TA and is denoted by TB TA .

The composition TB TA is linear because

" "
(TB ! TA )( x) = TB (TA ( x))
" "
= B(A( x)) = (BA)( x)
Thus, TB TA is multiplication by BA and can be expressed
as TB TA = TBA .

Alternatively, we have
[TB TA ] = [ TB ][ TA ] .
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 Composition of Linear Transformations (Cont.)
Example: Find the standard matrix for the stated
composition of linear operators on ℜ2, if a rotation of π/2 is
followed by a reflection about the line y = x.

We know the standard matrix for the linear operator TA

rotating each vector through an angle of θ = π/2
(counterclockwise) in ℜ2 is as follows:

# ) ) &
# cos(! ) " sin(! ) & % cos( 2 ) " sin( 2 ) ( #
[TA ] = % (=% ( = % 0 "1 &(
%$ sin(! ) cos(! ) (' % sin( ) ) cos( ) ) ( $ 1 0 '
% (
$ 2 2 '

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Composition of Linear Transformations (Cont.)

We also know the standard matrix for the linear operator, TB,
reflecting each vector about the line y = x in ℜ2 is as follows:
! 0 1 $
[TB ] = # &
" 1 0 %
The composition we want is the linear operator T:
T = TB TA (rotation followed by reflection).

Therefore, the standard matrix for T is

[T] = [TB TA ] = [ TB ][ TA ] .
! 0 1 $ ! 0 '1 $ ! 1 0 $
[T ] = # &# &=# &
" 1 0 % " 1 0 % " 0 '1 %

Note: This is the symmetric image about the x-axis matrix. See slide 17.
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 What have we learned?
We have learned to:
1. Use vector notation in ℜn.
2. Find the inner product of two vectors in ℜn.
3. Find the norm of a vector and the distance between
two vectors in ℜn.
4. Express a linear system in ℜn in dot product form.
5. Find the standard matrix of a linear transformation from
ℜn to ℜm .
6. Use linear transformations such as reflections,
projections, and rotations.
7. Use the composition of two or more linear
transformations .

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Credit
Some of these slides have been adapted/modified in part/whole from the
following textbook:
• Anton, Howard: Elementary Linear Algebra with Applications, 9th Edition

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