Introduction to Vibration

Mike Brennan
UNESP, Ilha Solteira
São Paulo
Brazil
 Vibration
• Most vibrations are undesirable, but there are many
instances where vibrations are useful
– Ultrasonic (very high frequency) vibrations
• Tooth cleaning
• Imaging of internal organs
• Welding
• Structural Health Monitoring
– Vibration conveyers
– Time-keeping instruments
– Impactors
– Music
– Heartbeat
 Introduction to Vibration

• Nature of vibration of mechanical systems

• Free and forced vibrations

• Frequency response functions

 Fundamentals
• For free vibration to occur we need
– mass m

– stiffness k

• The other vibration quantity is damping

c
 Fundamentals -
potential and kinetic energy

energy.mov
Fundamentals - damping
 Fundamental definitions
A

x (t )

x = A sin(ωt )

T
T ω = 2π f (radians/second)

Period T = 2π ω (seconds)
Frequency f = 1 T (cycles/second) (Hz)
 Phase
A

x (t )

t
x = A sin(ωt )

x = A sin(ωt + φ )

φ
ω
Green curve lags the blue curve by π 2 radians
 Harmonic motion
x (ωt )
A

ω
angular
displacement

φ = ωt φ = ωt

One cycle of motion

2π radians
 Complex number representation
+ imaginary
of harmonic motion
b x = a + jb
A x = A cos φ + jA sin φ
φ x = A ( cos φ + j sinφ )
- real + real
a
+ imaginary

Euler’s Equation
So x = Ae jφ phase

e ± jφ = cos φ ± j sin φ magnitude

magnitude x = A= a +b 2 2
phase φ = tan−1 ( b a )
Relationship between circular motion in the
complex plane with harmonic motion

Imaginary part – sine wave

Real part – cosine wave

 Sinusoidal signals – other descriptions
• Average value
T
1
= ∫ A sin ωt dt
x (t )
xav
T0
For a sine wave
T
t xav = 0
For a rectified sine wave

xav = 0.637 A
Sinusoidal signals – other descriptions
• Average value

x (t )

DC

Average value of a signal = DC component of signal

 Sinusoidal signals – other descriptions
• Mean square value
x (t ) T
1
= ∫ ( A sin ωt ) dt
2
2
x mean
T0
For a sine wave
x 2
mean = 0.5 A 2

• Root Mean Square (rms)

T t
xrms = x 2
mean =A 2
Many measuring devices, for example a digital voltmeter,
record the rms value
 Sinusoidal signals – Example
• A vibration signal is described by:

x = 0.15 sin 200t

• Amplitude (or peak value) = 0.15 m
• Average value = 0
• Mean square value = 0.01125 m2
• Root mean square value = 0.10607 m
• Peak-to-peak value = 0.3 m
• Frequency = 31.83 Hz
 Vibration signals
• Periodic or deterministic (not sinusoidal)
x (t )

• Heartbeat
• IC Engine

T T

T is the fundamental period

 Fourier Analysis
(Jean Baptiste Fourier 1830)
• Representation of a signal by sines and cosine waves

x (t )
+

t
+

+
:
Fourier Composition of a Square wave

frequency
 Vibration signals
• Transient
x (t )

• Gunshot
• Earthquake
• Impact

t
 Vibration signals
• Random
x (t )

• Uneven Road
• Wind
• Turbulence

t
 Free Vibration
• System vibrates at its natural frequency
x (t )

x = A sin(ωn t )
Natural frequency
 Forced Vibration
• System vibrates at the forcing frequency
x (t )

x (t )
f (t )

x = A sin(ωf t )
Forcing frequency
 Mechanical Systems
• Systems maybe linear or nonlinear

input excitation output response

system

• Linear Systems
1. Output frequency = Input frequency

2. If the magnitude of the excitation is changed, the

response will change by the same amount

3. Superposition applies
 Mechanical Systems
• Linear system

Linear
system

• Same frequency as input

• Magnitude change
• Phase change
• Output proportional to input
 Mechanical Systems
• Linear system

input excitation
a
output response, y
M
b system

y = Ma + Mb = M (a + b )
 Mechanical Systems
• Nonlinear system

Nonlinear
system

• output comprises frequencies

other than the input frequency
• output not proportional to input
 Mechanical Systems
• Nonlinear systems

• Generally system dynamics are a function of frequency

and displacement

• Contain nonlinear springs and dampers

• Do not follow the principle of superposition

 Mechanical Systems
• Nonlinear systems – example: nonlinear spring

f k
hardening
spring

x linear
force
f softening
For a linear system spring
f = kx

displacement
x
 Mechanical Systems
• Nonlinear systems – example: nonlinear spring

Peak-to-peak vibration
(approximately linear)
force
f
Peak-to-peak vibration
(nonlinear)

displacement
x ∆f
stiffness =
∆x
Static displacement
 Degrees of Freedom
• The number of independent coordinates required to
describe the motion is called the degrees-of-freedom
(dof) of the system

• Single-degree-of-freedom systems

Independent
coordinate

θ
 Degrees of Freedom

• Single-degree-of-freedom systems

x
m

Independent k
coordinate
 Idealised Elements
• Spring

f1 k f2

f1 = k ( x1 − x2 )
x1 x2
f2 = k ( x2 − x1 )

f1 = −f2
• no mass
• k is the spring constant
with units N/m
 Idealised Elements
• Addition of Spring Elements
1
k1 k2 ktotal =
1 1
Series +
k1 k 2
ktotal is smaller than the smallest stiffness
k1

Parallel k2 ktotal = k1 + k2

ktotal is larger than the largest stiffness

 Idealised Elements
• Addition of Spring Elements - example
f
kR
x
kT
f
stiffness =
x

• Is kT in parallel or series with kR ? Series!!

 Idealised Elements
• Viscous damper
c
f1 f2

f1 = c ( xɺ1 − xɺ 2 )

f2 = c ( xɺ 2 − xɺ1 )
xɺ1 xɺ 2

f1 = −f2
• no mass
• no elasticity
• c is the damping constant Rules for addition of
with units Ns/m dampers is as for springs
 Idealised Elements
• Viscous damper

f1 f2
m
f1 + f2 = mxɺɺ
f2 = mxɺɺ − f1
xɺɺ

• rigid
• m is mass with Forces do not pass unattenuated
units of kg through a mass
Free vibration of an undamped
SDOF system

Undeformed System equilibrium

spring position

m
k
k

System vibrates about its equilibrium position

 Free vibration of an undamped
SDOF system
System at Extended position
equilibrium
position mxɺɺ
m m

m −kx
k
k
mxɺɺ + kx = 0

inertia force stiffness force

 Simple harmonic motion
The equation of motion is:

m mxɺɺ + kx = 0
x
k
k ⇒x+ x =0
ɺɺ
m
⇒ x + ωn x = 0
ɺɺ 2

k
where ω =
2
nis the natural frequency of the system
m
The motion of the mass is given by x = X o sin (ωnt )
 Simple harmonic motion

Real Notation Complex Notation

m Displacement
x
x = X o sin (ωnt ) x = Xe jωnt
k
Velocity
xɺ = ωn X o cos (ωnt ) xɺ = j ωn Xe jωnt
Acceleration
xɺɺ = −ωn2 X o sin (ωnt ) xɺ = −ωn2 Xe jωnt
 Simple harmonic motion

Imag
xɺɺ
ω x
Real
ωt
xɺ
 Free vibration effect of damping

m
x
k c

The equation of motion is

mxɺɺ + cxɺ + kx = 0
inertia damping stiffness
force force force
 Free vibration effect of damping

−ζωn t
x = Xe

time
φ
ωd x = Xe −ζωn t
sin (ωd t + φ )
2π ζ = Damping ratio
Td =
ωd Td = Damping period
φ = Phase angle
 Free vibration - effect of damping
The underdamped displacement of the mass is given by

x = Xe −ζωn t
sin (ωd t + φ )
Exponential decay term Oscillatory term

ζ = Damping ratio = c ( 2mωn ) (0 < ζ < 1)

ωn = Undamped natural frequency = k m
ωd = Damped natural frequency = ωn = 1 − ζ 2
φ = Phase angle
Free vibration - effect of damping
 Free vibration - effect of damping
x (t )

Undamped ζ=0 Critically damped ζ=1

Underdamped ζ<1 Overdamped ζ>1
Variation of natural frequency with
damping
ωd
ωn

0
1 ζ
 Degrees-of-freedom
Single-degree-of-freedom system
k
m

x1

Multi-degree-of-freedom (lumped parameter systems)

N modes, N natural frequencies

k k k k
m m m m

x1 x2 x3 x4
 Degrees-of-freedom
Infinite number of degrees-of-freedom (Systems having
distributed mass and stiffness) – beams, plates etc.

Example - beam

Mode 1
 Degrees-of-freedom
Infinite number of degrees-of-freedom (Systems having
distributed mass and stiffness) – beams, plates etc.

Example - beam

Mode 1 Mode 2
 Degrees-of-freedom
Infinite number of degrees-of-freedom (Systems having
distributed mass and stiffness) – beams, plates etc.

Example - beam

Mode 1 Mode 2 Mode 3

 Free response of
multi-degree-of-freedom systems
Example - Cantilever
ω1

X + ω2

x( t )
+ ω3
+
ω4
t
 Response of a SDOF system to
harmonic excitation
Steady-state
xf (t )
Forced vibration
F sin (ωt )
t
m
x
xp (t )
k c

xp (t ) + xf (t )

t
 Steady-state response of a SDOF
system to harmonic excitation
F sin (ωt ) The equation of motion is

m
mxɺɺ + cxɺ + kx = F sin (ωt )
x
k c The displacement is given by

x = X o sin (ωt + φ )

where
X is the amplitude
φ is the phase angle between the response and the force
 Frequency response of a SDOF system
F sin (ωt )
The amplitude of the
m response is given by
x
F
k c Xo =
( k − ω m ) + ( ωc )
2 2
2

Inertia force ω mX o
2
The phase angle is given by
Damping  ωc 
Applied force force φ = tan 
−1

 k −ω m 
2
F ωcX o

Stiffness force kX o
 Frequency response of a SDOF system
Fe jωt
The equation of motion is
m
x mxɺɺ + cxɺ + kx = Fe jωt
k c The displacement is given by

x = Xe jωt
This leads to the complex amplitude given by
X 1 X 1  1 
= or =  
F k − ω m + jωc
2
F k  1 − (ω ωn ) + j 2ζ ω ωn 
2
 
Where ωn2 = k m and ζ = c 2 mk( )
Complex notation allows the amplitude and phase information
to be combined into one equation
 Frequency response functions
X 1
Receptance =
F k − ω 2 m + jωc
Other frequency response functions (FRFs) are
Acceleration Force
Accelerance = Apparent Mass =
Force Acceleration

Velocity Force
Mobility = Impedance =
Force Velocity

Force
Dynamic Stiffness =
Displacement
Representation of frequency response data

Log receptance
Increasing damping
1
k

ωn Log frequency

phase -90° Increasing damping

 Vibration control of a SDOF system
Fe jω t Xo 1
=
F
( ) + (ωc )
2
k −ω m
2 2

m x
Frequency Regions
k c
Low frequency ω → 0 ⇒ Xo F = 1 k Stiffness controlled

Resonance ω 2 = k m ⇒ X o F = 1 ωc Damping controlled

High frequency ω >> ωn ⇒ X o F = 1 ω m Mass controlled

2 2

Xo
Log
F
1
k

Stiffness Damping Mass

controlled controlled controlled Log frequency
Representation of frequency response data
X 1 1 
Recall =  
F k  1 − (ω ωn ) + j 2ζ ω ωn 
2
 

This includes amplitude and phase information. It

is possible to write this in terms of real and imaginary
components.
   
1 − ( ω ωn )
2
X 1  1 2ζ ω ωn 
=  + j
F k  1 − ω ω 2 2 + 2ζ ω ω 2  k  1 − ω ω 2 2 + 2ζ ω ω 2 
 ( ( n) ) ( n)
 (

( n) ) ( n)


real part imaginary part

 Real and Imaginary parts of FRF

X
Re  
F 

ωn frequency

X 
Im  
F 
 Real and Imaginary parts of FRF
Real and Imaginary components can be plotted on one
diagram. This is called an Argand diagram or Nyquist plot
1k
X
φ Re  
F 

Increasing
frequency

ωn X 
Im  
F 
3D Plot of Real and Imaginary parts of FRF
X 
X  Re  
Im   F 
F 

ζ =0

frequency
ζ = 0.1
 Summary
• Basic concepts
– Mass, stiffness and damping

• Introduction to free and forced vibrations

– Role of damping
– Frequency response functions
– Stiffness, damping and mass controlled frequency
regions