CHAPTER 1

Computer System Organization

Definition of Computer: A computer is an electronic machine that:

●​ Takes data (input)

●​ Processes it (with instructions)
●​ Gives results (output)

Simple Example:

●​ Raw data: 106, Shaurya, Class 11

●​ Information: "Shaurya is a Class 11 student with Enrolment number 106."

Important Terms:

●​ Data: Raw facts (numbers, names)

●​ Information: Processed data that has meaning
●​ IPO Cycle: Input → Process → Output

Components of a Computer System

Computer System = Hardware + Software

●​ Hardware: Physical parts (keyboard, CPU)

●​ Software: Set of instructions or programs

Every task given to a computer follows an

Input-> Process-> Output Cycle (IPO cycle)

Main Components (IPO Model):

1.​ Input Unit: Takes input

2.​ CPU (Central Processing Unit): Processes input
3.​ Memory Unit: Stores data and instructions
4.​ Output Unit: Displays the result

The input unit takes the input, the Central Processing Unit(CPU) processes the data and the
output unit produces output. The memory unit holds the data and instructions during the
processing.
Basic structure of a computer.

Also known as Von Neumann Architecture.

1.​ Input Devices

Role: Convert user input into binary (0s and 1s)

Common Input Devices:

1.​ Keyboard: Typing letters, numbers, commands

2.​ Mouse: Pointer movement
 3.​ Light Pen: Select/draw on screen, consists of a Photocell mounted on a pen-shaped
tube and is capable of sensing a position on the screen when its tip touches the
screen
4.​ OMR: Reads marked data (used in exams) , document is read by an OMR, which
transcribes the marks into electrical pulses that are transmitted to the computer. This
technology is called Optical Mark Recognition
5.​ Smart Card Reader: Reads ATM cards, used to read the microprocessor embedded
within cards which hold a certain amount of personal data is known as smart card
reader.

6.​ Bar Code Reader: Reads product barcodes, consists of light source, a lens and a
light sensor which translates optical impulses into electrical signals. Also, it contains
decoder circuitry which analyzes the bar code’s image data and sends the bar code's
content to the scanner’s output port.
7.​ QR Code Reader: (Quick Response Code) special kind of barcode that anybody can
scan with a Smartphone App that usually directs the user to a website.
8.​ Biometric Sensor: Fingerprint/iris scan used for attendance marking and for security
devices.
9.​ Touch Screen: Input via touch (used in phones, ATMs) allows interaction with
computers through a touch-sensitive transparent panel covering the entire screen
without any intermediate device.
10.​Microphone:provide audio data to a computer. Records voice
11.​Webcam: Captures live images/videos, Unlike a digital camera and digital
camcorder,a webcam does not have any built-in storage. Instead, it always uses the
computer hard drive as its storage.

2. CPU (Central Processing Unit)

Role: Brain of the computer

Components of CPU:

●​ ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit): Does all calculations and logical comparisons
○​ ALU performs the arithmetic (+, -, *, /) and logical (>, <, >=, <=, <>)
operations, sent from the memory, performs specific operations (addition,
subtraction, etc.) and the result is returned to the memory.
○​ The result of the logical operations is either true or false and helps the
computer in decision-making.
●​ CU (Control Unit): Directs the flow of data and controls other parts
○​ It sends control signals to ALU and memory for carrying out the required
operations
○​ controls all the functions like input, output, storage and process.
○​ It instructs ALU which operation is to be carried out.
●​ Registers: Small, high-speed memory areas that store data temporarily
 ○​ storing instructions and data, immediately required for performing an
operation.
○​ CPU places the highest priority jobs/data inside registers for faster
execution/processing.
○​ Each register inside the CPU has a specific function like storing data, storing
an instruction, storing address of a location in memory.

Note: Registers are faster than RAM.

Memory Unit
●​ It is the computer memory that is accessed directly by the CPU. memory can be both
primary and secondary depending upon its location in the computer system
●​ The primary memory, also termed as main memory, is directly accessible to the CPU
since all the work is done in the RAM (primary memory) and later on gets stored on
the secondary storage (hard disk).

Main memory, i.e., RAM (Random Access Memory), which is the primary memory of a
computer system, is composed of cells. A memory cell is a device that stores a single
symbol selected from a set of symbols.

Unit of measurement
8 bits = 1 byte ​ 4 bits = 1 nibble​

Types of Memory:

1.​ RAM (Random Access Memory):

○​ read/write memory
○​ Temporary memory
○​ Volatile: Data is lost when power is off
○​ Types: DRAM and SRAM
➤ SRAM (Static RAM):

●​ Keeps data as long as power is on

●​ Very fast and easy to use
●​ Uses more components: 6 transistors per bit (costlier)

➤ DRAM (Dynamic RAM):

●​ Needs to be refreshed often to keep data

●​ More complex to handle
●​ Uses fewer components: 1 transistor + 1 capacitor per bit (cheaper and can store
more)

✅ Conclusion: DRAM is used in main memory because it is cheaper and stores more data.
SRAM is used in smaller areas like cache where speed is important.

2.​ ROM (Read Only Memory):

○​ Permanent memory
○​ the data and instructions are placed in the ROM at the time of its
manufacturing and can’t be changed thereafter.
○​ Slower than RAM
○​ Non-volatile: Stores startup programs (like booting) load os.
3.​ Cache Memory:
○​ Faster than RAM
○​ Stores frequently used data
○​ Placed between CPU and RAM
○​ when the CPU requires certain data present in RAM (primary memory), it first
sends the request to the cache [Fig. 1.8(a)], which stores recently-used
values, it makes this data available to the CPU very quickly by sending the
data to CPU instead of the main memory and thus reduces access time
significantly, thereby improving the overall performance of the computer.
○​ Cache Memory, also called CPU memory, is a high-speed memory available
inside the CPU in order to speed up access to data and instructions stored in
RAM.
Units of Memory
●​ The elementary unit of memory is a bit.
●​ A bit stands for binary digit, i.e., either 0 or 1
●​ Combinations of these bits together are used to store the data and instructions.
●​ 8 bits = 1 bye
●​ 4 bits = nibble

Output Unit

Purpose: Show results in a form we understand

●​ Monitor (VDU): Displays text/images

○​ A Monitor is termed as both an Input as well as an Output device.
○​ Its display may be CRT (Cathode Ray Tube), LCD (Liquid Crystal Display),
Plasma or touch sensitive
○​ LCD Screen (Television): A Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) is smaller and lighter
in weight as compared to a CRT (Cathode Ray Tube- older version of tv)
monitor.
●​ Printer:
○​ used to generate hard copies (printout) of the output generated by the
computer system
○​ Printers are classified as Impact (there is a mechanical contact between
printer head and paper) and Non-impact Printers (no mechanical contact
between printer head and paper)
 ○​ Dot Matrix (impact) : prints one character at a time. It uses dots to create an
image. This printer prints characters by striking an ink-soaked ribbon against
the paper
○​ Inkjet (non-impact) : Most common and low-cost printer. It sprays
quick-drying ink on paper using small nozzles.
■​ Ink is stored in color cartridges (like black, cyan, magenta, yellow)
■​ Gives good quality prints Ideal for home and office use.

○​ Laser (non-impact) : These printers use laser technology to produce printed

documents. These are very fast printers and are used for high quality prints.

●​ Speakers: generates sound as an output.

○​ For a speaker to produce sound, a special device called a sound card is
required to be installed in the computer system.
○​ The main function of a sound card is to convert audio information between
analog sound and digital data.
●​ Plotters: High-quality large drawings
○​ support printing of large-sized papers. (used in engineering/CAD)

Secondary Memory
Use: Permanent storage of data

Amount of data a disk can hold is defined as Disk Capacity, which is measured in terms of
bytes, kilobytes (KB), Megabytes (MB),

Examples:

1.​ Hard Disk: Fixed inside PC

a.​ Storage ranges from 1 GB to several TB
b.​ consists of solid rounded disks, packed on one another, made up of a
magnetic material and sealed inside a case.
c.​ Data is stored on the platters in tracks, sectors and cylinders to keep it
organized and easier to find.
 i.​ Track: Circular rings on the surface of a disk. Each platter has many
tracks.
ii.​ Sector: Small parts of a track. Each sector usually stores 512 bytes.
iii.​ Cylinder: A group of tracks (one from each disk surface) lined up
vertically. It is used for reading/writing data from multiple disks at the
same position.

2.​ Blu-Ray Disc: High-capacity disc used for recording, rewriting and playing back high
definition video and large files. Better quality and more space than DVDs.
3.​ CD (Compact Disc): Used to store songs and videos. Standard capacity is 700 MB.
Speed is shown like 150 KB/s, 4× means 600 KB/s.
4.​ Magnetic Tapes:magnetic coatings are stored as data on a thin tape.Earlier, this
medium was used for archival purposes.
5.​ DVD (Digital Video/Versatile Disc): Stores more than a CD (4.7 GB to 8.5 GB). Can
be single or double-sided.
6.​ USB Pen Drive: Small, portable storage device. Plugs into the USB port. Holds more
data than CD/DVD and is easy to carry.
7.​ Memory Card: Data storage device used in phones, cameras, game consoles. Small
in size, stores photos, videos, and other files.High record ability with power-free
storage
Communication Bus
Definition: A communication bus is a group of wires that transfer binary data between
computer parts like CPU, memory, and input/output devices.

●​ Each wire carries 1 bit at a time.

●​ Buses help all components talk to each other.

There are 3 main types of buses:

1.​ Address Bus:

○​ Send the address where data needs to go.
○​ Connects CPU to memory through parallel wires (Address Bus) which carries
address to Memory Address Register (MAR).
○​ The width (number of wires) decides how many memory locations can be
accessed.
○​ Example: 16-bit address bus can access 2^16 (65,536) memory locations.
2.​ Data Bus:
○​ Carries actual data in binary form.
○​ Example: 8-bit data bus can move 8 bits at a time.
○​ Width of the data bus = number of wires = number of bits moved in one go.
3.​ Control Bus:
○​ Send control signals like 'Read' or 'Write'.
○​ Tells other components what to do with the data (e.g., read from memory,
write to output).

Note: There's also an I/O Bus that connects external devices like printers, keyboards, etc., to
the system.