CHAPTER FIVE

ELASTICITY
This refers to the ability of a deformed material to return to its original shape and size, when
the forces causing the deformation are removed. This also refers to the quality or state of being
elastic. A given material is said to be elastic if after being extended or stretched by the
application of a force, it later returns to its original position when the force or load is removed.

Elastic Deformation of Solids

A deformation is a change in the size or shape of the object. An object is deformed when contact
forces are applied to it.
The amount of deformation will depend on a number of things:
1. The size of the material
2. The magnitude of the applied force
3. Composition of the material
There are two extreme cases of the deformation produced when a force is applied to an object:
a. Elastic: when the force is removed, the object returns to its original size.
b. Plastic: when the force is removed, the object stays deformed with no change in shape and
size.
Basic examples and uses of elasticity includes: rubber bands, clothes, balls, aircraft wings
flexing, bridges, steel girdes, cricket bat etc.
There are three types of forces that cause deformation
1. Tension
2. Compression
3. Shear forces

Elasticity of metals
A bridge used by traffic is subjected to loads of varying amounts daily. Thus, before a steel
bridge is constructed, samples of the steel are sent to a research laboratory where they undergo
tests to find out whether the steel can withstand the loads likely to be put on it.
The Figure below illustrates a simple laboratory method of investigating the property of steel.
Two long thin steel unres P, Q, are suspended beside each other from a rigid support B, such
as a guider at the top of the ceiling. The wire p is kept taut by a weight A, attached to its end
and carries a large scale, m, graduated in millimeters. The inre Q carries a vemier scale v,

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alongside the scale m, v measure the small extension e, or change in length of Q, where the
load W, is increased, which increases the force f, in the wire.

Figure 9: (a) Elasticity experiment and (b) Result-extension against load or force.

Proportion and Elasticity Limits:

When the extension e, is plotted against the force F, in the wire, a graph is obtained which is a
straight line OA, followed by a curve ABY rising slowly at first and then very sharply (Fig 9
b). Up to A, about 50N, the results show that the extension increased by 0.014mm per newton
added to the wire A, is the proportional limit of the wire as it is the end of the straight line OA.
Along OA, and up to L, just beyond A, the wire returned to its original length when the load
was removed. The force at L is called the elastic limit. Along OL, the material is said to undergo
changes called elastic deformation. Beyond the elastic limit L, the wire has a permanent
extension such as OP, when the force is removed at B. beyond L, the wire is no longer elastic.
The extension increase rapidly along the curve ABY as the force on the wire is further increased
and at N, the wire thins and breaks.

HOOKE’S LAW
From the straight line graph OA, deduce that:
The extension is proportional to the force or tension of a wire if the proportional limit is not
exceeded. This is known as Hooke’s law, after Robert Hooke, founder of the Royal society
who discovered the relation in 1676.
=> Fαe
F=ke

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Where k = a constant, called the stiffness or force constant. A graph of load against extension
as in Fig 9 (b) has the slope of the linear portion as the value of k.
It is important to note that the extension of a wire is due to the displacement of its molecules
from their mean (average) position. So the law shows that when a molecule of the metal is
slightly displaced from its mean position. The restoring force on the molecule is proportional
to its displacement. We may therefore conclude that the molecules of a solid are undergoing
simple motion. Up to the elastic limit, the energy gained a stored by a stretched wire is
molecular potential energy, which is recovered when the load is removed.

Types of Materials
The response of a material when deforming force is apllied on it depends on the composition
and strength of such a material. Based on the nature of response to deforming forces, there are
basically two kinds of material:
1. Ductile material: is a type of material that shows signs of breaking before actual failure.
They show plastic deformation. Such materials can be actually drawn or bent or rolled
before its fracture point. Examples includes copper, aluminium, steel etc.
2. Brittle material: is a type of material that just snaps after its elastic limit has been
exceeded. It does not show breaking before failing. Exaples include concrete, glass,
ceramics etc.

Figure 10: (a) Ductile material and (b) Brittle material

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Tensile Stress, Tensile strain, Young’s Modulus
We consider the technical terms used in the subject of elasticity of wires, when a force or
tension F is applied to the end of a wire of cross sectional area A, along its length.

Figure 11: Stress-strain curve

Tensile stress = force per unit area

F
= (1)
A

If the extension of the wire is e, and its original length L,

The tensile strain = extension per unit length
e
= (2)
L
The Young’s Modulus, E is defined as the ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain.
Hence Young’s was able to show that tensile stress is directly proportional to the tensile strain
when the elastic limit is not exceeded. We can rewrite Hooke’s law, i.e
F e
α
A L
F e
=E (3)
A L
Where E, a constant, called the Young’s Modulus

54
 FA
E=
eL
FL
= (4)
Ae
Beyond Hooke’s Law
If tensile or compressive stress exceeds the proportionality limit, the strain is no longer
proportional to the stress. The solid still returns to its original length when the stress is removed
as long as the stress does not exceed the elastic limit. If the stress exceeds the elastic limit, the
material is permanently deformed. For still larger stresses, the solid fractures when the stress
reaches breaking point. The maximum stress that can be withstand without breaking is called
the ultimate strength. The ultimate strength can be different for compression and tension; then
we refer to the compressive strength or the tensile of the material.

SHEAR AND VOLUME DEFORMATION

Here we consider two other kinds of deformation. In each case we define a stress (force per
unit area), a strain (dimensionless) and a modulus (the constant of proportionality between
stress and strain.

Shear Deformation

Figure 12: A book under stress

Unlike tensile stress and compressive forces, which are perpendicular to two opposite surfaces
of an object, a stream deformation is the result of a pair of equal and opposite forces that act
parallel to two opposite surfaces. Consider a book placed on a desk. If we push horizontally on
the top of the book while pushing in the opposite direction on the bottom cover to hold it in
place, the book is deformed as shown in Fig. 12(b) such a deformation is called a shear
deformation.

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Shear forces produce the same kind of deformation in a solid black; the amount of the
deformation is just smaller. The shear stress is the magnitude of the shear force divided by the
area of the surface or which the force acts.
Shear force F
Shear stress = =
Area of surface A

Shear strain is the ratio of the relative displacement ∆x to the separation L of the two surfaces
displacement of surfaces Δx
Shear strain = =
separation of surfaces L
The shear strain is proportional to the shear stress as long as the stress is not large. The constant
of proportionality is the shear modulus S.
Hooke’s law for shear deformation is given as:
Shear stress α Shear strain
F Δx
=S
A L
The units of shear stress and the shear modulus are the same as for tensile or compressive stress
and young’s modulus: Pa or Nm-2. The strain is once again dimensionless.
An example of shear stress is the cutting action of a pair of scissors (or Stream) on a piece of
paper or cloth. The force acting on the paper or cloth from above and below are offset from
each other and act parallel to the cross-sectional surfaces of the paper or cloth.

Volume Deformation

F F F3 = F = PA3

F2 = F = PA2
F F1 = F = PA1

F
F

Figure 13: Forces on an object submerged in a fluid

56
A fluid exerts inward forces on an immersed solid object. These forces are perpendicular to the
surfaces of the object. Since the fluid presses inward on all sides of the object (Fig. 13) the
solid is compressed, its volume is reduced. The volume stress on the solid object. Pressure has
the same units as the other kinds of stress; Nm-2 or Pa
F
Volume stress = Pressure, P =
A
The resulting deformation of the object is characterized by the volume strain which is the
fractional change in volume
change in volume Δv
Volume strain = =
original volume v
Unless the stress in too large, the stress and strain are proportional within a constant of
proportionality called the bulk modulus B. A substance with a large bulk modulus is more
difficult to compress them a substance with a small bulk modulus.
An object at atmosphere pressure is already under volume stress: the air pressure already
compresses the object slightly compared to what its volume would be in vacuum. For solids
and liquids, the volume strain due to atmospheric pressure is for most purposes negligibly
small. Since we are usually concerned with the deformation due to change in pressure from
atmosphere pressure, we can write Hooke’s law as
∆
Hooke’s law for volume deformation, ∆p = - B

Where v is the volume at atmospheric pressure. The negative sign allows the bulk modulus to
be positive an increase in the volume stress causes a decrease in volume, so ∆v is negative.

Force in a Bar due to contraction or expansion (Thermal Stress)

When a metal rod is heated and then prevented from contracting as it cools, a considerable
force is exerted at the ends of the rod, we can derive a formula for the force if we consider a
rod of Young modulus E, a cross – sectional area A, a linear expansively of magnitude α, and
a decrease in temperature of θ ℃ when it cools. If the original length of the rod is L, the
decrease in length e if the rod were free to contract is αLθ , since by definition, α is the change
in length per unit length per degree temperature change.
e
i.e from α =
Lθ
 e = αLθ
FA
Now, E =
eL

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 EAe
F=
L
EAαLθ
F=
L
F = EAαθ
This is the magnitude of the force induce in a bar due to thermal expansion or compression.
Thus, thermal stress can be obtained as:
σ = Eαθ
Thermal stress is thus the stress induced by a uniform or non-uniform temperature change in a
material which is constrained against expansion or contaction.

Example 30: A steel bar with a cross-sectional area of 2 cm2 is heated, raising its temperature
by 120 ℃ and prevented from expanding. Calculate the resulting force in the bar (Young
modulus for steel = 2.1 × 1011 Pa and linear expansivity of steel = 0.000012 m-1).
Solution:
F = EAαθ
F = 2.1 × 1011 × 2 ×10-4 × 0.000012 ×120 = 6.05 ×104 N

Energy stored in a stretched wire

Suppose that a wire has an original length L, and is stretched by a length e, when a force F, is
applied at one end. If the elastic limit is not exceeded, the extension is directly proportional to
the applied load. So the force in the wire has increased uniformly from zero to F, the average
force in the wire while stretching was therefore, F/2.
Now, work done = force x distance in direction of force
= average force x extension
= ½ Fe
From, Hooke’s law,
F = ke
1 2
W= ke
2
This is the amount of energy stored in a wire. It is the gain in molecular potential energy of the
molecules due to their displacement from their mean positions. The formula, ½ Fe, gives the
energy in Joules when F, is in Newton and e is in meters.

58
 EAe
Since, F = with usual symbols
L
1 e2
W= E.A
2 L
Example 31: Suppose that a vertical wire, suspended from one end is stretched by attaching a
weight of 20N to the lower end. If the weight extends the wire by 1mm or 1x10-3 m, find the
energy gained by the wire.
Solution:
Energy gained by wire = ½ Fe
= ½ x 20 x 1x10-3
= 10-2 J
= 0.015
The gravitational potential energy (mgh) lost by the weight in dropping a distance of 1mm is:
Mgh = 20 x 1 x 10-3
= 0.02J
Half of this energy, 0.01J, is the molecular energy gained by the wire; the remainder is the
energy dissipated as heat in the wire when the weight losses its kinetic energy after falling and
comes to rest.

Energy per unit volume of wire

When the elastic limit is not exceeded, the energy per unit volume of a stretched wire is given
by a useful formula. The energy stored a ½ Fe, and the volume of the wire = AL, where A is
the cross sectional area and L is the length of the wire
Energy
Energy per unit volume =
Volume
1 F.e

2 A.L
1  F  e 
=   
2  A  L 
1
= × stress × strain
2
Example 32: A wire of length 4 m, radius 1 mm is extended by 2.5 mm by a load of 20o N.
Calculate the energy stored in the wire and the strain energy per unit volume.

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Solution:
Energy = ½ x force x extension
= ½ x 20 x 2.5 x 10-3
= 0.25J
Energy per unit volume =
.
=
.
= ( )

= 2 x 104 Jm-3
Example 33: A steel wire of length 100 m and diameter 2 mm is extended to 20 mm when a
load of WN is put on it. Find the volume of this load, W and the energy per unit volume stored
in the wire (Esteel = 2.5 x 1011 Nm-2)
Solution:
E=

=> 2.5 x 1011 =

. .
= W=

W = 157.1N
Energy used in stretching the wire = ½ Fe
= ½ x 157.1 x 20 x 10-3
= 1.57J
Volume = AL
= πr2L
= 3.14 x (10-3)2 x 100
= 3.14 x 10-4 m3

½
Energy per unit volume =
.
= .

= 5 x 10-3 Jm-3

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Example 34: A rubber cord of a catapult has a cross sectional area of 2 mm2 and initial length
of 0.20 m, is stretched to 0.24 m to fire a small object of mass 10 g. Calculate the initial velocity
of the object when it just leaves the catapult. Assume the Yong’s Modulus for rubber is 6 x 108
Pa and that the elastic limit is not exceeded.
Solution:
Kinetic energy of object = ½ mv2 = energy stored in stretched rubber
Energy stored = ½ Fe

∴Force stretching rubber, F =

.
= .

= 240N
A = 2mm2 = 2 x 10-6 m and e = 0.24 – 0.20 = 0.04m
∴Energy stored in rubber = ½ Fe
= ½ x 240 x 0.04
= 4.8J
Kinetic energy of object = ½ mv2
4.8 = ½ x 0.01 x v2
.
= v2 = .

V = 31 ms-1
Assignment 5
1. A load of 50 N is attached to one end of a long vertical wire of length 4 m and diameter 2.4
mm fixed, the extension is 0.25 mm, calculate the Young modulus of the wire and the
energy stored in the stretched wire.
2. A uniform steel wire has a mass 0.032 kg and 4 m long. Find the extension in meters, when
a mass of 8 kg is attached to one end and the energy per unit volume in the stretched wire
(Young modulus = 2 × 1011 N/m2).
3. A steel rod 10 m long and 10 cm2 in area is heated from 0 ℃ to 40 ℃. Calculate
a. Increase in length
b. Thermal stress when the rod is fixed between the two rigid supports. (Young modulus
of the rod is 2 × 1011 Nm-2, linear expansivity of the rod is 1.2 × 10-5 ℃-1.

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CHAPTER SIX: Hydrostatistics
Density
The density of a substance is defined as its mass per unit volume:
m
ρ= (1)
V
Where m is the mass of the sample and V its volume.
m = ρV (2)
But weight of the body is
W = mg
W = ρVg (3)
Equation (3) is called the relationship between weight and density
Density for an ideal gas, from the ideal gas equation,
PV = nRT

mass  m 
But n =
Molar mass  M 

m
PV = RT
M
PM
ρ= (4)
RT
Specific Gravity
Specific gravity tells us about how denser or lighter a given body is. It is found by comparing
the mass, weight or density of given amount of substance or fluid with the same amount of
water at four degree celsius. Specific gravity formula is given by:
mass of unit volume of substance
Specific gravity =
mass of unit volume of water
weight of substance
Specific gravity =
weight of equal volume of water
Density of substance
Specific gravity =
Density of equal volume of water
It is unit less, and is useful in finding specific gravity of any substance.

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Pressure
The force acting normally on a unit surface area is known as pressure
Normal Force (F)
Pressure =
AREA (A)
F
P=
A
The unit of pressure is Nm-2 (Newton per square meter or pascal (Pa)).
1Pa = Nm-2
Pressure in Liquids
Figure 14, shows a column of liquid of height h, and base area, A
Volume of liquid column = Ah (5)

Figure 14: Variation of pressure with height

If ρ, is the density of the liquid,

Mass of liquid column, m = Ahρ (6)
And weight of liquid column = mg
= Ahρg (7)
The weight of the liquid exerts a force on the base of area, A
Therefore, the pressure at the base of the liquid column is given by:

Pressure p =

= hρg (8)

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Equation (8) gives the pressure exerted by a liquid at a depth h below its surface excluding any
air pressure on the liquid surface. That is, additional pressure of a depth in below the surfaces
of a liquid of density p is:
Additional pressure = hpg
At the same depth in a liquid, the pressure acts equally in all directions. This can be shown
experimentally by using the apparatus shown in Fig. 15

Figure 15

Here, a thistle funnel, with its end covered with plastic sheet is connected to a manometer. The
liquid pressure acting on the plastic sheet is measured in different directions at the same depth.
It is found that the difference in height h of the water level in the manometer is the same for all
directions of the thistle funnel.
That is, the pressure in a liquid acts equally in all directions.
Examples 35:
a. What is the pressure on the base of a tank of uniform cross-sectional area 4 m2, when the
tank is filled with water to a depth of 5 m?
b. What is the new pressure on the base of the tank when a wood block of volume 1.0m3 floats
on the water in the tank? (Density of water = 1 x 103 gm-3, density of wood = 0.6 x 103 kgm-3
Atmospheric pressure = 1 x 105 Pa)
Solution:
(a) Pressure on the base of the tank = atmospheric pressure + hρg
= 1 x 105 + [5.0 x 1 x 103 x 9.81]
= 1.49 x 105 Pa
(b) Total weight of the wood block and water = [AWB hWB ρWB + AW hW pW] x g
F = [(1.0 x 0.6 x 103) + (4.0 x 5.0 x 1x103)] x 9.81

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 = 2.021 x 105 N
New pressure = atmospheric pressure +
.
= 1 x 105 + ( )

= 1.505 x 105 Pa
Example 36: A vessel containing a liquid of density p, moves vertically upwards with an
acceleration, a.
a. Find the variation of the pressure, p, with depth, h, below the liquid surface
b. Find the variation of the pressure, p, with depth, h, if the vessel moves downwards with
an acceleration, a
c. Find the variation of the pressure, p, with depth, h, when the vessel is in free fall.

(a)

Weight of liquid on the base area, A, W = Ahpg

If F = normal reaction when the vessel moves upwards with an acceleration, a, then
F – W = ma, where m is the mass of the liquid
F = W + ma
= Ahpg + Ahpa
= Ahp (g + a)
Pressure, p =

= hp (g + a)

65
(b)

When the vessel is accelerating downwards,

W – F = ma
F = W – ma
= Ahpg – Ahpa
= Ahp (g – a)
Pressure, p =

= hp (g – a)
(c) When the vessel is in free fall,
a=g
∴From (b),
Pressure, p = h p (g – g)
=0
Archimedes Principle:

Figure 16

66
When the object is weighted in air and then water, its weight T2 in water is less than its weight
T1 in air. This is because when in water, there is buoyancy force or upthrust acting upwards on
the object.
In Fig 16 (a), spring balance reading T1 = w, weight of object. In Fig 16 (b), spring balance
reading T2 = w – u, where u = upthrust or buoyancy force.
Therefore, T2 < T1
That is the apparent loss m weight when an object is weighed in water
The apparent loss in weight, T1 – T2 = W – (w – u)
= u, upthrust
The buoyancy force or upthrust acting on an object in a liquid is due to the difference in
pressure acting on the upper and lower surfaces of the object when it is in a liquid. The forces
acting horizontally against the sides cancel out one another.

Figure 17

To calculate the upthrust on an object in a liquid, consider an object of uniform cross sectional
area A, and length L in a liquid of density ρ.
The pressure on the top surface, p1 = h1 ρg
Force from the top = h1ρgA
The pressure on the lower surface, p2 = (h1 + L) ρg
Force from the bottom = (h1 + L) ρgA
Upthrust = (h1 + L) ρgA – h1ρgA
= LAρg
But LA is the volume of the object, which is also the volume of the liquid it displaced. LAρ is
the mass of liquid displaced and LAρg is the weight of the liquid displaced by the solid. That
is, the upthrust is equal to the weight of liquid displaced. This deduction is known as
Archimedes principle.
Archimedes principle states that when an object is immersed completely or partially in a fluid,
the upthrust is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.

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Since the upthrust is also equal to the apparent loss in weight, then apparent loss in weight =
weight of liquid displaced.
For an object that floats, its apparent weight in the liquid, T = 0. Since the object is in
equilibrium on the liquid surface.
Upthrust, U = W, weight of the object
According to Archimedes principle
Upthrust, u = weight of liquid displaced
∴ For an object floating on liquid,
Weight of object = weight of liquid displaced
A ship for example, is able to float because it is designed to displace a large volume of water,
thus providing a by upthrust. The vertical position of a submarine can be controlled by flooding
or emptying the buoyancy tanks. When it’s afloat, the buoyancy tanks are empty. Water is
pumped slowly into the buoyancy tanks to submerge it.

Example 37: A copper block of mass 0.5 kg is hung from the end of a thread and put in water.
If the density of copper is 9 x 103 kgm-3 and the density of water is 1 x 103 kgm-3, calculate the
tension in the thread.
Solution

U
W=mg

Volume of the block =

.
=

= 5.556 x 10-5 m3 = volume of water displaced

By Archimedes principle,
Upthrust, u = weight of liquid displaced
= (5.556 x 10-5) x (1 x 103) x 9.81
= 0.5450N
W (weight of block) = T (tension) + U (upthrust)

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 T=W–u
= (0.5 x 9.81) – 0.5450
= 4.36N
Example 38: What fraction of the volume of an iceberg is above water, if the density of ice
= 0.92 x 103 kgm-3, the density of sea water, = 1.03 x 103 kgm-3 ?
Solution:
Let vi = volume of iceberg
Weight of iceberg = vi g
If Va = volume of iceberg in water, using Archimedes principle,
Weight of sea water displaces = vapag
Since the iceberg floats in water,
Weight of iceberg = weight of sea water displaced
vi pi g = va pa g
=

.
= .

= 0.8932
∴ Fraction of iceberg above water = 1 – 0.8932
= 0.1068

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