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Cambridge O Level Additional Your notes

Maths
Trigonometry
Contents
Trigonometric Functions
The Unit Circle
Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
Trigonometric Identities
Solving Trigonometric Equations
Trigonometric Proof

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Trigonometric Functions
Your notes
Trigonometric Functions
What are the trigonometric functions?
The three standard trigonometric functions are: sine, cosine and tangent
The functions are many-to-one mappings
They do not have inverses unless their domain is restricted
Function Notation Domain Range
Sine sin(x ) x ∈ℝ −1 ≤ sin(x ) ≤ 1
Cosine cos(x ) x ∈ℝ −1 ≤ cos(x ) ≤ 1

x ∈ℝ
x ≠ ± 90°, ± 270°, ± 450°,. . . ( in degrees)
Tangent tan(x ) tan(x ) ∈ℝ
π 3π 5π
x≠ ± ,± ,± ,. . . ( in radians)
2 2 2

How can I use the trigonometric functions with right-angled triangles?

The three trigonometric functions sine, cosine and tangent give the ratios of side lengths in right-
angled triangles
For an acute angle in a right-angled triangle:
Sine of the angle is the length of the side opposite the angle divided by the hypotenuse
Cosine of the angle is the length of the side adjacent to the angle divided by the hypotenuse
Tangent of the angle is the length of the opposite side divided by the length of the adjacent side
You can use the acronym SOHCAHTOA to help you remember these

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Your notes

How can I use the trigonometric functions with non-right-angled triangles?

You can find missing angles and the lengths of missing sides using the sine rule and the cosine rule
You can also use the area formula

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Your notes

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Reciprocal Trig Functions

What are the reciprocal trig functions? Your notes
There are three reciprocal trig functions that each correspond to either sin, cos or tan
Secant (sec x)
1
secx =
cos x
Cosecant (cosec x)
1
cosec x =
sin x
Cotangent (cot x)
1
cot x =
tan x
A good way to remember which function is which is to look at the third letter in each of the reciprocal
trig functions
cot x is 1 over tan x etc
Each of the reciprocal trig functions are undefined for certain values of x
sec x is undefined for values of x for which cos x = 0
cosec x is undefined for values of x for which sin x = 0
cot x is undefined for values of x for which tan x = 0
When tan x is undefined, cot x = 0
Be careful not to confuse the reciprocal trig functions with the inverse trig functions
1
sin−1 x ≠
sin x

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Worked example
Your notes
Without the use of a calculator, find the values of
a) π
sec
6
The third letter of sec is c so it is the reciprocal of cos.

Write down the value of .

Simplify.

b) cot 45°
The third letter of cot is t so it is the reciprocal of tan.

Write down the value of tan(45°).

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The Unit Circle

Your notes
The Unit Circle
What is the unit circle?
The unit circle is a circle with radius 1 and centre (0, 0)
The unit circle can be used to explain how trig functions work with angles that are not acute
Angles are always measured from the positive x-axis and turn:
anticlockwise for positive angles
clockwise for negative angles
It can be used to calculate trig values as a coordinate point (x, y) on the circle
Trig values can be found by making a right triangle with the radius as the hypotenuse
Where θ is the angle measured anticlockwise from the positive x-axis
The x-axis will always be adjacent to the angle, θ
SOHCAHTOA can be used to find the values of sinθ, cosθ and tanθ easily
As the radius is 1 unit
the x coordinate gives the value of cosθ
the y coordinate gives the value of sinθ
As the origin is one of the end points - dividing the y coordinate by the x coordinate gives the gradient
the gradient of the line gives the value of tanθ
π
It allows us to calculate sin, cos and tan for angles greater than 90° ( rad)
2

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Your notes

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Worked example
Your notes
The coordinates of a point on a unit circle, to 3 significant figures, are (0.629, 0.777).
Find θ in radians correct to 2 significant figures..

We know that so we can use either ratio to solve for .

or

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Using The Unit Circle

What are the properties of the unit circle? Your notes
π
The unit circle can be split into four quadrants at every 90° ( rad)
2
The first quadrant is for angles between 0 and 90°
All three of Sinθ, Cosθ and Tanθ are positive in this quadrant
π
The second quadrant is for angles between 90° and 180° ( rad and π rad)
2
Sinθ is positive in this quadrant
3π
The third quadrant is for angles between 180° and 270° (π rad and )
2
Tanθ is positive in this quadrant
3π
The fourth quadrant is for angles between 270° and 360° ( rad and 2π )
2
Cosθ is positive in this quadrant
Starting from the fourth quadrant (on the bottom right) and working anti-clockwise the positive
trig functions spell out CAST
This is why it is often thought of as the CAST diagram
You may have your own way of remembering this
A popular one starting from the first quadrant is All Students Take Calculus
To help picture this better try sketching all three trig graphs on one set of axes and look at which
graphs are positive in each 90° section

How is the unit circle used to find secondary solutions?

Trigonometric functions have more than one input to each output
For example sin 30° = sin 150° = 0.5
This means that trigonometric equations have more than one solution
For example both 30° and 150° satisfy the equation sin x = 0.5
The unit circle can be used to find all solutions to trigonometric equations in a given interval
Your calculator will only give you the first solution to a problem such as x = sin-1(0.5)
This solution is called the primary value
However, due to the periodic nature of the trig functions there could be an infinite number of
solutions
Further solutions are called the secondary values
This is why you will be given a domain in which your solutions should be found
This could either be in degrees or in radians
If you see π or some multiple of π then you must work in radians
The following steps may help you use the unit circle to find secondary values
STEP 1: Draw the angle into the first quadrant using the x or y coordinate to help you

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If you are working with sin x = k, draw the line from the origin to the circumference of the circle at the
point where the y coordinate is k
If you are working with cos x = k, draw the line from the origin to the circumference of the circle at the Your notes
point where the x coordinate is k
If you are working with tan x = k, draw the line from the origin to the circumference of the circle such
that the gradient of the line is k
This will give you the angle which should be measured from the positive x-axis…
… anticlockwise for a positive angle
… clockwise for a negative angle
STEP 2: Draw the radius in the other quadrant which has the same...
... x-coordinate if solving cos x = k
This will be the quadrant which is vertical to the original quadrant
... y-coordinate if solving sin x = k
This will be the quadrant which is horizontal to the original quadrant
... gradient if solving tan x = k
This will be the quadrant diagonal to the original quadrant
STEP 3: Work out the size of the second angle, measuring from the positive x-axis
… anticlockwise for a positive angle
… clockwise for a negative angle
You should look at the given range of values to decide whether you need the negative or positive
angle
STEP 4: Add or subtract either 360° or 2π radians to both values until you have all solutions in the required
range

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Your notes

Exam Tip
Being able to sketch out the unit circle and remembering CAST can help you to find all solutions to
a problem in an exam question

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Worked example
Your notes
Given that one solution of cosθ = 0.8 is θ = 0.6435 radians correct to 4 decimal places, find all other
solutions in the range -2π ≤ θ ≤ 2π. Give your answers correct to 3 significant figures.
Cosine is positive in the first and fourth quadrants so draw the angle from the horizontal axis in both
quadrants.

The primary value is 0.6435 and a secondary value is -0.6435.

Consider all four possible angles that can be made from the horizontal axis to each of the lines drawn.
The range is -2π ≤ θ ≤ 2π so the angles can be in both the positive and negative direction.

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Your notes

The angle in the positive direction to the line in the fourth quadrant is 2π - 0.6435 = 5.63968...
The angle in the negative direction to the line in the first quadrant is -2π + 0.6435 = -5.63968...
Solutions are -5.64, -0.644, 0.644, 5.64 rads (3 s.f.)

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Graphs of Trigonometric Functions

Your notes
Graphs of Trig Functions
What are the graphs of trigonometric functions?
The trigonometric functions sin, cos and tan all have special periodic graphs
You’ll need to know their properties and how to sketch them for a given domain in either degrees or
radians
Sketching the trigonometric graphs can help to
Solve trigonometric equations and find all solutions
Understand transformations of trigonometric functions

What are the properties of the graphs of sin x and cos x?

The graphs of sin x and cos x are both periodic
They repeat every 360° (2π radians)
The angle will always be on the x-axis
Either in degrees or radians
The graphs of sin x and cos x are always in the range -1 ≤ y ≤ 1
Domain: { x | x ∈ ℝ}
Range: { y | − 1 ≤ y ≤ 1}
The graphs of sin x and cos x are identical however one is a translation of the other
sin x passes through the origin
cos x passes through (0, 1)
The amplitude of the graphs of sin x and cos x is 1

What are the properties of the graph of tan x?

The graph of tan x is periodic
It repeats every 180° (π radians)
The angle will always be on the x-axis
Either in degrees or radians
The graph of tan x is undefined at the points ± 90°, ± 270° etc
There are asymptotes at these points on the graph
π 3π
In radians this is at the points ± , ± etc
2 2
The range of the graph of tan x is
π
⎧⎪ ⎫⎮
Domain: ⎨⎪ x | x ≠ + kπ , k ∈ ℤ ⎮⎬⎮
⎪
⎪⎩ 2 ⎮⎭

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Range: { y | y ∈ ℝ}
Your notes

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Your notes

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Your notes

How do I sketch trigonometric graphs?

You may need to sketch a trigonometric graph so you will need to remember the key features of each
one
The following steps may help you sketch a trigonometric graph
STEP 1: Check whether you should be working in degrees or radians
You should check the domain given for this
If you see π in the given domain then you should work in radians
STEP 2: Label the x-axis in multiples of 90°
π
This will be multiples of if you are working in radians
2
Make sure you cover the whole domain on the x-axis
STEP 3: Label the y-axis
The range for the y-axis will be – 1 ≤ y ≤ 1 for sin or cos
For tan you will not need any specific points on the y-axis
STEP 4: Draw the graph
Knowing exact values will help with this, such as remembering that sin(0) = 0 and
cos(0) = 1
Mark the important points on the axis first
If you are drawing the graph of tan x put the asymptotes in first
If you are drawing sin x or cos x mark in where the maximum and minimum points will be
Try to keep the symmetry and rotational symmetry as you sketch, as this will help when using
the graph to find solutions

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Your notes

How do I use trigonometric graphs?

By sketching the graph you can read off all the solutions in a given range (or interval)
Your calculator will only give you the principal value
However, due to the periodic nature of the trig functions there could be an infinite number of solutions
Further solutions are called the secondary values
This is why you will be given a domain (interval) in which your solutions should be found
This could either be in degrees or in radians
If you see π or some multiple of π then you must work in radians
The following steps will help you use the trigonometric graphs to find secondary values
STEP 1: Sketch the graph for the given function and interval
Check whether you should be working in degrees or radians and label the axes with the key
values
STEP 2: Draw a horizontal line going through the y-axis at the point you are trying to find the values
for
For example if you are looking for the solutions to sin-1(-0.5) then draw the horizontal line going
through the y-axis at -0.5
The number of times this line cuts the graph is the number of solutions within the given interval
STEP 3: Find the primary value and mark it on the graph

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This will either be an exact value and you should know it

Or you will be able to use your calculator to find it
STEP 4: Use the symmetry of the graph to find all the solutions in the interval by adding or Your notes
subtracting from the key values on the graph
You should recognise any values/angles associated with exact values
You should be able to spot the pattern of solutions using the symmetry and periodicity of the graph

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Your notes

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Your notes

Exam Tip
Always sketch with a pencil, draw a smooth curve and pay attention to the key features of each
graph:
Where it crosses the x and y axes
How often it repeats
Whether it is symmetrical
Remember, when answering exam questions that ask for solutions, a sketch will help ensure you
give all the appropriate solutions for a given interval

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Worked example
Your notes

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Transformations of Trig Functions

What transformations of trigonometric functions do I need to know? Your notes
As with other graphs of functions, trigonometric graphs can be transformed through translations,
stretches and reflections
Translations can be either horizontal (parallel to the x-axis) or vertical (parallel to the y-axis)
For the function y = sin (x)
A vertical translation of a units in the positive direction (up) is denoted by
y = sin (x) + a
A vertical translation of a units in the negative direction (down) is denoted by
y = sin (x) - a
A horizontal translation in the positive direction (right) is denoted by y = sin (x - a)
A horizontal translation in the negative direction (left) is denoted by y = sin (x + a)
Stretches can be either horizontal (parallel to the x-axis) or vertical (parallel to the y-axis)
For the function y = sin (x)
A vertical stretch of a factor a units is denoted by y = a sin (x)
x
A horizontal stretch of a factor a units is denoted by y = sin ( )
a
Reflections can be either across the x-axis or across the y-axis
For the function y = sin (x)
A reflection across the x-axis is denoted by y = - sin (x)

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Your notes

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Your notes

What combined transformations are there?

Stretches in the horizontal and vertical direction are often combined
The functions a sin(bx) and a cos(bx) have the following properties:
The amplitude of the graph is |a |
360 2π
The period of the graph is ° (or rad)
b b
In this course, a will always be a positive integer and b will be a simple fraction or integer
Translations in both directions could also be combined with the stretches
The functions a sinbx + c and a cosbx + c have the following properties:
The amplitude of the graph is |a |
360 2π
The period of the graph is ° (or )
b b
The translation in the vertical direction is c
c represents the principal axis (the line that the function fluctuates about)
It helps to start by sketching the principle axis
The function a tanbx + c has the following properties:
The amplitude of the graph does not exist
180 π
The period of the graph is ° (or )
b b
The translation in the vertical direction (principal axis) is c
Finding and drawing the asymptotes first can help to sketch these graphs

How do I sketch transformations of trigonometric functions?

Sketch the graph of the original function first
Carry out each transformation separately
The order in which you carry out the transformations is important
Given the form y = a sinbx + c carry out any stretches first, translations next and reflections last
Use a very light pencil to mark where the graph has moved for each transformation
It is a good idea to mark in the principal axis the lines corresponding to the maximum and minimum
points first
The principal axis will be the line y = c

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The maximum points will be on the line y = c + a

The minimum points will be on the line y = c - a
Sketch in the new transformed graph Your notes
Check it is correct by looking at some key points from the exact values

Exam Tip
Always sketch with a pencil and draw a smooth curve
When you sketch the transformation of a graph, be sure to indicate the new coordinates of any
points that are marked on the original graph
Fir any graph involving tan the asymptotes must be clearly labelled
Try to indicate the coordinates of points where the new graph intersects the axes

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Worked example
Your notes

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Trigonometric Identities
Your notes
Simple Trig Identities
What is a trigonometric identity?
Trigonometric identities are statements that are true for all values of x or θ
They are used to help simplify trigonometric equations before solving them
Sometimes you may see identities written with the symbol ≡
This means 'identical to'
What trigonometric identities do I need to know?
The two trigonometric identities you must know are
sin θ
tan θ =
cos θ
This is the identity for tan θ
This formula does not appear in the list of formulae
sin θ + cos2θ = 1
2
This is the Pythagorean identity
Note that the notation sin 2θ is the same as (sin θ ) 2
This formula appears in the list of formulae
Rearranging the second identity often makes it easier to work with
sin2θ = 1 − cos2 θ
cos2θ = 1 − sin2θ
Where do the trigonometric identities come from?
You do not need to know the proof for these identities but it is a good idea to know where they come
from
From SOHCAHTOA we know that
opposite O
sin θ = =
hypotenuse H
adjacent A
cos θ = =
hypotenuse H
opposite O
tan θ = =
adjacent A
The identity for tan θ can be seen by diving sin θ by cos θ ?

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O
sin θ H O
= = = tan θ Your notes
cos θ A A
H
This can also be seen from the unit circle by considering a right-triangle with a hypotenuse of 1
O sin θ
tan θ = =
A cos θ
The Pythagorean identity can be seen by considering a right-triangle with a hypotenuse of 1
Then (opposite)2 + (adjacent)2 = 1
Therefore sin 2 θ + cos2 θ = 1
Considering the equation of the unit circle also shows the Pythagorean identity
The equation of the unit circle is x 2 + y 2 = 1
The coordinates on the unit circle are (cos θ , sin θ )
Therefore the equation of the unit circle could be written cos2 θ + sin 2 θ = 1

How are the trigonometric identities used?

Most commonly trigonometric identities are used to change an equation into a form that allows it to be
solved
They can also be used to prove further identities

Exam Tip
If you are asked to show that one thing is identical (≡) to another, look at what parts are missing
For example, if tan x has gone it must have been substituted

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Worked example
Your notes
Show that the equation 2sin2 x − cos x = 0 can be written in the form
a cos2 x + b cos x + c = 0 , where a , b and c are integers to be found.
Substitute into the equation to form a quadratic in terms of .

Expand the bracket.

Rewrite in the required form.

or

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Further Trig Identities

What are the identities linking tan, sec, cot, and cosec? Your notes
Aside from the Pythagorean identity sin2x + cos2x = 1 there are two further Pythagorean identities you
will need to learn
1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ
1 + cot2 θ = cosec2 θ
Both can be found in the list of formulae
Both of these identities can be derived from sin2x + cos2x = 1
To derive the identity for sec2x divide sin2x + cos2x = 1 by cos2x
To derive the identity for cosec2x divide sin2x + cos2x = 1 by sin2x

How do I prove new trigonometric identities?

You can use trigonometric identities you already know to prove new identities
To prove an identity start on one side and proceed step by step until you get to the other side
It is more common to start on the left hand side but you can start a proof from either end
Occasionally it is easier to show that one side subtracted from the other is zero
You should not work on both sides simultaneously
Look for anything that could be a part of one of the above identities on either side
For example if you see sin2θ you can replace it with 1 − cos2θ
Look for ways of reducing the number of different trigonometric functions there are within the identity
For example if the identity contains tan θ, cot θ and cosec θ you could try
Using the identities tan θ = 1/cot θ and 1 + cot2 θ = cosec2 θ to write it all in terms of cot θ
Or rewriting it all in terms of sin θ and cos θ and simplifying
Often you may need to trial a few different methods before finding the correct one
Always keep an eye on the 'target' expression – this can help suggest what identities to use

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Exam Tip
Your notes
Writing down all the identities you know can be a good way to spot how to get started on a
question

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Worked example
Your notes
Solve the equation 9 sec2 θ – 11 = 3 tan θ in the interval 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π. Give your answers to three decimal
places.

The squared term can be rewritten using the identity . Substitute this into the
equation.

Rearrange to form a quadratic.

Treat as a quadratic using .

Substitute back in and find the principal value for each equation.

Find the other solutions in the interval by adding multiples of π.

Ignore the solution that is outside the interval (-0.3217...). Round the other four to three decimal places.

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Solving Trigonometric Equations

Your notes
Linear Trig Equations
How are trigonometric equations solved?
Trigonometric equations can have an infinite number of solutions
For an equation in sin or cos you can add 360° or 2π to each solution to find more solutions
For an equation in tan you can add 180° or π to each solution
When solving a trigonometric equation you will be given a range of values within which you should find
all the values
Solving the equation normally and using the inverse function on your calculator or your knowledge of
exact values will give you the primary value
The secondary values can be found with the help of:
The unit circle
By using the CAST diagram which shows where each function has positive solutions
The graphs of trigonometric functions
By sketching the graph (see Graphs of Trigonometric Functions) you can read off all the
solutions in a given range (or interval)
By using trigonometric identities you can simplify harder equations
You may be asked to use degrees or radians to solve trigonometric equations
Make sure your calculator is in the correct mode
Remember common angles
90° is ½π radians
180° is π radians
270° is 3π/2 radians
360° is 2π radians

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Your notes

How are trigonometric equations of the form sin x = k solved?

It is a good idea to sketch the graph of the trigonometric function first
Use the given range of values as the domain for your graph
The intersections of the graph of the function and the line y = k will show you
The location of the solutions
The number of solutions
You will be able to use the symmetry properties of the graph to find all secondary values within the
given range of values
The method for finding secondary values are:
For the equation sin x = k the primary value is x1 = sin -1 k
A secondary value is x2 = 180° - sin -1 k
Then all values within the range can be found using x1 ± 360n and
x2 ± 360n where n ∈ ℕ
For the equation cos x = k the primary value is x1 = cos -1 k

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A secondary value is x2 = - cos -1 k

Then all values within the range can be found using x1 ± 360n and
x2 ± 360n where n ∈ ℕ Your notes
For the equation tan x = k the primary value is x = tan -1 k
All secondary values within the range can be found using x ± 180n where n ∈ ℕ

How do I use the CAST diagram?

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Your notes

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Your notes

What about more complicated trig equations?

Some trig equations could involve a function of x or θ (see Transformations of Trigonometric Functions)
Trigonometric equations in the form sin(ax + b) can be solved in more than one way
The easiest method is to consider the transformation of the angle as a substitution
For example let u = ax + b
Transform the given interval for the solutions in the same way as the angle
For example if the given interval is 0° ≤ x ≤ 360° the new interval will be
(a (0°) + b) ≤ u ≤ (a (360°) + b)
Solve the function to find the primary value for u
Use either the unit circle or sketch the graph to find all the other solutions in the range for u
Undo the substitution to convert all of the solutions back into the corresponding solutions for x
Another method would be to sketch the transformation of the function
If you use this method then you will not need to use a substitution for the range of values

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Your notes

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Your notes

What about equations using sec, cosec, and cot?

Equations in the form sec x = k (or cosec x = k or cot x = k ) are not solvable using your
calculator, as it does not have an inverse function for these
Use the definitions of these functions to rewrite the equation in terms of sin x , cos x , or tan x
and then solve as normal, remembering to find all the solutions within the given domain of x
It is often useful to swap sec, cosec, and cot for their definitions as one of the first steps when solving
an equation

Exam Tip
Your calculator will only give you the principal value and you need to find all other solutions for the
given interval
Also, remember the CAST diagram only gives you some solutions, so again you may need to find
more depending on the given interval
It is entirely up to you how you solve a trig equation, but some ways are more helpful than others
depending on the type of equation you are trying to solve

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Worked example
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Quadratic Trig Equations

How are quadratic trigonometric equations solved? Your notes
A quadratic trigonometric equation is one that includes either sin2 θ , cos2 θ or tan2 θ
Often the identity sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 can be used to rearrange the equation into a form that is
possible to solve
If the equation involves both sine and cosine then the Pythagorean identity should be used to
write the equation in terms of just one of these functions
If the equation involves a mixture of regular trig functions (sin, cos, and tan) as well as reciprocal
functions (sec, cosec, and cot) it may be useful to:
rewrite the reciprocal trig functions using their definitions,
use the identities 1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ and 1 + cot2 θ = cosec2 θ
Solve the quadratic equation using the quadratic equation or factorisation
This can be made easier by changing the function to a single letter
Such as changing 2cos2 θ − 3cos θ − 1 = 0 to 2 c 2 − 3 c − 1 = 0
A quadratic can give up to two solutions
You must consider both solutions to see whether a real value exists
Remember that solutions for sin θ = k and cos θ = k only exist for -1 ≤ k ≤ 1
Solutions for tan θ = k exist for all values of k
Find all solutions within the given interval
There will often be more than two solutions for one quadratic equation
The best way to check the number of solutions is to sketch the graph of the function
You may be asked to use degrees or radians to solve trigonometric equations
Make sure your calculator is in the correct mode
Remember common angles
90° is ½π radians
180° is π radians
270° is 3π/2 radians
360° is 2π radians

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Your notes

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Your notes

Exam Tip
Sketch the appropriate sin, cos, tan graph to ensure you find ALL solutions within the given
interval, and be super careful if you get a negative solution but have a positive interval
For example, for an equation, in the interval 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°, with solution sin x = ‑¼ then sin‑1(‑¼) =
-14.5 (to 1d.p.), which is not between 0 and 360
by sketching the graph you’ll be able to spot the two solutions will be 180 + 14.5 and 360 ‑ 14.5

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Worked example
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Strategy for Further Trig Equations

How to approach solving trig equations Your notes
You can solve trig equations in a variety of different ways
Sketching a graph (see Graphs of Trig Functions)
Using trigonometric identities (see Simple Trig Identities and Further Trig identities)
Using the CAST diagram (see Linear Trig Equations)
Factorising quadratic trig equations (see Quadratic Trig Equations)
You may be asked to use degrees or radians to solve trigonometric equations
Make sure your calculator is in the correct mode
Remember common angles
90° is ½π radians
180° is π radians
270° is 3π/2 radians
360° is 2π radians
If you’re having trouble solving a trig equation, this flowchart might help:

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Your notes

Exam Tip
Don’t forget to check the function range and ensure you have included all possible solutions
If the question involves a function of x or θ, make sure you transform the range first (and ensure you
transform your solutions back again at the end!)

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Trigonometric Proof
Your notes
Trigonometric Proof
Proving trigonometric identities
You can use trigonometric identities you already know to prove new identities
Make sure you know the simple trigonometric identities and further trigonometric identities
sin2θ + cos2θ = 1
sinθ
= tanθ
cosθ
1 + tan2θ = sec2θ
1 + cot2θ = cosec2θ
To prove an identity start on one side and proceed step by step until you get to the other side
e.g. to prove that (sinθ + cosθ ) 2 = 1 + 2sinθ cosθ
Start with the left hand side, and expand
sin2θ + cos2θ + 2sinθ cosθ
Simplify using the identity sin2θ + cos2θ = 1
1 + 2sinθ cosθ
This is now equal to the expression on the right, so the statement has been proven
Make sure you are confident handling fractions and fractions-within-fractions

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Your notes

Always keep an eye on the 'target' expression – this can help suggest what identities to use

Exam Tip
Don't forget that you can start a proof from either side – sometimes it might be easier to start with
a particular side
If you get stuck - try starting from the other side instead!

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Worked example
Your notes
Prove that:

sec2 x ( cot2 x − cos2 x ) = cot2 x

Use the definitions of and , to rewrite the left hand side

Expand the brackets, using the fact that multiplying by is the same as dividing by

Use the definition of to rewrite the expression

Use the identity to rewrite the expression

Simplify to achieve the right hand side

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