Lecturer Notes of Logic Circuit Department of Computer Engineering

UNIT :3
Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates

3.1 Introduction to Boolean algebra,Variable, Boolean Function:

❖ Boolean algebra:

Boolean algebra is the algebra of logic that deals with the study of binary
variables and logical operations. It makes possible to transform logical statements into
mathematical symbols and to calculate the truth or falsity of related statements by using rules. It
is named after George Boole, in 1854 AD, Mathematician and Philosopher, who was the first to
try and to formalize what we call logic or reasoning.

❖ Boolean variable:

A Boolean variable is the variables which have only two states i.e. true/
false or right/ wrong or on/off or 0/1. As a computer is a binary system, it operates on an electronic
signal which has only 2 possible states.

The signal that does not change its state with time is called constant signal and its value always
remains the same i.e. either 1 or 0 whereas a variable signal continuously changes its state
according to the time. At some point, the value of the variable signal may be 1 and at some another
point, it might be 0. Therefore, these variables which consist of only two values i.e. 1 and 0 are
Boolean variables or logic variables. These variables are denoted by English capital letters like A,
B, X, Y, etc.

❖ Boolean algebra as switching algebra:

Boolean algebra which is also known as the Switching algebra

consists of two elements (0 and 1) has two binary operators called OR and AND and another unary
operator called NOT. The unary operator performs on a single operand whereas a binary operator
requires more than one operand. Followings are their symbols:

Operator Symbols
OR ~, +, V, U (Union)
AND (.),^, Intersection
NOT Ë…, (‘), (‾), Negation

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Lecturer Notes of Logic Circuit Department of Computer Engineering
Differences between Boolean algebra and Ordinary algebra:

Boolean algebra Ordinary algebra

Its basic operations are AND, OR and NOT Its basic operations include addition,
operations. subtraction, multiplication, and division.

There is no exponents or coefficients involved It consists of coefficients and exponents such

in Boolean algebra i.e. A+A=A and A.A=A. as A+A=2A and A.A=A2.

It has only a finite set of elements. That is, it It deals with real numbers that contain an
deals with only two elements; 0 and 1. infinite number of elements (1, 2, 3…).

It holds both distributive laws:

It holds only one distributive law:
A.(B+C)=(A.B)+(A.C)and
A.(B+C)=(A.B)+(A.C)
A+(B.C)=(A+B).(A+C)

It is used in the field of digital electronics. It is used in the field of mathematics.

➢ Logic function (Boolean function):

Boolean function, commonly known as a logic function is an expression

expressed algebraically with binary variables, logical operation symbols, parenthesis and equal
sign. For a given value of the binary variables, the logic function can be either 0 or 1.

Example: Consider the logic function in algebraic expression:

F = X.Y.Z’+X. Y Here, X, Y, Z are Boolean variables. The equation on the right-hand side above
is known as an expression. Each occurrence of a variable or its complement in an expression is
called literal. So, there are altogether three variables i.e. X, Y and Z and five literals; X, Y, Z’, X,
and Y.

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Lecturer Notes of Logic Circuit Department of Computer Engineering
Logical circuit by using transistors or Integrated Circuits (IC) or (LSI), the high and low-level
voltage electrical signals called logical elements are produced. These logical elements are essential
for the composition of a circuit for a specific operation called logical circuit.

Basic Logical/ Boolean Operation:

Introduction:An operator is a special symbol that indicates the operation to be carried out between
two operands. An operation is an action to be carried out upon operands. There are 3 basic Boolean
Operations: AND, OR and NOT operations.

• AND operation: Known as logical multiplication, it is carried out by dot (.) operator or
simply by AND. If the inputs are true, it generates true output. Otherwise, it generates false
output. Its logical equation is written as C=A.B or C=A AND B. The truth table of AND
operation is:

Inputs Output
A B C=A.B
False False False
False True False
False False False
True True False

• OR operation Known as logical addition, it is carried out by plus (+) operator or simply
by OR. If at least one input is true, it generates true output or else, it gives false output. The
logical equation of OR operation is written as C=A+B or C=A OR B. The truth table of
OR operation is given below:

Inputs Output

A B C=A+B

False False False

False True True

True False True

True True True

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Lecturer Notes of Logic Circuit Department of Computer Engineering
• NOT Operation Also known as the logical compliment, it is carried out by prime (‘)
operator or bar (‾). It generates the output opposite the input i.e. if the input is true, it
generates false output and vice versa. It's logical equation can be written as C=A’. The
truth table of OR operation is:

Inputs Output
A C=A’
True False
False True

Truth Table:
The truth table is a table of all possible combinations of the variables showing the
relation between the values that variables may take and the result of the operation. The table used
to represent the Boolean expression of a logic gate function called a truth table. A truth table shows
each possible input combination to the gate or circuit with the resultant output depending upon the
combination of input.

3.2 Logic Gates: AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, XOR, and XNOR- its
definition, use, truth table, logic symbol:

A logic gate is an electronic circuit that operates on one or more input signals to produce an output
signal. A logic gate is also known building block of a digital circuit. Mostly, the logic gate consists
of two inputs and one output. Gates produce the signals 1 or 0 if input requirements are satisfied.
Digital computer uses different types of logical gates. Each gate has a specific function and
graphical symbol. The function of the gate is expressed by means of an algebraic expression. The
basic gates are described below:

• AND Gate:

The AND Gate contain two or more than to input values which produce only one output value.
AND gate produces 1 output when all inputs are 1, otherwise the output will be 0. It can be
explained with the help of two switches connected in series. In AND gate, current is flowing in
the circuit only when both switches, A and B, are closed.

The graphical symbol, logical circuit, algebraic expression and truth table of AND gate is shown
below:

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Lecturer Notes of Logic Circuit Department of Computer Engineering

• OR Gate:

The OR Gate contains two or more than two input values which produce only one output value.
OR gate produces 1 output, when one of the inputs is 1. If inputs are 0, then the output will be also
0. It can be explained by taking an example of two switches connected in parallel.

The graphical symbol, algebraic expression and truth table of OR gate is as shown below:

• NOT Gate:

The NOT Gate contains only one input value which produces only one output value. This gate is
also known as an inverter. So, this circuit inverts the logical sense of a binary signal. It produces
the complemented function. If the input is 1, then this gate will produce 0 as output and vice-versa.
The graphical symbol, algebraic expression and truth table of a NOT gate is given below.

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Lecturer Notes of Logic Circuit Department of Computer Engineering
• NAND Gate:

The NAND Gate contains two or more than two input values which produce only one output value.
This gate is the combination of AND and NOT gates. This gate is a complement of AND function.
This gate produces output 0, when all inputs are 1, otherwise, output will be 1.

The graphical symbol, algebraic expression and truth table of NAND gate is shown below:

• NOR Gate:

The NOR Gate contains two or more than two input values which produce only
one output value. This gate is a combination of OR and NOT gate. This gate is the complement of
the OR function. This gate produces 1 output, when all inputs are 0 otherwise output will 0.

The graphical symbol, algebraic expression and truth table of NOR gate is given below:

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Lecturer Notes of Logic Circuit Department of Computer Engineering
• Exclusive OR (X-OR) Gate:

This gate contains two or more than two input values which produce only one output value. The
graphical symbol of X-OR gate is similar to OR gate except for the additional curve line on the
input side. This gate produces 1 as output, if any input is 1 and 0 if both inputs are either 1 or 0,
otherwise its output is 0. The graphical symbol, algebraic expression and truth table of X-OR gate
isgivenbelow:

• Exclusive NOR (X-NOR) Gate:

This gate contains two or more than two input values

which produce only one output value. The X-NOR is the complement of the X-OR, as indicated
by the small circle in the graphical symbol. This gate produces 1 output, when all inputs are either
0 or 1, otherwise its output value is 0.

The graphical symbol, algebraic expression and truth table of X-NOR gate is shown below:

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Lecturer Notes of Logic Circuit Department of Computer Engineering

Fig: Venn diagram of All Gates

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Lecturer Notes of Logic Circuit Department of Computer Engineering

3.3 Laws of Boolean Algebra:

3.4 De-Morgan’s Theorem – Statement and Logical Expression:

➢ De Morgan’s Theorem:

De Morgan's theorem is associated with Boolean algebra, which

was given by great logical and mathematician, De Morgan. So, it is called "De Morgan's theorem".

It consists of first and second theorem which are described below:

• First Theorem:

The De Morgan’s first theorem states, “The complement of the sum is equal to the product of
complement of individual variable”. Let X and Y be two Boolean variables then De Morgan’s
theorem mathematically expressed as (X + Y)l = Xl . Yl for two variable

(A+B+C)’=A’.B’.C’ for three variable.

Proof:

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Lecturer Notes of Logic Circuit Department of Computer Engineering

• Second Theorem:

De Morgan’s second theorem states,” The complement of a product is

equal to the sum of the complements of individual variable”. Let X and Y be two Boolean variables
then De Morgan’s theorem mathematically expressed as (X . Y)l = Xl + Yl for 2 variables.

(A.B.C)’=A’+B’+C’ for three variables.

Proof:

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Lecturer Notes of Logic Circuit Department of Computer Engineering

3.5 Minterm, Maxterm, SoP and PoS, Canonical and Standard Form:
A minterm is a product (AND) of all variables in the function, in direct or complemented form.
Example:
The min terms are x’y’, x’y, xy’ and xy.
A maxterm is a sum (OR) of all the variables in the function, in direct or complemented form.
Example:
The Max terms are x + y, x + y’, x’ + y and x’ + y’.

The following table shows the representation of min terms and MAX terms for 2 variables.

x y Min terms Max terms

0 0 m0=x’y’ M0=x + y

0 1 m1=x’y M1=x + y’

1 0 m2=xy’ M2=x’ + y

1 1 m3=xy M3=x’ + y’

❖ SoP (Sum of Product):

SOP stands for Sum of Products. Writing a Boolean expression using product terms is called Sum
of Products form. The product terms are also known as min-terms. An example is as follows.
For instance, assume that P and Q are input variables and F is the output variable. We take the
complement of the variable for 0 and take the variable for 1. Then we can write the Minterm by
writing the product terms.

P Q F Minterms

0 0 0 P’Q’

0 1 1 P’Q

1 0 1 PQ’

1 1 1 PQ

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Lecturer Notes of Logic Circuit Department of Computer Engineering
Finally, we can take the sum of all the minterms that has 1 for F. Therefore; the final expression is
as follows.
F = P’Q + PQ’ + PQ

❖ PoS (Product of Sum):

POS stands for Product of Sums. Writing a Boolean expression using sum terms is called Product
of Sum form. We also call the sum terms as max-terms.
For example, assume that P and Q are input variables and F is the output variable. Here, we take
the variable for 0 and take the complement of the variable for 1. Then we can write the max terms
by writing the sum terms.

P Q F Maxterms

0 0 0 P+Q

0 1 1 P+ Q’

1 0 1 P’+Q

1 1 0 P’+Q’

Finally, we can take the product of all max terms that has 0 for F. Thus; the final expression is as
follows.
F = (P+Q). (P’ + Q’)

❖ Canonical SoP and PoS forms:

There are two ways of expressing function they are :

Canonical SoP form

Canonical PoS form

Canonical SoP form:

Canonical SoP form means Canonical Sum of Products form. In this form, each product term
contains all literals. So, these product terms are nothing but the min terms. Hence, canonical SoP
form is also called as sum of min terms form.
Example
The corresponding min terms are p’qr, pq’r, pqr’, pqr. By doing logical OR of these four min
terms, we will get the Boolean function of output .
Therefore, the Boolean function of output is, f = p’qr + pq’r + pqr’ + pqr. This is the canonical
SoP form of output, f. We can also represent this function in following two notations.

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Lecturer Notes of Logic Circuit Department of Computer Engineering
f=m3+m5+m6+m7f=m3+m5+m6+m7
f=∑m(3,5,6,7)f=∑m(3,5,6,7)
In one equation, we represented the function as sum of respective min terms. In other equation, we
used the symbol for summation of those min terms.

Canonical PoS form:

Canonical PoS form means Canonical Product of Sums form. In this form, each sum term contains
all literals. So, these sum terms are nothing but the Max terms. Hence, canonical PoS form is also
called as product of Max terms form.
This Boolean function will be in the form of product of Max terms.
Follow the same procedure for other output variables also, if there is more than one output variable.
Example
The corresponding Max terms are p + q + r, p + q + r’, p + q’ + r, p’ + q + r. By doing logical AND
of these four Max terms, we will get the Boolean function of output ff.
Therefore, the Boolean function of output is, f
= p+q+rp+q+r.p+q+r′p+q+r′.p+q′+rp+q′+r.p′+q+rp′+q+r.
This is the canonical PoS form of output. We can also represent this function in following two
notations.
f=M0.M1.M2.M4f=M0.M1.M2.M4
f=∏M(0,1,2,4)f=∏M(0,1,2,4)
In one equation, we represented the function as product of respective Max terms. In other equation,
we used the symbol for multiplication of those Max terms.
The Boolean function, f = p+q+rp+q+r.p+q+r′p+q+r′.p+q′+rp+q′+r.p′+q+rp′+q+r is the dual of the
Boolean function, f = p’qr + pq’r + pqr’ + pqr.
Therefore, both canonical SoP and canonical PoS forms are Dual to each other. Functionally, these
two forms are same. Based on the requirement, we can use one of these two forms.

Standard SoP and PoS forms:

We discussed two canonical forms of representing the Boolean outputs. Similarly, there are two
standard forms of representing the Boolean outputs. These are the simplified version of canonical
forms.
Standard SoP form
Standard PoS form
The main advantage of standard forms is that the number of inputs applied to logic gates can be
minimized. Sometimes, there will be reduction in the total number of logic gates required.

Standard SoP form:

Standard SoP form means Standard Sum of Products form. In this form, each product term need
not contain all literals. So, the product terms may or may not be the min terms. Therefore, the
Standard SoP form is the simplified form of canonical SoP form.
We will get Standard SoP form of output variable in two steps.
Get the canonical SoP form of output variable
Simplify the above Boolean function, which is in canonical SoP form.
Follow the same procedure for other output variables also, if there is more than one output variable.
Sometimes, it may not possible to simplify the canonical SoP form. In that case, both canonical
and standard SoP forms are same.

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Lecturer Notes of Logic Circuit Department of Computer Engineering
Example
Convert the following Boolean function into Standard SoP form.
f = p’qr + pq’r + pqr’ + pqr
The given Boolean function is in canonical SoP form. Now, we have to simplify this Boolean
function in order to get standard SoP form.
Step 1 − Use the Boolean postulate, x + x = x. That means, the Logical OR operation with any
Boolean variable ‘n’ times will be equal to the same variable. So, we can write the last term pqr
two more times.
⇒ f = p’qr + pq’r + pqr’ + pqr + pqr + pqr
Step 2 − Use Distributive law for 1st and 4th terms, 2nd and 5th terms, 3rd and 6th terms.
⇒ f = qrp′+pp′+p + prq′+qq′+q + pqr′+rr′+r
Step 3 − Use Boolean postulate, x + x’ = 1 for simplifying the terms present in each parenthesis.
⇒ f = qr11 + pr11 + pq11
Step 4 − Use Boolean postulate, x.1 = x for simplifying above three terms.
⇒ f = qr + pr + pq
⇒ f = pq + qr + pr
This is the simplified Boolean function. Therefore, the standard SoP form corresponding to given
canonical SoP form is f = pq + qr + pr

Standard PoS form:

Standard PoS form means Standard Product of Sums form. In this form, each sum term need not
contain all literals. So, the sum terms may or may not be the Max terms. Therefore, the Standard
PoS form is the simplified form of canonical PoS form.
We will get Standard PoS form of output variable in two steps.
Get the canonical PoS form of output variable
Simplify the above Boolean function, which is in canonical PoS form.
Follow the same procedure for other output variables also, if there is more than one output variable.
Sometimes, it may not possible to simplify the canonical PoS form. In that case, both canonical
and standard PoS forms are same.
Example
Convert the following Boolean function into Standard PoS form.
f = p+q+rp+q+r.p+q+r′p+q+r′.p+q′+rp+q′+r.p′+q+rp′+q+r
The given Boolean function is in canonical PoS form. Now, we have to simplify this Boolean
function in order to get standard PoS form.
Therefore, both Standard SoP and Standard PoS forms are Dual to each other.

NOTE: Above Concept will be fully used in Upcoming Units. So, students are
requested to take a look, a very serious look at above topics too.

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