Introduction

• Proper drainage is a very important consideration in design of a

highway
• Highway drainage - the process of removing and controlling excess
surface and subsurface water within the roadway or right of way
• It includes interception and diversion of water from the road surface
and sub grade
• About 25 percent of highway construction dollars are spent for
erosion control and drainage structures, such as culverts, bridges,
channels, and ditches.
 Inadequate Drainage
Damage to highway structures
 Loss of capacity
 Visibility problems with spray and retro-reflectivity
 Safety problems, reduced friction and hydroplaning

Sources of Water
The highway engineer is concerned primarily with two sources of water.

1) Surface water, is that which occurs as rain or snow

2) Ground water, is that which flows in underground streams
Surface Drainage
• Surface drainage encompasses all means by which surface water is removed
from the pavement and right of way of the highway or street.
o Transverse Slopes
The main objective for providing slopes in the transverse direction is to facilitate the
removal of surface water from the pavement surface in the shortest possible time

o Longitudinal Slopes
A minimum gradient in the longitudinal direction of the highway is required to obtain adequate
slope in the longitudinal channels, particularly at cut sections.

o Longitudinal Channels
Longitudinal channels (ditches) are constructed along the sides of the
highway to collect the surface water that runs off from the pavement surface,

o Curbs and Gutters

Curbs and gutters can be used to control drainage in addition to other functions
Highway Drainage Structures
• Drainage structures are constructed to carry traffic over natural waterways that
flow below the right of way of the highway
• There are generally two categories of drainage structures

1)Major structures: are those with clear spans greater than 6m. Major structures are usually
large bridges, although multiple-span culverts also may be included in this class.
2)Minor structures: are those with clear spans of 6m or less. Minor structures include small
bridges and culverts.

Highway drainage structures

Highway Drainage Structures
Sediment and Erosion Control
• Continuous flow of surface water over shoulders, side slopes, and unlined channels often results in
soil eroding from adjacent areas of the pavement

The methods used to prevent erosion and control sediment are

Intercepting Drains:: Provision of an intercepting drain at the top of a cut helps to prevent
erosion of the side slopes of cut sections, since the water is intercepted and prevented
from flowing freely down the side slopes
Curbs and Gutters: Curbs and gutters can be used to protect unsurfaced shoulders on rural highways
from eroding
Turf Cover: Using a firm turf cover on unpaved shoulders, ditches, embankments,
and cut slopes is an efficient and economic method of preventing erosion when slopes are
flatter than 3:1
Slope and Channel Linings: When the highway is subjected to extensive erosion, more effective
preventive action than any of those already described is necessary
Hydrologic Consideration
• The basic phenomenon in hydrology is the cycle that consists of precipitation occurring onto the ground in the form of
water, snow, hail, and so forth and returning to the atmosphere in the form of vapor
• Highway engineers are primarily concerned with three properties of rainfall
- The rate of fall, known as intensity;
- The length of time for a given intensity, known as duration;
- The probable number of years that will elapse before a given combination of intensity and duration will be repeated,
known as frequency.
This suggests that drainage facilities should be designed for very rare storms to reduce the chance of overflowing to a
minimum
Factors usually considered in making this decision include:
- The importance of the highway
- The volume of traffic on the highway
- The population density of the area.
Other hydrologic variables that the engineer uses to determine surface runoff rates are:
1-The drainage area: is the area of land that contributes to the runoff at the point where the channel capacity is to be
determined.
2-The runoff coefficient, C: is the ratio of runoff to rainfall for the drainage area. The runoff coefficient depends on the type
of ground cover, the slope of the drainage area, storm duration, prior wetting, and the slope of the ground.
Representative values for C for different runoff surfaces are given in Table 6.1.
3-The time of concentration, Tc: is the time required for the runoff to flow from the hydraulically most distant point of the
watershed to the point of interest within the watershed .
Time of concentration depends on several factors, including
- The size and shape of the drainage area
- type of surface
- slope of the drainage area
- rainfall intensity
- Whether the flow is entirely over land or partly channelized.

Water travels through a watershed as sheet flow, shallow concentrated flow, open channel flow, or as a combination of
each separate flow. Travel time is the ratio of flow length to average flow velocity

The time of concentration, Tc, is the sum of Ti for the various elements within the watershed. Thus,
Determination of Runoff
• The amount of runoff for any combination of intensity and duration depends on the type of
surface.
• Watershed Area : To compute drainage areas, topographic maps can be used.
• Rational Method
The rational method is based on the premise that the rate of runoff for any storm depends on the average storm intensity,
the size of the drainage area, and the type of drainage area surface.
The rational formula is given as
average intensity (I)
Hydraulic Design of Highway Drainage Structures
• The ultimate objective in determining the hydraulic requirements for any highway drainage structure is to provide a
suitable structure size that will economically and efficiently dispose of the expected runoff. Certain hydraulic requirements
also should be met to avoid erosion and/or sedimentation in the system.
• A. Design of Open Channels

• The hydraulic design of a drainage ditch for a given storm entails the determination of the minimum cross-
sectional area of the ditch that will accommodate the flow due to that storm and prevent water from
overflowing the sides of the ditch

The most commonly used formula for this purpose is Manning’s formula
The most appropriate channel gradient range to produce the required velocity is between 1 percent and 5
percent. For most types of linings, sedimentation is usually a problem when slopes are less than 1 percent, and
excessive erosion of the lining will occur when slopes are higher than 5 percent.
• The flow in the channel is then given as:

Where Q is the discharge m3/sec (ft3/sec)

The Manning’s Formula
Example: Determine a suitable cross section for a channel to carry an estimated runoff of 340
ft3/sec if the slope of the channel is 1% and Manning’s roughness coefficient, n, is 0.015.
Solution: Select a channel section and then use Manning’s formula to determine the flow depth required for the
estimated runoff. Assume a rectangular channel 6 ft wide.

Example:
The surface water from Road side is drained to the longitudinal side from half width of bituminous pavement 7m
wide (2%), shoulder and adjoining land width is 10m (1.5%) on one side of the drains. In the other side of longitudinal
drain, water flows across from reserve land with short grass and (1.5%) cross slope towards the side drain, the width
of this strip of land being 30m .The length of the stretch of land parallel to the road from where water is expected to
flow to the side is about 500m. Assuming 25 years period as frequency, calculate the quantity of runoff flowing into
the drain if rainfall intensity is 0.0493 mm/sec. Design cross section of the side drain assuming roughness coefficient
0.022 and allowable velocity of flow 1 m/sec.
B. Design of Culvert
The main factors considered in culvert design are the location of the culvert, the hydrologic characteristics of the
watershed being served by the culvert, economy, and type of flow control.

Culvert Location
 The most appropriate location of a culvert is in the existing
channel bed
 The basic principle used in locating culverts is that abrupt stream
changes at the inlet and outlet of the culvert should be avoided.

Hydrologic and Economic Considerations

 the design flow rate is based on the storm with an
acceptable return period (frequency)
 Culverts are designed for the peak flow rate of the design
storm.
Other Factors
Tailwater This is defined as the water depth at the outlet above the inside bottom of the
culvert (culvert invert)

The ability of the channel to store large quantities of water upstream from the
Inlet Control
culvert may have some effect on the design of the culvert capacity.
Inlet Control
• Shallow, high velocity flow
• Water can flow through and out faster than it can enter
• Discharge not influenced by roughness and length

 Several factors affect the performance of a culvert under inlet control

conditions. These include
- The inlet area
- Inlet shape
- Inlet configuration
- The headwater depth

types of inlet control

INLET CONFIGURATION
• Inlet geometry affects entrance loss:
Outlet Control
• A culvert flows under outlet control when the barrel is incapable of transporting as
much flow as the inlet opening will receive.
In addition to the factors that affect the performance of culverts under inlet
control, the performance of culverts under outlet control is also affected by:
- The Tailwater depth -
- Certain culvert characteristics such as the roughness, area,
shape, slope, and length

Types of outlet control

END TREATMENT
• One of the major causes of culvert failure is scouring or
piping at the inlet/outlet
• Proper end treatment protects the pipe and embankment
• End treatment can also improve hydraulics of inlet/outlet
• Can be in the form of armouring and/or funnelling
Subsurface Drainage
• Subsurface drainage systems are provided within the pavement structure to drain
water in one or more of the following forms
• Water that has permeated through cracks and joints in the pavement to the
underlying strata.
• The design of subsurface drainage should be carried out as an integral part of the
complete design of the highway, since inadequate subsurface drainage also may have
detrimental effects on the stability of slopes and pavement performance.
Methods to lower water table
Highway Sub-drainage Systems
• Subsurface drainage systems are usually classified into five general categories:
• Longitudinal drains
• Transverse drains
• Horizontal drains
• Drainage blankets
• Well systems

Longitudinal Drains Symmetrical Longitudinal Drains Used to Lower Water Table

 Subsurface longitudinal drains usually consist of pipes laid in trenches

within the pavement structure and parallel to the center line of the
highway
 These drains can be used to lower the water table below the
pavement structure,
 or to remove any water that is seeping into the
pavement structure, Longitudinal Collector Drain Used to Remove Water Seeping into Pavement Structural Section
Transverse Drains
• Transverse drains are placed below the pavement, usually in a direction perpendicular
to the center line, although they may be skewed to form a herringbone(V-shaped
weaving pattern) configuration.
• One disadvantage of transverse drains is that they can cause unevenness of the
pavement when used in areas susceptible to frost action, where general frost heaving
occurs.
• The unevenness is due to the general heaving of the whole pavement, except at the
transverse drains
Horizontal Drains
• Horizontal drains are used to relieve pore pressures
at slopes of cuts and embankments on the highway. They usually consist
of small diameter, perforated pipes inserted into the slopes of the cut or fill

Drainage Blankets
 A well system consists of a series of vertical wells, drilled
into the ground, into which ground water flows, thereby
reducing the water table and releasing the pore pressure

 When used as a temporary measure for construction, the

water collected in the wells is continuously pumped out, or
else it may be left to overflow.

 A more common construction, however, includes a drainage

layer either at the top or bottom of the wells to facilitate
the flow of water collected.
Design of Subsurface Drainage
• The design procedure for subsurface drainage involves the following.
1. Summarize the available data.

2. Determine the quantity of water for which the sub-drainage system is being designed.

3. Determine the drainage system required.

4. Determine the capacity and spacing of longitudinal and transverse drains and select filter material, if
necessary.

5. Evaluate the design with respect to economic feasibility and long-term performance.
Filter Requirements
• The provision of a drainage layer consisting of coarse material allows for the
flow of water from the finegrained material of the subgrade soil to the coarse
drainage layer
Lecture 7
Introduction
 Pavements are a conglomeration of materials. These materials, their associated properties, and their
interactions determine the properties of the resultant pavement.
 Thus, a good understanding of these materials, how they are characterized, and how they perform is
fundamental to understanding pavement.
A. Subgrade Soil
 Soil is an accumulation or deposit of earth material, derived naturally from the disintegration of rocks or
decay of vegetation, which can be excavated readily with power equipment in the field or disintegrated
by gentle mechanical means in the laboratory.
 The supporting soil beneath pavement and its special under courses is called subgrade.
 Undisturbed soil beneath the pavement is called natural sub grade.
Desirable Subgrade Properties
The desirable properties of subgrade soil as a highway material are
 Stability
 Incompressibility
 Permanency of strength
 Minimum changes in volume and stability under adverse conditions of weather and ground water
 Good drainage
 Ease of compaction
Tests on soil :
 Subgrade soil is an integral part of the road pavement structure as it provides the support to the pavement from
beneath.
 The sub grade soil and its properties are important in the design of pavement structure.
 The main function of the subgrade is to give adequate support to the pavement and for this the subgrade should
possess sufficient stability under adverse climatic and loading conditions.
 Therefore, it is very essential to evaluate the subgrade by conducting tests

The tests used to evaluate the strength properties of soils may be broadly divided into three groups:
Shear tests
 Bearing tests
 Penetration tests
California Bearing Ratio Test
 California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test was developed by the California Division of Highway as a method of
classifying and evaluating soil-subgrade and base course materials for flexible pavements.
 CBR test, an empirical test, has been used to determine the material properties for pavement design.
 It is a penetration test wherein a standard piston, having an area of 3 in2 (or 50 mm diameter), is used to
penetrate the soil at a standard rate of 1.25 mm/minute.
 The pressure up to a penetration of 12.5 mm and it’s ratio to the bearing value of a standard crushed rock is
termed as the CBR
 In most cases, CBR decreases as the penetration increases.
 The ratio at 2.5 mm penetration is used as the CBR
 The CBR is a measure of resistance of a material to penetration of
standard plunger under controlled density and moisture conditions
 The test is simple and has been extensively investigated for field correlations
of flexible pavement thickness requirement.
 Test Procedure
 The laboratory CBR apparatus consists of a mold 150 mm diameter with a base plate and a collar, a
loading frame and dial gauges for measuring the penetration values and the expansion on soaking
 The specimen in the mold is soaked in water for four days and the swelling and water absorption
values are noted. The surcharge weight is placed on the top of the specimen in the mold and the
assembly is placed under the plunger of the loading frame.
 Load is applied on the sample by a standard plunger with dia. of 50 mm at the rate of 1.25 mm/min. A
load penetration curve is drawn. The load values on standard crushed stones are 1370 kg and 2055 kg
at 2.5 mm and 5.0 mm penetrations respectively

CBR value is expressed as a percentage of the actual load causing the

penetrations of 2.5 mm or 5.0 mm to the standard loads mentioned
above. Therefore,
 Two values of CBR will be obtained. If the value of 2.5 mm is greater than that of 5.0 mm penetration,
the former is adopted. If the CBR value obtained from test at 5.0 mm penetration is higher than that at
2.5 mm, then the test is to be repeated for checking. If the check test again gives similar results, then
higher value obtained at 5.0 mm penetration is reported as the CBR value.
 Plate Bearing Test
 Plate bearing test is used to evaluate the support capability of sub-grades, bases and in some cases, complete
pavement.
 Data from the tests are applicable for the design of both flexible and rigid pavements.
 In plate bearing test, a compressive stress is applied to the soil or pavement layer through rigid plates
relatively large size and the deflections are measured for various stress values
 The deflection level is generally limited to a low value, in the order of 1.25 to 5 mm and so the deformation
caused may be partly elastic and partly plastic due to compaction of the stressed mass with negligible plastic
deformation.
 Test Procedure
 The test site is prepared and loose material is removed so that the 75 cm diameter plate rests horizontally
in full contact with the soil sub-grade. The plate is seated accurately and then a seating load equivalent to a
pressure of 0.07 kg/cm2 (320 kg for 75 cm diameter plate) is applied and released after a few seconds. The
settlement dial gauge is now set corresponding to zero load .
 A load is applied by means of jack, sufficient to cause an average settlement of about 0.25 cm.
 Deflection of the plate is measured by means of deflection dials; placed usually at one-third points of the
plate near it’s outer edge.
 Average of three or four settlement dial readings is taken as the settlement of the plate corresponding to
the applied load. Load is then increased till the average settlement increase to a further amount of about
0.25 mm, and the load and average settlement readings are noted as before.
 Allowance for worst subgrade moisture and correction for small plate size should be dealt properly.
 Calculation: A graph is plotted with the mean settlement versus bearing
pressure (load per unit area) . The pressure corresponding to a settlement is
obtained from this graph. The modulus of subgrade reaction is calculated
from the relation.
 B. Aggregate
 Aggregate is a collective term for the mineral materials such as sand, gravel, and crushed stone that are used
with a binding medium (such as water, bitumen, Portland cement, lime, etc.) to form compound materials (such
as bituminous concrete and Portland cement concrete)
 By volume, aggregate generally accounts for 92 to 96 percent of Bituminous concrete and about 70 to 80
percent of Portland cement concrete.
 Aggregate is also used for base and sub-base courses for both flexible and rigid pavements. Aggregates can
either be natural or manufactured.
 Natural aggregates are generally extracted from larger rock formations through an open excavation (quarry).

Extracted rock is typically reduced to usable sizes by

mechanical crushing.
Manufactured aggregate is often a by-product of other
manufacturing industries. Figure below illustrates some
types of aggregate.
Aggregate used in asphaltic mixtures are either:
1. Crushed aggregate (such as limestone, granite),
2. Natural aggregate (such as gravel and sand) or
3. Secondary aggregate (such as RAP, demolition
aggregate, ...etc.) Figure : Some types of aggregates
Desirable Properties of Aggregate :
1-Strength: The aggregates used in top layers are subjected to (i) Stress action due to traffic wheel load, (ii) Wear and tear,
(iii) crushing. For a high quality pavement, the aggregates should possess high resistance to crushing, and to withstand the
stresses due to traffic wheel load.
2- Hardness: The aggregates should be hard enough to resist the abrasive action caused by the movements of traffic.

3-Toughness : Resistance of the aggregates to impact is termed as toughness. Aggregates used in the pavement should be
able to resist the effect caused by the jumping of the steel tyred wheels from one particle to another.
4- Shape of aggregates: It is evident that the flaky and elongated particles will have less strength and durability when
compared with cubical, angular or rounded particles of the same aggregate. Hence too flaky and too much elongated
aggregates should be avoided as far as possible.
5- Adhesion with bitumen: The aggregates used in bituminous pavements should have less affinity with water when
compared with bituminous materials, otherwise the bituminous coating on the aggregate will be stripped off in presence
of water.
6- Durability: The property of aggregates to withstand adverse action of weather is called soundness. The aggregates are
subjected to the physical and chemical action of rain and bottom water, impurities there-in and that of atmosphere, hence
it is desirable that the road aggregates used in the construction should be sound enough to withstand the weathering
action.
7-Freedom from deleterious particles: Specifications for aggregates used in bituminous mixes usually require the
aggregates to be clean, tough and durable in nature and free from excess amount of flat or elongated pieces, dust, clay
balls and other objectionable material.
Aggregate Tests
• In order to decide the suitability of the aggregate for use in pavement construction, following tests are carried
out:
 Crushing test
 Abrasion test
 Impact test
 Soundness test
 Shape test
 Specific gravity and water absorption test
 Bitumen adhesion test
C. Bituminous Materials
• Overview:
Bituminous materials are classified as asphalts and tars.
Bituminous materials or asphalts are extensively used for roadway construction, primarily because of their
excellent binding characteristics and water proofing properties and relatively low cost.
Bituminous materials consists of bitumen which is a black or dark colored solid or viscous cementitious
substances consists chiefly high molecular weight hydrocarbons derived from distillation of petroleum or
natural asphalt, has adhesive properties, and is soluble in carbon disulphid.
Tar is a viscous black liquid made of hydrocarbons which can form in multiple ways. Because of this, the
chemical composition of tar varies, though it is always made of organic matter of some sort. It has many uses
as a waterproofing and sealing agent. It is also used for many medicinal purposes.
Bituminous Binder
Bituminous binders can be classified into three general groups:
asphalt cement, asphalt cutbacks, and emulsified asphalt.
Blown asphalt and road tars are also other types of bituminous material
that now are not used commonly in highway construction.
14
 The fractional distillation process of crude petroleum
• Different products are separated at different temperatures.

• Figure shows the main products, such as gasoline, kerosene, diesel

oil, and asphalt residue (asphalt cement).

• The quantity and quality of the asphalt depends on the crude

petroleum source and the refining method.

15
Types of Asphalt Products
• Asphalt used in pavements is produced in three forms:
1) asphalt cement,(asphalt binder)
2) asphalt cutback, and
3) asphalt emulsion.

1. Asphalt Cements :
 Asphalt cement is a blend of hydrocarbons of different molecular weights.
 The characteristics of the asphalt depend on the chemical composition and the distribution of the
molecular weight hydrocarbons. As the distribution shifts toward heavier molecular weights, the
asphalt becomes harder and more viscous.
 At room temperatures, asphalt cement is a semisolid material that cannot be applied readily as a
binder without being heated.
 Asphalt cement has excellent adhesive characteristics, which make it a superior binder for pavement
applications.
 They are semisolid hydrocarbons with certain physiochemical characteristics that make them good
cementing agents.
 They are also very viscous, and when used as a binder for aggregates in pavement construction
 it is necessary to heat both the aggregates and the asphalt cement prior to mixing the two materials.
 Asphalt cements are used mainly in the manufacture of hot-mix, hot-laid asphalt concrete
 Asphalt concrete can be used in a variety of ways, including the construction of highways and airport
pavement surfaces and bases, parking areas, and industrial floors. The specific use of a given sample
depends on its grade
Photo showing asphalt cement, aggregate, and asphalt concrete. 17
 Asphalt Binders
Asphalt binder is produced in several grades or classes. There are four
methods for classifying asphalt binders:
1. performance grading
2. penetration grading
3. viscosity grading
4. viscosity of aged residue grading
Performance Grade Specifications and Selection
• Names of grades start with PG (Performance Graded) followed by
two numbers representing the maximum and minimum pavement
design temperatures in Celsius. For example, an asphalt binder PG
52–28 would meet the specification for a design high pavement
temperature up to 52°C and a design low temperature warmer
than -28 °C.

• The high temperature is calculated 20 mm below the pavement

surface, whereas the low temperature is calculated at the pavement
surface.

• Table shows the binder grades in the Performance Grade

18
specifications.
2. Asphalt Cutbacks:
 Asphalt cutbacks use petroleum solvents for dissolving asphalt cement. The solvents are variously called
distillate, diluents or cutter stock
 Liquid asphalt products, cutbacks and emulsions can be used without heating
 A cutback asphalt is simply a combination of asphalt cement and petroleum solvent.

• Three types of cutbacks are produced, depending on the hardness of the residue and the
type of solvent used.
1) Rapid-curing cutbacks are produced by dissolving hard residue in a highly volatile solvent, such as
gasoline.
2) Medium-curing cutbacks use medium hardness residue and a less volatile solvent, such as kerosene.
3) Slow-curing cutbacks Slow curing (SC) asphalt cement and oils of low volatility generally in the heavy
distillate range (SC-70, 250, 800, 3000)

• Curing the cutback refers to the evaporation of the solvent from the asphalt residue.

• Rapid-curing (RC) cutbacks cure in about 5 to 10 minutes, while medium curing (MC)
cutbacks cure in a few days. Slow-curing (SC) cutbacks cure in a few months.
19
 ⦁ In addition to the three types, cutbacks have several grades defined by the kinematic viscosity at
60°C.

⦁ Grades of 30, 70, 250, 800, and 3000 are manufactured, with higher grades indicating higher
viscosities.

⦁ Thus, cutback asphalts are designated by letters (RC, MC, or SC), representing the type, followed by
a number that represents the grade.

⦁ For example, MC-800 is a medium-curing cutback with a

grade of 800.

⦁ The different grades of cutback are produced by varying

the amounts and types of solvent and base asphalt.

⦁ The specifications of cutbacks are standardized by ASTM

D2026, D2027, and D2028.

20
3. Emulsified Asphalts
 By definition, an emulsion involves a combination of two liquids that do not blend naturally into a single liquid.
Instead, individual droplets of one liquid are dispersed throughout the other liquid.
 Asphalt emulsion is a combination of three basic ingredients, asphalt, water, and small amount of an
emulsifying agent.
 Emulsified asphalts are produced by breaking asphalt cement, usually of 100 to 250 penetration range, into
minute particles and dispersing them in water with an emulsifier.
 These minute particles have like electrical charges and therefore do not coalesce .
 In terms of the breakdown of ingredients, asphalt is normally the biggest component of an emulsion, anywhere from
40-70% of the total. Water typically makes up about 30-50% of the mixture. Other ingredients such as solvents,
polymers, and other modifiers may constitute up to 10% of the emulsion.
 Typically an emulsifying agent or “soap” will be added to the emulsion, which helps the
asphalt and water break apart and blend with each other. Polymers and chemical
stabilizers may also be added depending on the desired properties of the emulsion.

 Emulsions are typically either anionic (asphalt droplets

are negatively charged) or cationic (asphalt particles
are positively charged)..
 Each of these categories is further divided into three
subgroups based on how rapidly the asphalt emulsion
returns to the state of the original asphalt cement
 • These subgroups are rapid-setting (RS), medium-setting (MS), and slow-setting (SS)
• Rapid-setting emulsion sets in about 5 to 10 minutes, medium-setting emulsion sets in
several hours, and slow-setting emulsion sets in a few months.

• Table below is a summary of the emulsion grades and types.

⦁ Other emulsion types are also produced, such as the high float residue emulsion and the quick-set emulsion.

• A suffix of “h” or “s” at the end of the emulsion grade indicates that a hard or soft base asphalt was
used.
• Emulsified asphalts are used in cold-laid plant mixes and road mixes (mixed in-place) for several purposes,
including the construction of highway pavement surfaces and bases and in surface treatments.
• Although emulsions and cutbacks can be used for the same applications, the use of emulsions is increasing
because they do not include hazardous and costly solvents
Requirements of Bitumen
Bitumen should possess following desirable properties
1-The bitumen should not be highly temperature susceptible: during the hottest weather the mix should not
become too soft or unstable, and during cold weather the mix should not become too brittle causing cracks.
2-The viscosity of the bitumen at the time of mixing and compaction should be adequate. This can be achieved by
use of cutbacks or emulsions of suitable grades or by heating the bitumen and aggregates prior to mixing.
3-There should be adequate affinity and adhesion between the bitumen and aggregates used in the mix.
Tests on bitumen :There are a number of tests to assess the properties of bituminous materials
 Uses of Asphalt

• The main use of asphalt is in pavement construction and maintenance, sealing and
waterproofing various structural components, such as roofs and underground
foundations.

• The selection of the type and grade of asphalt depends on the type of construction and
the climate of the area.

• Asphalt cements, also called asphalt binders, are used typically to make hot-mix asphalt
concrete for the surface layer of asphalt pavements.

• Asphalt concrete is also used in patching and repairing both asphalt and Portland
cement concrete pavements.

• Liquid asphalts (emulsions and cutbacks) are used for pavement maintenance
applications, such as fog seals, chip seals, slurry seals, and micro-surfacing.
24
Placing hot mix asphalt (asphalt concrete) used
Compaction of hot mix asphalt
for the surface layer of asphalt pavement

Applying fog seal (diluted emulsion) for Spraying tack coat (emulsion) on existing asphalt
preserving existing pavement pavement before placing an asphalt overlay. 25
 Applying chip seal (emulsion followed by Applying micro-surfacing for
aggregates) for preserving existing pavement preserving existing pavement

• Liquid asphalts may also be used to seal the cracks in pavements.

• Liquid asphalts are mixed with aggregates to produce cold mixes, as well.

• Cold mixtures are normally used for patching (when hot-mix asphalt concrete
is not available), base and subbase stabilization, and surfacing of low-volume
roads.
26
Table below shows common paving applications for asphalts

27
 Temperature Susceptibility of Asphalt
• The consistency of asphalt is greatly affected by temperature. Asphalt
gets hard and brittle at low temperatures and soft at high temperatures.

• Figure below shows a conceptual relation between temperature and

logarithm of viscosity.

• The viscosity of the asphalt decreases when the temperature increases.

28
• Asphalt’s temperature susceptibility can be represented by the slope of the line shown in the
Figure; the steeper the slope the higher the temperature susceptibility of the asphalt.

• Additives can be used to reduce this susceptibility.

• When asphalt is mixed with aggregates, the mixture will perform properly only if the asphalt
viscosity is within an optimum range.

• If the viscosity of asphalt is higher than the optimum range, the mixture will be too brittle and
susceptible to low-temperature cracking.

• On the other hand, if the viscosity is below the optimum range, the mixture will flow readily,
resulting in permanent deformation (rutting).

• Due to temperature susceptibility, the grade of the asphalt cement should be selected
according to the climate of the area.

• The viscosity of the asphalt should be mostly within the optimum range for the area’s annual
temperature range; soft grade asphalts are used for cold climates and hard-grade asphalts for
hot climates.
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• Thermal cracking resulting
from the use of too-stiff
asphalt in a cold climate area

• Rutting that could result from

the use of too-soft asphalt

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Asphalt Mixtures
• Asphalt mixtures are a uniformly mixed combination of asphalt cement, coarse aggregate, fine
aggregate, and other materials, depending on the type of asphalt mixture. The different types of
asphalt mixtures commonly used in pavement construction are:
 Hot-mix, hot-laid
 Cold-mix, cold-laid
When an asphalt mixture is used in the construction of highway pavements, it must:
1- Resist deformation from imposed traffic loads.
2-Be skid resistant even when wet.
3-Not be affected easily by weathering forces.
The degree to which an asphalt mixture achieves these characteristics mainly is
dependent on the design of the mix used in producing the material.
Hot-Mix, Hot-Laid Asphalt Mixture
 Hot-mix, hot-laid asphalt mixture is produced by properly blending asphalt cement, coarse
aggregate, fine aggregate, and filler (dust) at temperatures ranging from about 175 to 325⁰F (80 -
160⁰C), depending on the type of asphalt cement used.
 Hot-mix, hot-laid asphalt mixture normally is used for high-type pavement construction, and the
mixture can be described as open graded, coarse-graded, dense-graded, or fine-graded.
Cold mix asphalt, as its name suggests, is a kind of asphalt that can be used without being heated
up. This material can be poured straight from the bag without using any additional equipment and is
commonly used for repairs or small-scale patches
Aggregate Gradation
 Aggregates usually are categorized as crushed rock, sand, and filler
 The rock material is predominantly coarse aggregate retained in a No. 8 sieve, sand is predominantly fine
aggregate passing the No. 8 sieve, and filler is predominantly mineral dust that passes the No. 200 sieve.
 It is customary for gradations of the combined aggregate and the individual fractions to be specified.
Proportioning of aggregates: following are the common methods of proportioning
of aggregates:
1) Trial and error procedure: Vary the proportion of materials until
the required aggregate gradation is achieved.
2) Graphical Methods: Two graphical methods in common use for
proportioning of aggregates are, Triangular chart method and
Roch’s method.
3) Analytical Method: In this method a system of equations are
developed based on the gradation of each aggregates, required
gradation, and solved by numerical methods. With the advent of
computer, this method is becoming popular and discussed below.
The resulting solution gives the proportion of each type of material
required for the given aggregate gradation.
• The solution is obtained by constructing a set of equations considering the lower and upper limits of the required
gradation as well as the percentage passing of each type of aggregate. The decision need to take is the proportion of
aggregate A, B, C need to be blended to get the required gradation. Let x1, x2, x3 represent the proportion of A, B,
and C respectively. Equation of the form can be written for each sieve size: where a, b, c is the proportion of
aggregates A, B, and C passing for that sieve size and pl and pu are the required upper and lower gradation limit for
that sieve size

Example: The gradation required for a typical mix is given in Table 7.1 in column 1 and 2. The gradation of
available for three types of aggregate A, B, and C are given in column 3, 4, and 5. Determine the proportions of
A, B and C if mixed will get the required gradation in column 2

Table 7.1: Gradation Table 7.2: Result of the mix design

Asphalt Content
 Having determined a suitable mix of aggregates, the next step is to
determine the optimum percentage of asphalt that should be used in
the asphalt mixture.
 This percentage should be within the prescribed limits (of course).
 Two commonly used methods to determine the optimum asphalt
content are:
- Marshall method
- Hveem method

Marshal Mix Design

• The Marshall Stability and Flow test provides the performance prediction measure for the Marshall
mix design method..
• The stability portion of the test measures the maximum load supported by the test specimen at a
loading rate of 50.8 mm/minute.
• Load is applied to the specimen till failure, and the maximum load is designated as stability
• During the loading, an attached dial gauge measures the specimen’s plastic flow (deformation) due
to the loading
• The flow value is recorded in 0.25 mm (0.01 inch) increments at the same time when the maximum
load is recorded.
Specimen preparation
1- Approximately 1200gm of aggregates and filler is heated to a temperature of 175 - 190C˚ .

2- Bitumen is heated to a temperature of 121 - 125C˚ with the first trial percentage of bitumen (say 3.5
or 4% by weight of the mineral aggregates).

3-The heated aggregates and bitumen are thoroughly mixed at a temperature of 154 - 160C˚

4-The mix is placed in a preheated mold and compacted by a rammer with 50 blows on either side at
temperature of 138C˚ to 149C˚ .
5-The weight of mixed aggregates taken for the preparation of the
specimen may be suitably altered to obtain a compacted thickness of
63.5+/-3 mm
6-Vary the bitumen content in the next trial by +0:5% and
repeat the above procedure
7-Number of trials are predetermined.
8-The prepared mold is loaded in the Marshall test
setup as shown in the figure
 Properties of the Mix
• The properties that are of interest include the theoretical specific gravity Gt.
• the bulk specific gravity of the mix Gm, percent air voids Vv, percent volume of bitumen Vb,
percent void in mixed aggregate VMA and percent voids filled with bitumen VFB.

Theoretical specific gravity of the mix Gt: Theoretical

specific gravity Gt is the specific gravity without
considering air voids, and is given by:

Bulk specific gravity of mix Gm: The bulk specific gravity

or the actual specific gravity of the mix Gm is the specific
gravity considering air voids and is found out by:

where, Wm is the weight of mix in air, Ww is the weight of mix in water, Phase diagram of a bituminous mix
Note that Wm - Ww gives the volume of the mix
Air voids percent Vv: Air voids Vv is the percent of air voids by volume in the specimen and is given by

Percent volume of bitumen Vb: The volume of bitumen Vb is the percent of volume of bitumen to the
total volume and given by:

Voids in mineral aggregate VMA: Voids in mineral aggregate VMA is the volume of voids in the aggregates,
and is the sum of air voids and volume of bitumen, and is calculated from

where, Vv is the percent air voids in the mix and Vb is percent bitumen content in the mix.

Voids filled with bitumen VFB: Voids filled with bitumen VFB is the voids in the mineral aggregate frame
work filled with the bitumen, and is calculated as:

where, Vb is percent bitumen content in the mix and VMA is the percent voids in the mineral aggregate
 Determining Marshall Stability and Flow
• Marshall Stability of a test specimen is the maximum load required to produce failure when the specimen is
preheated to a prescribed temperature placed in a special test head and the load is applied at a constant
strain (5 cm per minute).
• While the stability test is in progress dial gauge is used to measure the vertical deformation of the
specimen. The deformation at the failure point expressed in units of 0.25 mm is called the Marshall Flow
value of the specimen.
Preparing Graphical Plots
The average value of the above properties are determined
for each mix with different bitumen content and the following
graphical plots are prepared:

Marshall Graphs
Determining Optimum Bitumen Content
• Determine the optimum binder content for the mix design by taking average value of the following
three bitumen contents found form the graphs obtained in the previous step.
1. Binder content corresponding to maximum stability
2. Binder content corresponding to maximum bulk specific gravity (Gm)
Marshall mix design specification.
3. Binder content corresponding to the median of designed limits of
percent air voids (Vv) in the total mix (i.e. 4%).

•Three important parameters commonly used are percent of air

voids (voids in total mix) (VTM), voids in the mineral aggregate
(VMA), and voids filled with asphalt (VFA). These are defined as:
Example 1:

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41
Example:
The specific gravities and weight proportions for aggregate and bitumen are as below for the preparation of Marshall mix
design. The volume and weight of one Marshall specimen was found to be 475 cm3 and 1100 gm. Assuming absorption
of bitumen in aggregate is zero, find Vv, Vb, VMA and VFB;

Solution:
Example: The results of Marshall test for five specimen is given below. Find the optimum bitumen content of the mix.

4% percent air void = 3 percent bitumen content. The optimum

bitumen extent is the average of above = 4.33 percent.
Evaluation and Adjustment of Mix Design
• As stated earlier, the overall objective of the mix design is to determine an
optimum blend of different components that will satisfy the requirements of the
given specifications. The mixture should have
1. An adequate amount of asphalt to ensure a durable pavement
2. An adequate mix stability to prevent unacceptable distortion and
displacement when traffic load is applied.
3. Adequate voids in the total compacted mixture to permit a small amount of
compaction when traffic load is applied without loss of stability, blushing,
and bleeding, but at the same time insufficient voids to prevent harmful
penetration of air and moisture into the compacted mixture.
4. Adequate workability to facilitate placement of the mix without segregation.