OSMTech

Resources for
Physics Teachers
Oakland Schools Physics Resource Unit

Experimental Method

Laura Ritter
Troy High School
Troy School District
 Experimental Method
Content Statements
P1.1 Scientific Inquiry
Science is a way of understanding nature. Scientific research may begin by generating new scientific
questions that can be answered through replicable scientific investigations that are logically developed
and conducted systematically. Scientific conclusions and explanations result from careful analysis of
empirical evidence and the use of logical reasoning. Some questions in science are addressed through
indirect rather than direct observation, evaluating the consistency of new evidence with results
predicted by models of natural processes. Results from investigations are communicated in reports that
are scrutinized through a peer review process.

Content Expectations
P1.1A Generate new questions that can be investigated in the laboratory or field.
P1.1B Evaluate the uncertainties or validity of scientific conclusions using an understanding of sources of
measurement error, the challenges of controlling variables, accuracy of data analysis, logic of
argument, logic of experimental design, and/or the dependence on underlying assumptions.
P1.1C Conduct scientific investigations using appropriate tools and techniques (e.g., selecting an instrument
that measures the desired quantity–length, volume, weight, time interval, temperature–with the
appropriate level of precision).
P1.1D Identify patterns in data and relate them to theoretical models.
P1.1E Describe a reason for a given conclusion using evidence from an investigation.
P1.1f Predict what would happen if the variables, methods, or timing of an investigation were changed.
P1.1g Based on empirical evidence, explain and critique the reasoning used to draw a scientific conclusion or
explanation.
P1.1h Design and conduct a systematic scientific investigation that tests a hypothesis. Draw conclusions from
data presented in charts or tables.
P1.1i Distinguish between scientific explanations that are regarded as current scientific consensus and the
emerging questions that active researchers investigate.
Instructional Background Information:

Science and Scientific Practice

Science is the study of both living and non-living things. Physics is the study of
physical changes and relationships. Physics is the foundation of all of the core sciences,
since it supports chemistry, which, in turn supports biology. All three are essential for
deep understanding of earth science.
Scientists in all scientific disciplines use some form of the scientific method in
order to conduct investigations. The scientific method is a general process that all
scientists follow in order to conduct an objective scientific investigation. The steps of
this process generally include (but are not limited to) the following:
1. Recognize a problem.
2. Make a hypothesis, which is an educated guess based on observation and
prior knowledge.
3. Make a prediction.
4. Perform an experiment to test the hypothesis.
5. Analyze the data.
6. Make a conclusion or repeat the process if a new idea arises from this
experiment.
Scientists do not usually follow the scientific method step-by-step. Rather, they use it as
a guideline as they conduct their investigations. A scientific hypothesis must be testable
by experimentation.
When a hypothesis has been tested over and over again and there is no evidence
to dispute it, it can become a scientific law. Scientific laws are accepted to be true. A
scientific theory is also accepted to be true. Theories provide an explanation for
scientific laws. They are developed based on a large amount of information that includes
tested hypotheses.
Mathematics is the language of physics. It is important to have common units in
order to communicate measurements. A unit is a standard quantity to which all other
quantities of the same type of measurement can be compared. The scientific community
has an international standard system for units call the System Internationale, or the SI
System. The meter, kilogram and second are all SI units. When scientists take
measurements, they can convert these measurements to SI units so that they may
communicate more effectively with each other.

(Format and some concepts for this part of the instructional background information were
adapted from Chapter 1 of Conceptual Physics by Paul Hewitt.)

It is important that, when taking data, scientists are both accurate and precise.
Accuracy describes how close a measured value is to the actual value. Precision
describes how well one is able to repeat the outcome and get the same results. It is
possible to be precise, but not accurate (see Figure 1 below).
Figure 1: Accuracy vs. Precision Example

accurate and precise precise, but not accurate

accurate, but not precise not accurate, not precise

Representing Data

A powerful way of helping students master a mode of reasoning is to allow them to view
the same reasoning from more than one perspective. In the case of arithmetical
reasoning, a very useful alternative perspective is that of graphical representation.
-Arnold Arons

In science, we are constantly looking for relationships and patterns. We often

conduct experiments to determine whether or not two things are related to each other.
During these experiments, we look to see if the independent variable (the variable that
the experimenter changes) affects the dependent variable (the variable that changes
according to the changes that occur with the independent variable). One can say that the
independent variable is the cause and the dependent variable is the effect.
 After the data regarding the independent and dependent variables is gathered, a
scatterplot can be made. A scatterplot is a graph that plots corresponding data points
without connecting the dots. The independent variable is plotted on the horizontal axis
and the dependent variable is plotted on the vertical axis. Scientists use scatterplots to
search for trends between the changes in the variables. If a pattern is recognized, then
there is said to be a correlation between the independent and dependent variables.
Correlation describes how closely the data points fit a mathematical pattern. The strength
of the correlation can be described by the correlation coefficient (R) or the coefficient of
determination (R-squared). The closer these values are to 1, the stronger the correlation.

Figure 2: Correlation Examples

A best-fit line or best-fit curve can be found in order to use the identified trend
to make predictions. The best-fit line/curve is determined by finding the fit that has the
highest correlation. This can be done by hand, but may be best completed using a
calculator or computer program. The mathematical model (aka the equation of the best-
fit line/curve) can then be used to make predictions.
Sources:
Arons, A. (1997). Teaching Introductory Physics. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons,
Inc. p. 10.

Hewitt, P. (2006). Conceptual Physics. Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc. p. 1-7.
Terms and Concepts
Accuracy Independent Variable SI Units

Best-Fit Line/Curve Law Slope

Consensus Model Theory
Correlation Precision Unit

Dependent Variable Scatter Plot Variable

Hypothesis Scientific Method Y-Intercept
Instructional Resources

General Sources & References

http://modeling.asu.edu

http://wwwphysicsclassroom.com

http://www.shodor.org/interactivate/activities/

http://phet.colorado.edu/index.php

Activity 1: Estimation Activities

http://www.shodor.org/interactivate/activities/Estimator/

http://www.shodor.org/interactivate/activities/MoreOrLessEstimator/

http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Estimation

http://sciencespot.net/Pages/classmetric.html

Mader, J., & Winn, M. (2008). Teaching Physics for the First Time. College Park, MD:
American Association of Physics Teachers.

Activity 2: Measuring the Measuring Tool

http://modeling.asu.edu/Curriculum.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_measurement

Arons, A. (1997). Teaching Introductory Physics. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons,
Inc.

Activity 3: Making a 60-Second Clock

http://www.science-house.org/student/bw/time/make.html

http://www.britishscienceassociation.org/NR/rdonlyres/8318EE4D-870E-49EA-8083-
9E53E0F73B03/0/SixtySecondScience.pdf

http://www.science-house.org/student/bw/time/index.html
http://www.time.gov/exhibits.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_clock

Activity 4: The Period of a Pendulum

http://modeling.asu.edu/Modeling-pub/Mechanics_curriculum/1-
Sci%20Thinking/01_U1-TeacherNotes.pdf

http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Pendulum_Lab

Activity 5: Height vs. Wingspan

http://mathforum.org/alejandre/frisbie/math/leonardo.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitruvian_Man

Activity 6: The Circle Lab

http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Curve_Fitting

http://www.batesville.k12.in.us/Physics/APPhyNet/lab/experiments/measurement/measur
ing_pi.htm

http://www.arcytech.org/java/pi/measuring.html
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
Activity # 1: Estimation Activities
Questions to be investigated
How accurately can you estimate the amount or size of an object?

Objectives
Students will improve estimation skills in the area of quantity, length and area in order to
ultimately improve measurement skills.
Students will improve their ability to make precise measurements.

Materials
Computer with internet access

Safety Concerns
There are no safety concerns for this lab.

Real-World Connections
The ability to make estimations is a skill that can be useful in everyday activities.

Teacher Notes
These activities are probably more appropriate for students in a foundational course, but
can be used in both the foundational or capstone level physics course with little to no
modifications.

This is an important skill for all students to master when it comes to measurement,
precision and accuracy. Although development of this skill is often most needed in a
foundational course, one should note that students in a capstone course do not always
have much experience with this skill and could improve with estimation practice.

Two different activities and assessments for each activity are described below. Teachers
may choose to do one or both of them.

Assumptions and Prior Knowledge

Students should have basic measurement skills and know the terms: mass, length and
area.

Procedure/Description of Lesson
Activity 1: Basic Estimation
Students should go to one of the following websites and play the estimation games:
http://www.shodor.org/interactivate/activities/Estimator/ (for more advanced capstone
and foundational students; the most advanced students should choose the highest level of
the game)

http://www.shodor.org/interactivate/activities/MoreOrLessEstimator/ (for less advanced

students)
Activity 2: Estimating with Units
Have the students do a physics treasure hunt to find items around the room that fit the
specifications of the handout (Activity 1 Worksheet A, which follows this description).
The teacher may choose to design multiple versions of this worksheet so that students do
not all have the same answers. The students can then trade with a partner to check their
answers. After trading, students will actually measure their partner’s items to check how
closely their estimations came to the actual. More advanced students could be asked to
estimate areas.

For an extension of this activity (primarily for students at the capstone level), the students
could calculate the percent error using the formula:

A practice measurement worksheet (Activity 1 Worksheet B) is also included at the end

of the Activity 1 description that may be good practice for students (particularly students
at the foundational level). This activity may be used before or after either of the activities
based on the teacher’s discretion.

For more measurement activities and worksheets that may be useful for students in a
foundational class, visit:

http://sciencespot.net/Pages/classmetric.html
Assessment Ideas:
Assessment 1: Basic Estimation Online Quiz
Formative or Summative: Students go to one of the Shodor.org websites from Activity 1
and keep score. The teacher may choose to set a mastery benchmark score for the
students to achieve. The students can check their score and keep playing until they
achieve the desired score.

SAMPLE RUBRIC:
Level 0 Student achieves a score below 60%.
Level 1 Student achieves a score between 60-70%.
Level 2 Student achieves a score between 70-80%.
Level 3 Student achieves a score above 80%.

Assessment 2: Estimating with Units Quiz

Formative or Summative: Teacher holds up 5 different classroom items one at a time and
asks the students to estimate the length, area, etc. A clicker activity could be easily
designed to accompany this assessment. (If clickers are not available, the teacher could
assess using pre-made flashcards or even a simple survey of hands.)

Sample Question:

What measurement best describes the length of this pencil?

A. 10 centimeters
B. 18 centimeters
C. 25 centimeters
D. 32 centimeters

* The difficulty of the answer choices can be adjusted to be appropriate for the level of
the student.

SAMPLE RUBRIC:
Level 0 Student achieves a score of 0 – 2 out of 5.
Level 1 Student achieves a score of 3 out of 5.
Level 2 Student achieves a score of 4 out of 5.
Level 3 Student achieves a score of 5 out of 5.
References and Alternate Sources:
http://www.shodor.org/interactivate/activities/Estimator/

http://www.shodor.org/interactivate/activities/MoreOrLessEstimator/

http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Estimation

http://sciencespot.net/Pages/classmetric.html

Mader, J., & Winn, M. (2008). Teaching Physics for the First Time. College Park, MD:
American Association of Physics Teachers. p. 33.
 Activity 1 Worksheet A: Physics Treasure Hunt

My Name ____________________ My Partner’s Name ___________________

Part 1: For this part of the activity you will search for objects or people that fit the
descriptions below. You will not be allowed to use any measuring tools, so you must rely
on your estimation skills. After both you and your partner find your five items, see your
teacher to get approval to move on to the next part.
Part 2: When you have your teacher’s approval switch papers and measure the items
your partner described to see how close they were. (Yes, you can use measurement tolls
for this part!)
Description of the Item Actual Measurement
(Be clear so that your partner knows what (Your partner will do
Find… or who it is!) this after you switch.)

something that is about one

meter long, wide or tall.

something that is about one

centimeter long, wide or
tall.

someone who is about 1.7

meters tall.

something with a mass of

about a kilogram.

something with a mass

between 50kg and 60kg.

Part 3: (Extension) Switch your papers back and calculate the percent error for the
actual measurements for each object using the following formula:

You may do this on the back of this worksheet.

This activity was adapted from: Teaching Physics for
the First Time by Jan Mader and Mary Winn.
(Activity 2.3)
Activity 1 Worksheet B: Measurement Practice

1. Which measurement is largest? Circle your answer. In one set both

measurements are the same, put a star (*) next to it.

a) 14 mm or 14 km b) 185 g or 185 kg

c) 334 m or 334 cm d) 3.4 cL or 3.4 mL

e) 1 g or 1 cg f) 10 km or 10 cm

2. a) What is the length of the above gray box in centimeters? __________________

b) What is the length of the gray box in millimeters? __________________

3. a) What is the length of an unsharpened pencil in centimeters? _______________

b) What is the length of the pencil in millimeters? __________________

5. What is your height in meters? ________ What is your height in cm?_________

Which unit (meters or centimeters) do you think is a more convenient unit to use
when measuring your height?
 6. a. What is the radius of the circle to the nearest millimeter? _________

b. What is the diameter of the circle in centimeters (be as accurate as you can be).

7. Measure the diameter of a penny.

a. What is its length in cm? _______

b. What is its length in mm? _______

c. Do you see a connection between your answers to a and b? Explain.

8. Circle the BEST unit for measuring these:

a) The length of your desk mm cm m km

b) The length of an eyelash mm cm m km

c) The height of the flagpole mm cm m km

d) The length of a strand of spaghetti mm cm m km

e) The distance from Detroit to Ann Arbor mm cm m km

Worksheet adapted from: http://sciencespot.net/Media/lengthlab.pdf

Experimental Method
Activity # 2: Measuring the Measuring Tool
Questions to be investigated
How can we measure lengths of objects without a traditional measuring device (such as a
ruler or a meter stick)? How can we best communicate these measurements to another
person?

Objectives
Students will improve their ability to make precise measurements.
Students will further their understanding of precision and accuracy.
Students will practice converting between different units.
Students will have an improved understanding of the meaning of a unit.

Materials
Paper clips, tongue depressors, new unsharpened pencils, ball point pens

Safety Concerns
There are no safety concerns for this lab.

Real-World Connections
Units of measurement are used in everyday life—from the weight of produce purchased
in a grocery store to the square footage of a home. Units provide a common ground for
communicating quantities. Once I went to the post office in Canada and asked the
woman behind the desk how much it would cost to mail a package that was about 2
pounds. She did not know pounds—only kilograms. If I hadn’t known the conversion
factor from pounds to kilograms, I wouldn’t have been able to get an answer to my
question!

See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_measurement for a history of units of

measurement.

Teacher Notes
This activity can be used in both the foundational or capstone level physics course. For
the more advanced capstone students, the teacher could cut down on the quantity of
objects to measure and focus in on the conversions by increasing the amount of questions
related to that concept.

Assumptions and Prior Knowledge

Students should have basic measurement skills.
Students should already know the definitions and difference between the terms: precision
and accuracy.
Procedure/Description of Lesson
ELICITATION
The following dialogue (or something similar) should be sparked by the teacher with the
students:
Teacher: Suppose I want to lay new carpet in my living room? How would I
know how much carpet to buy?
Students: Measure the room.
Teacher: How?
Students: Use a meter stick or tape measure.
Teacher: What could I do if I did not have and could not gain axis to those
measuring tools?
At this point, the students may need a little prompting. The goal is to get them to say
something like the following:
Students: Count how many of your feet long and wide the room is and then
do the same at the carpet store.

At this point, the teacher introduces the activity.

INVESTIGATION
Students should follow the directions for Activity 2 Worksheet A (found at the end of the
description of Activity 2).

POST-LAB DISCUSSION
After students have completed the worksheet. The teacher should conduct a class
discussion, which should include the following points:

• Discuss the importance of a standard measure.

• Discuss why the measuring standards may be different for different groups and
why it may be preferable to have a universal standard of measure.
• Discuss and show examples of unit conversion using their data and using other
conversions.
• From this activity the students should see the importance of a measuring standard.
For example show that the length of a pen or paperclip can be different depending
on the manufacturer.
• Communication of measures is fully dependent on using a standard, and this
standard is often different if the communication is done within a particular
country or internationally. For example the standard unit for measuring the
amount of grain in the United States is the bushel, while the international unit for
measuring grain is the metric ton.
• Show that one unit can be converted to a different unit using simple algebra
techniques. Show examples of unit conversion.

3.5 paperclips 13 .5 pencils

x = 47 paperclip door
1.0 pencil 1.0door

• Discuss the meaning of the word “per” as division in mathematics. Sections 1.8
and 1.9 in Arnold Arons’ book Teaching Introductory Physics gives a thorough
treatment of why it is crucial for students to discuss the meaning of the ratios such
as these. He writes, “…such a ratio tells us how much of the numerator is
associated with one unit of whatever is represented in the denominator.” Later, in
section 1.9 he writes:

“A word of warning: If a teacher accepts the casual use of the word “per” –
particularly the incorrect and meaningless “mass per volume”, which was quoted
in the previous section- he or she falls into a trap. Even though it contains only
three letters, “per” is a technical term, and very few of those students who are
having trouble with arithmetic reasoning know what it means. They inject it into
a response only because they have a vague memory that “per” frequently turns up
for some obscure reason in division, but they do not explicitly translate it into
simpler words such as “in,” “for each,” “corresponds to,” “goes with,” “combines
with,” “is associated with.”

Below are some recommended ways of interpreting '47 paperclips/door' :

47 paperclips would reach from the top of the door to the bottom

One door is 47 paperclips long

47 paperclips corresponds to the length of one door

(The above bullet points were copied directly from the Modeling Curriculum:
©Modeling Workshop Project 2003; MPS 1 Geometric Properties – Teacher
Notes v2.1)

Assessment Ideas:
Assessment 1: Assessing Measurements and Conversions

Formative: Pair up students. Give each student a different household object (paper clip,
pen, eraser, etc.) Have the pairs of students find the conversion factor between the
“units” they were given. For example, if a pair was given a paperclip and a pencil, they
should find how many paperclips fit into a pencil. Each partner should record this factor.
Create a barrier between partners and give each partner a line with a different length than
the other. Partner 1 should measure his length with the object he was given and tell
Partner 2 this length. Partner 2 performs the conversion and draws the line using the
object she was given. The partners then switch roles. When finished, they compare the
lines they drew to the original lines that were given.

Assessment 2: Estimating the Distance of the Hallway

Formative or Summative: Students are presented with the task of finding the distance of
a nearby hallway without taking any measuring devices out of the room. (Many students
will use their stride.) They must then convert their measurements to meters after they
find the conversion factor between their unit and meters. (They will be given meter
sticks or a tape measure inside the room to accomplish this.)

SAMPLE RUBRIC:
Level 0 Student is unable to complete any aspect of the task as directed.
Level 1 Student is able to gather data and finds the length of the hallway using stride or
similar method, but is unable to convert correctly and/or complete the rest of
the task
Level 2 Student is able to gather data and finds the length of the hallway using stride or
similar method and is able to convert correctly. Error is more than 10% when
the student answer is compared with the actual answer.
Level 3 Student is able to gather data and finds the length of the hallway using stride or
similar method and is able to convert correctly. Error is less than 10% when
the student answer is compared with the actual answer.

References and Alternate Sources:

http://modeling.asu.edu/Curriculum.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_measurement

Arons, A. (1997). Teaching Introductory Physics. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons,
Inc. p. 5-8.
Activity 2 Worksheet A - Measuring the Measuring Tool
Materials: 1 - paper clip
1 - tongue depressor
1 - new unsharpened pencil
1 - ball point pen

PART 1:

1. Collect one of each of the measuring devices listed above.

2. Measure the length of each of the following with each of the measuring devices
provided.
a. Measure the distance between the front two legs of your desk with each of the
measuring devices provided. Enter the results in the data table provided. Use
labels appropriate for each measurement.
b. Measure the longest part of your desk top with each of the measuring devices
provided. Enter the results in the data table provided. Use labels appropriate for
each measurement.
c. Measure the length of a paper clip with each of the measuring devices provided.
Enter the results in the data table provided. Use labels appropriate for each
measurement.
d. Measure the length of a tongue depressor with each of the measuring devices
provided. Enter the results in the data table provided. Use labels appropriate for
each measurement.
e. Measure the length of an unsharpened pencil with each of the measuring devices
provided. Enter the results in the data table provided. Use labels appropriate for
each measurement.
c. Measure the length of an ink pen with each of the measuring devices provided.
Enter the results in the data table provided. Use labels appropriate for each
measurement.

Legs Desk Paper Tongue Pencil Pen

Clip Depr.
Paper clip

Tongue
Depressor
Pencil

Ink pen
 QUESTIONS:

1. What information is important when communicating these measurements with

students in another classroom?_______________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

2. How did you deal with measurements that did not come out to a whole number?

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

3. What basis did you use to determine this?

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

4. Is it possible to communicate your measurements with other students in other groups?

What would you have to include for them to understand your measurement? Would it be
possible to communicate your measurements with someone who does not speak English?
Explain.

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

5. Suppose the door were exactly 15 ink pens tall. How could you tell how tall the door
was in paper clips without actually measuring?

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

6. How tall is the door in paper clips without actually measuring? Show any
calculations involved.

________________________________________________________________________

7. How tall is the door in tongue depressors without actually measuring? Show any
calculations involved.

________________________________________________________________________

©Modeling Workshop Project 2003 MPS 1.1 Geometric Properties-Length Activity 1 v2.1
Experimental Method
Activity # 3: Making a 60‐Second Clock
Questions to be investigated
How would you design a timer or clock that will run for 60-seconds?

Objectives
Students will design an appropriate investigation for the question posed by the teacher or
class.
Students will follow the model of scientific practice through collaboration, discussion of
results and critique of methodology.
Students will further their understanding of precision and accuracy.
Students will evaluate the effectiveness of their design through peer evaluation.

Materials
Household Items (such as string, springs, egg cartons, marbles, bouncy balls, sand, paper,
tape, cardboard, paper/plastic cups)
Scissors, Glue

Safety Concerns
There are no safety concerns for this lab.

Real-World Connections
Time is universal. The clocks we use today are calibrated to atomic clocks that are very
precise (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_clock). Students will likely appreciate the
precision of these clocks after this task.

Teacher Notes
This activity can be used in both the foundational or capstone level physics course with
little to no modifications. The extension question in Activity 3 Worksheet B for this
activity would be appropriate for a capstone physics course.

Assumptions and Prior Knowledge

Students should have basic measurement skills and know the terms: mass, length and
area.
Students should already know the definitions and difference between the terms: precision
and accuracy.

Procedure/Description of Lesson
ELICITATION
Ask the students, “What is time?” Then, “What kinds of devices do we use to measure
time?” Write the students’ ideas on the board. A discussion should arise about how
clocks are built and how we know that they are all measuring the same amount when they
measure one second. Teacher references for this discussion may include:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second#International_second

http://www.time.gov/exhibits.html

Tell the students that they will be building their own timing device (clock) with the
materials presented to them. Tell them that their clock must measure 60 seconds as
accurately and precisely as possible.

INVESTIGATION:
See Activity 3 Worksheet A for the student directions for building the clock.

After the students build their clocks, they will switch with another group to verify the
accuracy and precision of the other group’s clock. Activity 3 Worksheet B is an
evaluation form for the students for this part of the activity.

POST-LAB DISCUSSION:
The teacher may choose to reconvene the class the next day for a class discussion about
the common characteristics of the best clocks. Which clocks were the most accurate?
Which clocks were most precise?

Assessment Ideas:
The following rubric could be used for teacher evaluation or peer evaluation. The
students who created the clock could also write a short journal entry about how they
would improve their clock.
RUBRIC:
0 1 2 3
Clock had poor Clock had good Clock had minor Clock is well-put
Clock
design and not design, but was not issues during together and easy
Design
easy to use easy to use operation to use/restart
Group did not Directions were Directions were
Directions were
Clock include directions difficult to follow, pretty good, but
clear and easy to
Directions or directions were but general idea 1-2 steps were
follow
very confusing was communicated missing or unclear
Clock was Clock was not very Clock
Clock measured
inconsistent consistent, but measurements
Clock the same amount
(measurements measurements were were within 4
Precision of time every trial
were > 6 seconds within 6 seconds of seconds of each
(within 2 seconds)
of each other) each other other
Standard Standard Deviation Standard Standard
Clock
Deviation was was Deviation was Deviation was
Accuracy
>8 <8 <5 <3
References and Alternate Sources:
http://www.science-house.org/student/bw/time/make.html

http://www.britishscienceassociation.org/NR/rdonlyres/8318EE4D-870E-49EA-8083-
9E53E0F73B03/0/SixtySecondScience.pdf

http://www.science-house.org/student/bw/time/index.html

http://www.time.gov/exhibits.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_clock
Activity 3 Worksheet A: Making a 60-second clock

Part 1: Your mission is to construct a simple “clock” that will measure 60 seconds. You
will use the materials, such as string, tape and other stuff that your teacher will provide.
You must design and build the clock. Draw a picture of your design in the space
provided on the back of this worksheet.

You must calibrate it against a "standard" clock so that you know how your clock
compares with standard time. You will be provided with a stopwatch that can be used as
your “standard” clock.

Part 2: You must write some operating instructions so that someone else will be able to
use your clock. You will record your operating instructions in the space provided on the
back of this worksheet.

Part 3: After the clocks are completed, your clock and operating instructions will be
given to another group to test and critique. The group will compare your clock to the
standard clock to see how precise your clock is and whether it is a dependable time-
keeper. That is, does your clock always measure 60 seconds, and not 58 or 65 seconds?

Use the clock as directed to measure 60 seconds for five different trials. Each time write
down the number of seconds given by the standard clock

For instance, suppose you use the clock five times. The standard clock gives you

Trial Student clock Standard clock Difference

measured measured (standard –
(seconds) (seconds) student)
1 60 63 3
2 60 55 -5
3 60 60 0
4 60 58 -2
5 60 61 1

The precision of the clock is determined by taking the standard deviation of the
measurements. That is

3 2 + (−5) 2 + 0 2 + (−2) 2 + 12
σ= = 2.8 sec onds
5

The smaller the value of the standard deviation, the better the clock.

Activity Adapted From: http://www.science-house.org/student/bw/time/make.html

Clock Creators __________________________________________________________

Part 1: Schematic Design of Our Clock

Part 2: Directions to Use Our Clock

Activity 3 Worksheet B: Test and Critique of a Clock

Complete this worksheet as you test another group’s clock. If you have any questions
about how to do something, refer to the directions from Part 3 of Activity3 Worksheet A
before asking your teacher.

Evaluators ______________________________________________________________

Clock Creators __________________________________________________________

1. Read the directions for running the clock and try to run it once. How clear are the

directions that the group wrote? Rate them on a scale of 1 – 10 (10 is best) _____

What suggestions would you give to improve the directions? ________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

2. How easy was the clock to operate? Rate on a scale of 1 – 10 (10 is best) _____

What suggestions would you give to improve the clock to make it easier to use?

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________
3. Follow the directions for the clock and run it for the full “60” seconds as
indicated. Use your stopwatch to measure the actual time and record it in the
table below. Find the difference between the standard time from your stopwatch
and the student clock by subtracting.

Trial Student clock Standard clock Difference

measured measured (standard –
(seconds) (seconds) student)
1 60
2 60
3 60
4 60
5 60

4. Do you think this clock is accurate? Explain why or why not. _______________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

5. Do you think this clock is precise? Explain why or why not. _________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

6. Extension: Calculate the standard deviation for the clock in the space below.

What does the standard deviation tell you? _______________________________

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

Based on the standard deviation, would you say this clock is good or bad? ______

Questions Adapted From: http://www.science-house.org/student/bw/time/make.html

Experimental Method
Activity # 4: The Period of a Pendulum
Questions to be investigated
How does changing different characteristics of a pendulum affect its period?

Objectives
Students will design an appropriate investigation for the question posed by the teacher or
class.
Students will make predictions for the outcome of the investigation.
Students will carry out the investigation and analyze the data.
Students will distinguish between dependent and independent variables and understand
their relationship to each other.
Students will follow the model of scientific practice through collaboration, discussion of
results and critique of methodology.

Materials
3 masses for bobs (approximately the same size and shape, different masses- you can use
metal spheres or film canisters filled with "BBs".)
string
pendulum support and clamp (or equivalent)
stop watches
balance for mass measurement
meter stick
protractor (if desired)

Safety Concerns
Students should proceed with caution near swinging masses.

Real-World Connections
Students will model scientific practice throughout the investigation through means of
experimental design and collaboration.

Teacher Notes
This activity can be used in both the foundational or capstone level physics course with
little to no modifications. The suggested extension for this activity would be appropriate
for a capstone physics course.

Teachers may alternatively choose to conduct an online version of this lab on the PhET
website: http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Pendulum_Lab

Assumptions and Prior Knowledge

Students should already have some basic experience making scatterplots by hand.
Students should have already been introduced to the concept of independent and
dependent variables.
Students should have basic measurement skills and know the terms: mass and length.

Procedure/Description of Lesson
ELICITATION:
Have a pendulum set up for demonstration. Ask the students to make observations. They
may have difficulty at first, but eventually someone will say, “It’s swinging.” Ask the
students, “What about the swing can we measure?” Answers will include: how fast, time,
how high it swings, etc. Then ask, “What can we change about the pendulum that may
affect its swing?” Gather students’ ideas and ask them specifically how these factors may
affect the swing of the pendulum.

Student answers may include:

- mass of the object hanging from the string
- length of the string
- shape of the object hanging from the string
- angle of release
- type of string
- gravity
- room temperature

No suggestion made by the student should be rejected. However, steer the students
towards more practical factors by eliminating those that are not quantifiable, such as the
shape of the object, or factors which the experimenter cannot control, such as gravity.
The class will often choose to investigate the relationship between the period and the
following independent variables: mass, length of string and angle of release. After
choosing the variables to investigate, have the students determine the independent and
dependent variables. Discuss how best to measure each type of variable. Steer the
students in the direction of measuring the time for each swing for the dependent variable.
Define period (T).

INVESTIGATION:
A worksheet for recording data is included at the end of this activity description.

There are many ways to accomplish the same outcome. Depending on time available and
the ability level of your students, you may want to do one of the following:
- Take data as a class. If you choose to do this, you should have multiple
students timing and a class recorder for the data.
- Split the class up into groups. Each group investigates the effect of a different
independent variable on the period. If you choose to do this, make sure you
have more than one group investigating the same independent variable for
data comparison.
- Split the class up into groups. Each group investigates the effect of each
independent variable on the period. This method would take the most time,
 but would be the best for the conceptual understanding of each individual
student since they would gain experience investigating each variable.

Caution! The behavior of a simple pendulum is best observed when the

angle of release is less than 30º. Pendula exhibit more complex behaviors at
larger angles.

Caution! Be clear to the students that they should not push the pendulum,
but simply release it. Also, make sure students are changing only one
variable at a time. This can be included as part of the pre-lab discussion.

After the students have collected data, have them make a scatterplot (either by hand or on
Excel) of each data set and determine any trends. Results should be similar to the
following:
Period

Period

Period
Mass Amplitude Length
Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3

POST-LAB DISCUSSION:
During the post-lab discussion it is important to focus on the scientific method and scientific
practice as well as reinforce the concepts of the independent and dependent variables. Be
sure to reintroduce and redefine terms such as period, frequency, mass, etc. Do not introduce
the formula for the period of a pendulum since it is not the purpose of this lab and will
distract from the main points.

The teacher should have the students compile and compare data among lab groups. A quick
and easy way to do this is to have each lab group write out their data on individual
whiteboards. The class then stands in a circle to compare results. The teacher should act as
a facilitator during this discussion by first asking students to make observations and
generalizations after observing their classmates’ data. Students should be asked to compare
what is similar and what is different among the groups, and should be encouraged to ask
questions of other groups.

Students may observe that one group’s results and/or conclusions may differ from others.
For example, one group may have concluded that the mass affects the period while another
did not. Discussion of why this is the case may lead to many important points about lab
design and scientific practice. For instance, during the discussion, the students may find that
they were inconsistent about how they gathered data. Sometimes students feel that there is a
trend when the period increases by very small increments (1.31 s, 1.32 s, 1.33 s, etc.). This
can bring about a discussion of limitations of measurement, precision and accuracy as well as
how to draw an appropriate conclusion from the data.

It is important for the teacher to realize that the class may not conclude that the length of the
pendulum is the only factor investigated that affects its period. The students may conclude
that the data for some or all of the factors investigated is inconclusive or that they need more
data to be certain. The teacher should reiterate that this is often the case in actual scientific
practice. It also could be a good time to introduce the value of computer programs, such as
Excel or Graphical Analysis, that provide a more objective, statistical analysis of the data.

EXTENSION:
If there is time, teachers may choose to have students in a capstone course linearize the
data and determine an appropriate formula using Excel, Graphical Analysis or another
data program. Determining the formula for the period of a pendulum is not the purpose
of this lab. However, allowing students to do this would give them further practice with
data analysis skills and develop a mathematical model for their investigation. Given this
data set, this is a difficult task and should be reserved for more advanced students.

Assessment Ideas:
Formative or Summative: Students will investigate whether gravity has an effect on the
period of a pendulum on the PhET website:
http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Pendulum_Lab

It is important to note that there are only 4 values for g to test (the Moon, Earth, Jupiter
and Planet X). The teacher must give the students these values in advance of this
activity. The students must develop their own methodology, record the data, complete a
graph, analyze the results and explain any limitations of the lab design. They must turn
in a short write-up by the end of the class period.

RUBRIC:
Level 0 Student is unable to complete any aspect of the task as directed.
Level 1 Student is able to gather data and completes a graph. Analysis is missing or is
not supported by the data. No limitations are discussed.
Level 2 Student is able to gather data and completes a graph, but does not take multiple
trials. A pattern in the graph is recognized, but a clear discussion of the
relationship between the independent and dependent variables is missing or
considerably lacking. There are no comments on limitations of the lab design
or comments are poorly constructed and/or lack depth.
Level 3 Student is able to gather data and completes a graph. Lab design is well
thought out and multiple trials are taken. Student make a clear and well-
thought out discussion of the relationship between the independent and
dependent variables. The limitations of the lab design are well thought out and
explained clearly.

References and Alternate Sources:

http://modeling.asu.edu/Modeling-pub/Mechanics_curriculum/1-
Sci%20Thinking/01_U1-TeacherNotes.pdf

http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Pendulum_Lab
Activity 4 Worksheet: Pendulum Lab Data

Independent variable being tested: ____________________________________________

Trial # of full
m l θ time (s) T(s)
swings
1

Based on your data, does this variable seem to affect the period of a pendulum? Explain.

Independent variable being tested: ____________________________________________

Trial # of full
m l θ time (s) T(s)
swings
1

Based on your data, does this variable seem to affect the period of a pendulum? Explain.

Independent variable being tested: ____________________________________________

Trial # of full
m l θ time (s) T(s)
swings
1

Based on your data, does this variable seem to affect the period of a pendulum? Explain.

Graph the data from each table on the graph paper provided below. Be sure to label each
axis.
Which factor(s) did not seem to affect the period of the pendulum? _________________

________________________________________________________________________

Which factor(s) seem to have affected the period of the pendulum? _________________

_______________________________________________________________________

Can you think of any factors that you would like to test but could not test in the lab?
What do you think would be the outcome of this “thought” experiment?
Experimental Method
Activity # 5: Height vs. Wingspan
Questions to be investigated
Is there a relationship between a person’s height and wingspan? If so, how strong is this
relationship?

Objectives
Students will improve their ability to make precise measurements.
Students will further their understanding of precision and accuracy.
Students will be able to carry out an investigation of the relationship between different
measurable variables by taking measurements and graphing data by hand.
Students will be able to identify patterns and the best-fit line for the data gathered.
Students will be able to interpret the results of the slope of the best-fit line and use the
graph to make predictions.

Materials
3x5 notecards

(Metersticks may be preferred for students in a foundational course.)

Safety Concerns
There are no safety concerns for this lab.

Real-World Connections
Leonardo DaVinci famously depicted the proportionality of the human body in his
Vertruvian Man drawing (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitruvian_Man):

Students will explore the validity of the proportionality originally proposed by Vitruvius,
and experience the issues and limitations that can occur when dealing with real-life data.
Teacher Notes
This activity can be used in both the foundational or capstone level physics course with
little to no modifications. A teacher may prefer to replace the use of the notecards as a
measuring device with meter sticks for students in a foundational course. If this is the
case, some modifications should be made to the Activity 5 Worksheet that follows this
activity description (changing units in the table/questions, changing/eliminating some of
the follow-up questions, etc.).

Assumptions and Prior Knowledge

Students should already have some basic experience making scatterplots by hand.
Students should have basic measurement skills.
Students should have had experience interpreting scatterplots and know the difference
between strong and weak correlation.
Students should know how to sketch a best-fit line by hand and find the slope of that line.

Procedure/Description of Lesson

ELICITATION
Teacher: Leonardo da Vinci had a famous drawing that showed that a person’s height is
equal to his wingspan. Let’s investigate whether or not this is true. How can we do this?

At this point, students would likely suggest measuring a student’s height and wingspan to
verify. The teacher should emphasize the need for multiple measurements if the students
do not suggest it themselves. Emphasize the need to create a scatterplot rather than
compare ratios of the height and wingspan of individual students. Ask the students how
they would make their measurements if the only measuring tool they can use is a
notecard. Emphasize that the unit for their measurements should be notecards.

INVESTIGATION
Students should record their data and answer the questions using the Activity 5
Worksheet that follows the description of this activity.

POST-LAB DISCUSSION
The following questions and points should come up during the class discussion:
- Is there a correlation between height and wingspan? How strong is this
relationship?
- Does everyone have the same slope? Discuss with the students why they got
different answers (used data from different students, best-fit line they drew is
only an approximation, etc.) This might be a good time to talk about how the
computer can provide a more consistent means of finding the best-fit
line/curve. The teacher could also introduce the correlation coefficient or
another regression statistic.
 - Is Leonardo’s idea correct? (Is the ratio 1:1? This would mean that the slope
of the best-fit is 1.)
- How can we change the lab to make it more precise? Really focus on the
meaning of precision here. You may want to take student suggestions and
ideas and make a list on the board. If the ideas are general enough, these
could become guidelines for them to follow for future labs.

Assessment Ideas:
Formative or Summative: Give the students a graph to interpret, such as the following
class set of data:

Height vs. Wingspan Data 4th Hour

16

15
Wingspan (notecards)

14

13

12

11

10
10 10.5 11 11.5 12 12.5 13 13.5 14 14.5 15
Height (notecards)

Ask the students the following questions to record in their journal:

- Is there a relationship between height and wingspan? How do you know?
- Is the relationship strong or weak? Would you say the correlation is strong or
weak? Give a reason for your opinion based on the graph of the data.
- The point circled in red shows that a person in the class has a height of 12
notecards and a wingspan of 13 notecards. Does this disprove Leonardo’s idea
that a person’s wingspan is the same as their height? Why or why not?
RUBRIC:
0 1 2 3
Student does not Student identifies that Student identifies that Student identifies
answer the question there is a relationship there is a relationship, that there is a
Q1
or says that there is but does not give a but the argument why relationship and the
no relationship. reason why. lacks depth. argument is deep.
Student identifies
Student does not Student identifies that Student identifies that
that there is a
answer the question there is a correlation there is a correlation,
Q2 correlation and uses
or says that there is but does not give a but does not use the
the data points to
no correlation. reason why. data points to explain.
explain.
Student argues one
Student does not Student provides a Student argues one of
of the points, and
Q3 answer the “yes” or “no” answer the sides, but the
the reasoning is
question. with no explanation. reasoning is weak.
deep.

References and Alternate Sources:

http://mathforum.org/alejandre/frisbie/math/leonardo.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitruvian_Man
Activity 5 Worksheet: Height vs. Wingspan

QUESTION: Is there a relationship between a person’s height and wingspan? If

so, how strong is this relationship?

HYPOTHESIS: In the space below, state a hypothesis for any possible relationship
between human height and human wingspan.

As the height of a human increases… _________________________________________

DATA AND GRAPH: In the table below, record the wingspan vs. height data of ten
individuals in class. Then, make a scatterplot of your data on the graph paper provided.
Be sure to draw a best-fit line through the data points. Do not simply “connect the dots.”
Be sure to use proper graphing techniques.

Height Wingspan
(cards) (cards)

CONCLUSIONS:

1. Look at your graph. Is the data random, or does it appear as though a human’s
wingspan does depend on their height? If so, state the general relationship.
2. Use your best-fit line to predict your height in cards based on your measured
wingspan in cards. Is the height you found from the best-fit line the same as the
height you measured in cards? Explain why or why not.

3. Would you say that there is a strong correlation, weak correlation, or no correlation at
all between a person’s height and wingspan? Use your scatterplot to support your
claim.

4. Find the slope of your best-fit line. Finish the statement about the relationship
between height and wingspan.

As the height of a person increases by 1 notecard, the wingspan

5. Do you think Leonardo da Vinci correct in his assumption that a person’s height is
equal to their wingspan? Why or why not?

6. Describe the precision of your measurements during this experiment. Were you able
to be very precise? Explain.

7. How could you improve on the precision of your measurements?

8. Convert your height in cards to height in inches, using the fact that one card is 5” in
length.

9. How does that value compare to your known height? Use the formula below to
compute a percent difference. Use your answer from question 5 above as your
measured value, and your known height as the accepted value.

10. Describe two specific sources of possible error during this experiment (NOT
“Human Error”}.

A.

B.

This worksheet was adapted from Height vs. Wingspan Lab by Nicole Murawski, Royal Oak
High School, Royal Oak, MI.
Experimental Method
Activity # 6: The Circle Lab
Questions to be investigated
What relationships and patterns emerge among the diameter, radius, circumference and/or
the area of a circle?

Objectives
Students will be able to carry out an investigation of the relationship between different
measurable variables of a circle by taking measurements and graphing data using a
computer program.
Students will be able to find patterns and the best-fit line/curve for the data gathered.
Students will be able to interpret the results of the equation of the best-fit line/curve and
make connections between the mathematical model (equation) and the real-life meaning.

Materials
Computer with Microsoft Excel or another graphing program or Graphing Calculators
Part 1: masking tape or string, meter stick, ruler, scissors
Part 2: compass, 0.5 cm graph paper

Safety Concerns
There are no safety concerns for this lab.

Real-World Connections
The students will see how real data is related to a commonly used mathematical formula.

Teacher Notes
Part 1 of this activity is appropriate for both a foundational or capstone level physics
course. Part 2 is optional and is recommended for a capstone course since the process of
determining the best-fit curve is slightly more complicated and it may distract less
advanced students from the goal of interpreting the mathematical model (equation).

Assumptions and Prior Knowledge

Students should already have experience making scatterplots by hand.
Students should know the difference between independent and dependent variables.
Students should have had experience interpreting scatterplots, strong vs. weak correlation
and a basic understanding regression statistic such as the correlation coefficient (R),
which is used in graphing calculators and many computer graphing programs, or the
coefficient of determinations (R-squared), which is used in Microsoft Excel. (For
example, the closer the R or R-squared value is to 1, the better the correlation.)
*Students do not necessarily need to have prior experience graphing on the computer
with this lab. This lab may be used (and is recommended) for an introduction to
graphing and graphical analysis using a computer.

If teachers would like students to practice curve fitting in a fast and easy way, they may
want to send the students to the following PhET activity:

http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Curve_Fitting

This animation allows students to plot points and construct a best-fit curve based on the
chi-squared coefficient and the coefficient of determination (aka the R-squared value,
which they incorrectly refer to as the correlation coefficient). The teacher could give the
students pre-made data sets, and have the students plot the points and find the best-fit
curve based on the highest R-squared value.

Procedure/Description of Lesson
ELICITATION:
Draw a circle and ask the students to tell you what they know about circles. Emphasize
what is measurable such as the radius, diameter, circumference and area, redefining them
after they are suggested by the students. Emphasize that, in science, we are always
looking for patterns and relationships, and that, in this investigation, we will be looking
for the pattern/relationship between the diameter and circumference (and the radius or
diameter and the area if Part 2 is included). Discuss with the students how best to
measure each type of variable and pre-determine with the students on which axis each
variable should be graphed (independent vs. dependent variables).

INVESTIGATION:
Have the students carry out the investigation. A sample worksheet follows this lesson
description. This worksheet includes directions for graphing, determining the best-fit line
or curve in Excel, and questions for the students to consider before a class discussion.
Often more advanced students (capstone level) are able to carry out all of these solely
with teacher guidance and no worksheet.

Caution! Students with awareness or prior knowledge of the circle formulas

will often have the tendency to use them to calculate the circumference
and/or area. Be sure to emphasize the importance of gathering data and
discourage use of formulas during this lab.

POST LAB DISCUSSION:

During the post-lab discussion it is important to focus on scientific practice. Be sure to
reintroduce and redefine terms such as diameter, radius, circumference and area (depending
on which parts of the lab were completed). Continue to focus on the connections between
the data/equations/graph and the real-life meaning. If both Part 1 and Part 2 were completed,
the teacher may choose to conduct the post-lab discussion for each part separately or
combined.

The teacher should have the students compile and compare data among lab groups. A quick
and easy way to do this is to have each lab group write out their data on individual
whiteboards. The whiteboard should include the best-fit equation and R-squared value as
well as a sketch of the graph. The class then stands in a circle to compare results. The
teacher should act as a facilitator during this discussion by first asking students to make
observations and generalizations after observing their classmates’ data. Students should be
asked to compare what is similar and what is different among the groups, and should be
encouraged to ask questions of other groups.

PART 1: Questions the teacher may choose to ask during the class discussion:

1. Look at the R-squared value for each lab group. Are they similar or different?
What can we conclude about the relationship between the diameter and
circumference of a circle? Is it strong or weak? (Students will conclude that the
relationship is a strong linear relationship.)
2. Look at the slope value for each lab group’s best-fit equation. Are they similar or
different? (The values should all be around 3. The teacher may choose to list
each slope on the main board, especially for students in a foundational course.)
3. Can you think of a real-life meaning for the slope of this equation? How does the
number 3 connect to circles? (Students will eventually identify it as π.)
 4. Look at the y-intercept value for each lab group’s best-fit equation. Are they
similar or different? (Many intercepts will be different, however, most will be
close to 0.)
5. What do you think the y-intercept means? (The teacher should draw a graph,
label the axes “circumference” and “diameter,” and point to the origin.) What is
the value of the diameter at this point? (0) What is the value of the circumference
at this point? (0) (Draw a second graph sketching a line similar to the students’
best fit lines that crosses the y-axis above the origin.) What is the value of the
diameter at this point? (0) What is the value of the circumference at this point?
(≠ 0) Does this make sense? (Students will conclude that whenever the diameter
is 0, the circumference must be 0.)
6. If the y-intercept is supposed to be 0, then why isn’t it in our best-fit equation?
(Students will conclude that this could be due to error. The teacher may want to
introduce some error analysis. An example is described below in the Comments
on Error Analysis.) What are some issues with measurement techniques that
could have contributed to this error?

To conclude this part of the discussion, the teacher should take the time to summarize the
discussion continually emphasizing the connection between the models (graphs and
equation) and the real-life situation. Discussion should include how the best-fit equation
can be used to make predictions. The general formula C=πD should also emerge from
this discussion.

Comments on Error Analysis: The proper way to analyze error for scatterplots would be
to use confidence intervals. However, many teachers do not have time to introduce this
level of statistical analysis. Many teachers use a percent error calculation with a
predetermined maximum acceptable percent error such as 5% or 10%, using the equation:

However, the percent error method does not work mathematically when the theoretical
value is expected to be zero. The Modeling Physics program suggests using an error
analysis called The 5% Rule (or the 10% Rule for students taking a foundational course):
b
%error = x100
L
where b is y-intercept from the best-fit equation and
L is the largest measured dependent variable value in the data table
If this percent is less than 5% (or 10%), then it can be concluded that the value for the y-
intercept is due to error and should in fact be 0.

PART 2:
The discussion for Part 2 should follow a similar format to Part 1. Emphasis should be
placed on the relationships between the variables and the connection to the real-life
meaning. The best-fit is a quadratic curve-fit. A comparison may be drawn between the
results of Part 1 and Part 2.

Assessment Ideas:
Formative or Summative: The teacher may give students data sets to graph and use Excel
to find the best-fit line or curve. Foundational students may be given the type of fit to
use, while capstone students would have to choose the best model by comparing the R-
squared values associated with each model. Students would also use the R-squared value
to analyze the strength of the relationship. They will interpret a general meaning for the
data and use it to make predictions. When complete, students will print out a graph and
provide written results or email it to the teacher for evaluation. An alternative formative
assessment could be to use the same activity as a group assessment and use individual
whiteboards to conduct a short class discussion.

Sample Data Set:

Force (N) Distance (m)
12 0.01
16 0.02
20.5 0.03
24.2 0.04
28.8 0.05
33 0.06
36.9 0.07
40.8 0.08

RUBRIC:
Level 0 Student is unable to complete any aspect of the task as directed.
Level 1 Student is able to construct a graph on Excel. Equation and/or R-squared value
is missing. Interpretation and predictions are omitted or incorrect.
Level 2 Student is able to construct a graph on Excel with the appropriate equation and
R-squared value. Either the interpretation or prediction is incorrect or omitted,
but the other is correctly completed.
Level 3 Student is able to construct a graph on Excel with the appropriate equation and
R-squared value. The interpretation and prediction are both correct and
complete.

References and Alternate Sources:

http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Curve_Fitting

http://www.batesville.k12.in.us/Physics/APPhyNet/lab/experiments/measurement/measur
ing_pi.htm

http://www.arcytech.org/java/pi/measuring.html (online applet of this lab)

ACTIVITY 6 WORKSHEET: THE CIRCLE LAB

In your lab notebook, write the purpose of this lab according to what was
determined in the pre-lab discussion.

PART 1: Exploring the relationship between circumference and diameter.

1. Obtain 8-12 circular objects of DIFFERENT SIZE from the supply area. You
will be making your measurements with these objects.

2. Measure the circumference and diameters of each circular object. Record your
measurements in a data table in your notebook.
TIPS FOR MEASUREMENTS…
a. To measure the diameter, try to find the center of the circle first and make
sure your ruler goes through this point.
b. To measure the circumference, wrap the masking tape or string around the
outside and carefully cut it so that the edges match up. Remove the
masking tape or string and lay it out on the lab counter to be measuresd.
c. Remember that the more careful you are with each measurement, the more
precise you will be.
d. Use the same units for both circumference and diameter and make sure
they’re metric!!!

3. In your notebook, identify how your measurement techniques could affect your
data analysis.

4. Log on to one of the computers. Open Microsoft Excel and type your data into
the spreadsheet.

5. Click on the Graph icon (it’s a picture of a bar graph). Choose scatter plots and
follow the steps to make your graph:
The diameter should be on the horizontal axis.
Be sure to label each axis.

6. “Right click” on one of the data points and choose “Add Trendline.”

7. Move the equation so that you can read it clearly. Does anything look familiar to
you?
Highlight the linear fit.
Choose the Options tab and checkmark “Display Equation on Chart” and
“Display R-squared Value on Chart”.
Click “OK”
In your lab notebook, draw a sketch of your graph. Record the best-fit equation
and R-squared value and answer the following questions before the post-lab
discussion:
1. Does your line go perfectly through all of the points? Why or why not?
2. What does the R-squared value tell you about your data?
3. What is the equation of the best-fit line according to the computer?
4. What do you think is the real-life meaning of the slope value from the best-fit
equation?
5. What is the y-intercept from the best-fit equation? What do you think it
means in this real-life situation?

After the post-lab discussion, write a summary of the class results and explain any
limitations of the lab design. Write a concluding statement that addresses the
purpose of the lab.

PART 2: Exploring the relationship between area and radius.

1. Using the compass, draw 8-12 circles of DIFFERENT SIZE on the 0.5-cm graph
paper. Make sure to mark the center of each circle.
2. Measure the radius of each circle by counting the number of boxes from the
center of the circle to the edge. You should be able to determine a value to the
precision of ¼ of a box (=0.125 cm). Convert your count into cm (remembering
that each box is 0.5 cm on its side).
3. Find the area of each circle by counting the number of boxes and converting into
cm2 (every 4 boxes = 1 cm2). Again, you will have to estimate the value of partial
boxes.
4. In your notebook, comment on whether or not you believe that this method of
measurement will have any effect on your data analysis. Be sure to explain your
reasoning.
5. Log on to one of the computers. Go to Microsoft Excel and type your data into
the spreadsheet.

6. Click on the Graph icon (it’s a picture of a bar graph). Choose scatter plots and
follow the steps to make your graph.
The diameter should be on the horizontal axis.
Be sure to label each axis.

7. “Right click” on one of the data points and choose “Add Trendline.”

8. This time choose the curve fit with the highest R-squared value. (You will have
to do this by trial and error.) Be sure to display both the equation and R-squared
value when you have found the best-fit line or curve.
Answer the same questions as you did for Part 1 and follow the same write-up
format in your lab notebook.
Oakland Schools Physics Resource Unit

Motion of Objects

Jessica Ashley
Athens High School
Troy School District

Diana Dildine
Berkley High School
Berkley School District

1
 Motion of Objects
Content Statements
P2.1 Position — Time
An object’s position can be measured and graphed as a function of time. An object’s speed can be
calculated and graphed as a function of time.
P2.2 Velocity — Time
The motion of an object can be described by its position and velocity as functions of time and by its
average speed and average acceleration during intervals of time.
P2.3x Frames of Reference
All motion is relative to whatever frame of reference is chosen, for there is no motionless frame from
which to judge all motion.

Content Expectations
P2.1A Calculate the average speed of an object using the change of position and elapsed time.

P2.1B Represent the velocities for linear and circular motion using motion diagrams (arrows on strobe
pictures).

P2.1C Create line graphs using measured values of position and elapsed time.

P2.1D Describe and analyze the motion that a position-time graph represents, given the graph.

P2.1g Solve problems involving average speed and constant acceleration in one dimension.

P2.2A Distinguish between the variables of distance, displacement, speed, velocity, and acceleration.

P2.2B Use the change of speed and elapsed time to calculate the average acceleration for linear motion.

P2.2C Describe and analyze the motion that a velocity-time graph represents, given the graph.

P2.2e Use the area under a velocity-time graph to calculate the distance traveled and the slope to calculate the
acceleration.

P2.3a Describe and compare the motion of an object using different reference frames.

2
Instructional Background Information:

Mechanics is the study of motion of objects. Kinematics is the science of describing the
motion of objects using words, diagrams, numbers, graphs, and equations. Kinematics is
a branch of mechanics. The mathematical quantities which are used to describe the
motion of objects can be divided into two categories. The quantity is either a vector or a
scalar. Scalars are quantities which are fully described by a magnitude (or numerical
value) alone. Vectors are quantities which are fully described by both a magnitude and a
direction. Distance and displacement are two quantities which may seem to mean the
same thing yet have distinctly different definitions and meanings. Distance is a scalar
quantity which refers to "how much ground an object has covered" during its motion.
Displacement is a vector quantity which refers to "how far out of place an object is"; it is
the object's overall change in position. Just as distance and displacement have distinctly
different meanings (despite their similarities), so do speed and velocity. Speed is a scalar
quantity which refers to "how fast an object is moving." Speed can be thought of as the
rate at which an object covers distance. Velocity is a vector quantity which refers to "the
rate at which an object changes its position." Speed is a scalar quantity and does not keep
track of direction; velocity is a vector quantity and is direction aware. Acceleration is a
vector quantity which is defined as the rate at which an object changes its velocity. An
object is accelerating if it is changing its velocity. Since acceleration is a vector quantity,
it has a direction associated with it. The direction of the acceleration vector depends on
whether the object is speeding up or slowing down and/or whether the object is moving
in the positive or negative direction. The study of one-dimensional kinematics has been
concerned with the multiple means by which the motion of objects can be represented.
Such means include the use of words, the use of diagrams, the use of numbers, the use of
equations, and the use of graphs. Position-time graphs show us how the object’s
position changes over time and determining the slope tells us about the object’s velocity.
Velocity-time graphs show us how the object’s velocity changes over time and
determining the slope tells us about the object’s acceleration. Acceleration-time graphs
show us how the object’s acceleration changes over time. When analyzing your data, a
line of best fit shows the general trend of the object’s motion. A free-falling object is an
object which is falling under the sole influence of gravity. Any object which is being
acted upon only be the force of gravity is said to be in a state of free fall. There are two
important motion characteristics which are true of free-falling objects: free-falling
objects do not encounter air resistance and all free-falling objects (on Earth) accelerate
downwards at a rate of 9.8 m/s2 (often approximated as 10 m/s2).

Source: www.physicsclassroom.com

3
Terms and Concepts:

Mechanics Speed (average and instantaneous)

Kinematics Average velocity

Scalar vs. Vector Average acceleration
Position Position vs. time graph
Velocity vs. time graph
Acceleration vs. time graph
Distance Line of best fit

Displacement Free-fall motion

Variable Equation Units

Velocity (v) v=d m/s
t
Acceleration (a) a= Δv m/s2
t
Distance (d) d = vit + ½ at2 m

Distance (d) d = ½ (vf + vi) * t m

Final velocity vf = vi + at m/s

(vf)
Final velocity vf2 = vi2 + 2ad m/s
(vf)

4
Instructional Resources:

Kinematics: The Physics of Motion (A collection of sites broken down by topics of

kinematics.)
http://www.compadre.org/precollege/static/unit.cfm?sb=2&course=2

1- Dimensional Kinematics Chapter Website (Background information, animations

and student quizzes)
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/1DKin/

Kinematics of 1-D uniformly accelerated motion (graph simulation)

http://www.ngsir.netfirms.com/englishhtm/Kinematics.htm

Schober’s Physics Website (Teacher handouts, unit outlines and student handouts
based off the modeling program)
www.modelingphysics.org

Teacher and student resources including student online quizzes and misconception
corrections within the quizzes.
www.diagnoser.com

Collection of topics for students including practice problems with answers

http://www.physics247.com/physics-homework-help/index.shtml

Velocity-Time Graphs (Explanations and practice problems)

http://dev.physicslab.org/Document.aspx?doctype=3&filename=Kinematics_Accelerated
MotionVelocityTimeGraphs.xml

Interactive Online Simulation: (Moving Man)

http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=The_Moving_Man

Motion Lab: Position-Time Graphs of Motion

http://users.hal-pc.org/~clement/Simulations/Physlets/TST/Position-Time%20Graphs.html

Kinematics unit plans with handouts included

http://ed.fnal.gov/arise/guides/phys03-kinematics.pdf

Kinematics Overview (teacher website with terms, misconceptions and handouts)

http://www.batesville.k12.in.us/Physics/PhyNet/Mechanics/Kinematics/KineOverview.ht
ml

Linear Motion Software (some activities are free and others require a $45 charge)
http://www.goldenkstar.com/linear-motion-school-software-physics.htm

Linear Motion Lab Using Toy Trucks and Cars

http://www.jdenuno.com/Physics/Labs/LinearMotion.pdf

5
Multiple Choice Kinematics Question with Diagrams
http://faculty.ccc.edu/colleges/wright/science/physics221/P221Ws2.htm

Calculating time, velocity, distance and displacement practice problems

http://www.neshaminy.k12.pa.us/145120910144322897/lib/145120910144322897/Just_a
_matter_of_timeHonors.doc

Distance and Displacement Worksheet

http://www.phy.ilstu.edu/pte/311content/practical/care_package/distance%20and%20disp
lacement.doc

Motion Worksheet (with answers)

http://academic.evergreen.edu/curricular/emergingorder/Worksheets/Week_1_Motion_W
orksheet.pdf

6
 MOTION OF OBJECTS
Activity # 1: Vector Treasure Hunt (foundational)
Questions to be investigated
1. How do you give directions?
2. What is a vector?
3. What is the proper method of adding/subtracting vectors?
Objectives
1. Understand and apply the use of vectors.
2. Generate a map

Materials
• Note cards (10 per group)
• Meter sticks
• Compasses (optional)
• Tape (to mark starting point)
Real-World Connections
• Giving directions; Reading maps; Airplanes
Teacher Notes
For this activity, it is helpful to assign the groups to evenly distribute student ability. All
students must start at the same point. The teacher provides the “treasure” (candy, etc.).
Once students begin the lab, they should first hide their treasure. Next, they should begin
at the starting point and begin writing one vector per note card leading to the treasure.
After groups have finished writing their directions, they should submit them to the
teacher. The teacher will shuffle the cards and give them to another group. The goal is
for each group to find the hidden treasure using the vector cards.
NOTE: “Finding Nemo” activity is an advanced modification to learning vectors and is
found after the “vector treasure hunt.”

Procedure/Description of Lesson
1. Review vectors
2. Show starting location
3. Describe any limitations on where treasure can be hidden (i.e. other teacher’s
classrooms, bathrooms, etc.)
4. Handout lab sheet and note cards for each group.

Assessment Ideas
Draw a map on a sheet of paper. Have several objects labeled on the map. Below the
map, provide a set of vector directions with a ruler. Have students determine which
object the vector directions lead to.

7
8
9
10
 Finding Nemo
Source: Christine Deyo, Rochester Adams High School

Students must provide their own submarine, which will be a large decorated box, and a
flashlight. Each team will then be given a set of displacement vectors and a compass.
Using the compass and the members’ physics knowledge, the team must follow the
vectors and try to end at a final location. To make things more difficult, the students will
be inside the box.
Judging: Points will be given based on the time it takes to complete the activity, distance
from the final location (if the team doesn’t finish), and the creativity of its decorated box.

For the teams that finish the activity:

Total = 60 -Total Time (minutes)-distance from finish + Creativity Points
For the teams that don’t finish the activity:
Total = Total Distance- Distance from Final Location + Creativity Points
(All teams that finish the course will be ranked before those that don’t)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Team Total Time Distance from Creativity Points Total Place
minutes Final Location (up to 15)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

_______ _________ ___________ _____________ ________ ______

_______ _________ ___________ _____________ ________ ______

_______ _________ ___________ _____________ ________ ______

_______ _________ ___________ _____________ ________ ______

_______ _________ ___________ _____________ ________ ______

_______ _________ ___________ _____________ ________ ______

_______ _________ ___________ _____________ ________ ______

_______ _________ ___________ _____________ ________ ______

Judges:__________________________________________________________________

Comments:

11
Activity # 2 Buggy Car Lab (foundational & capstone)
Questions to be investigated
1. How do we describe the motion of an object?
2. What characterizes constant velocity?
3. What type of graph best illustrates constant velocity?
4. What does the slope of a line tell you?

Objectives
1. Define constant velocity.
2. Collect and organize data of the car’s motion.
3. Create a position vs. time graph using data collected.
4. Define the meaning of the slope (i.e. what does it tell you about the car’s motion?)

Materials
• 1 Constant velocity car ( for each group)
• 10 small pieces of masking tape (for each group) & a starting line tape
• 1 Stop watch (for each group)
• 1 meter stick (for each group)

Real-World Connections
• Cruise control on a vehicle

Teacher Notes
This lab is best done in a large space or outside. (If done outside, use sidewalk chalk in
stead of tape to mark position of the car.)

Divide students into groups of four. One person is assigned each of the following roles in
this investigation: time keeper, data recorder, tape marker, and measurer& car operator.
This lab is divided into three parts: slow-constant speed, fast-constant speed, and other.
During part 3 (other), the teacher will assign groups a new challenge. The challenges
may include: changing the starting position of the car (+ or -), place the car at the
positive or negative end and have the car travel backwards, use fresh batteries in the car,
etc.

Just before groups are ready to begin collecting data, have students turn on the car and
place it before the starting line. When the car reaches the starting position, the timer
begins saying, “MARK” at two second intervals. This will increase the accuracy in data
collection.

12
Procedure/Description of Lesson
1. Define the purpose of the lab.
2. Review requirements for a position vs. time graph.
3. Review slope.
4. Go over the materials needed and assign roles to students.
5. Provide student handout. (One lab sheet per group. Each student will create
their own graphs using their group’s data. Each student will answer the analysis
questions and write a conclusion.)

Assessment Ideas
1. Analysis questions (lab report)
2. Conclusion (lab report)
3. Using whiteboards have students graph a scenario that the teacher speaks
4. Unit II: Review (handout from the modeling workshop)

Sources:
http://www.arborsci.com/ArborLabs/ASLab_3.aspx
http://www.compadre.org/precollege/items/detail.cfm?ID=8313

13
 Constant Velocity Lab: Buggy Cars
Record names of your group members according to their jobs during the lab:

Timer: _____________________________________________________

Marker: ____________________________________________________

Recorder : ___________________________________________________

Measurer& Car Operator: ______________________________________

Purpose

Materials

Procedure
Part 1
1. Set the buggy car to a slow speed using the dial.
2. Mark the starting point on the floor using a piece of masking tape. (This is the 0 cm point.)
When you begin, the front of the car should be at the starting point.
3. As the timer reads the time aloud (every 2 seconds) the marker should mark the position of
the front of the car with a small piece of masking tape. Take 10 data points.
4. Measure the displacement of all the marks from the starting point and record the data in data
table 1 and repeat.

Part 2
5. Set the buggy car to a fast speed using the dial.
6. Remove the tape marks from part 1.
7. Repeat steps 2-3 from part 1.
8. Measure the displacement of all the marks from the starting point and record the data in data
table 2 and repeat.

Part 3
9. Remove the tape from part 2.
10. See your teacher for the instructions for Part 3.
11. Record your data in table 3 and repeat.

14
 Data

Table 1 Table 2
Trial 1 Trial 2 Average Trial 1 Trial 2 Average
Time (s) Position Position Position (cm) Time (s) Position Position Position (cm)
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)

Table 3
Trial 1 Trial 2 Average

Time (s) Position Position Position (cm)

(cm) (cm)

15
Graphing
• Put your name at the top of the graph paper.
• Create one graph and plot all your data points. Use different colored pencils for
each of the three parts. Draw a line of best fit for each of your data sets.
• A complete graph includes:
o title
o x and y variables and units (time on the x-axis and position on the y-axis)
o scale
o line(s) of best fit
• Calculate the slope of each line. Record the slope of all three parts using the
coordinating colored pencil from your graph.

Analysis Questions
* Each student should answer these questions individually.

1. Refer to your graphs from table 1 and 2 to answer the following questions.
a. Do your data points fall in a somewhat-straight line? YES / NO

b. What physical quantity is represented by the slope of the line?

c. How does the slope of graph 1 and graph 2 compare? What does that
really mean?

d. Is the velocity of the car constant or not constant? ___________________

How do you know?

e. How would you recognize a graph of an object traveling at a constant

velocity?

2. Refer to graph 3 to answer the following questions.

a. What do you notice about the shape of your graph? (Is it similar to graphs
1 and 2, or different? Explain.)

b. How does the slope of the line in graph 3 compare to the slopes of graphs
1 and 2? What does that tell you about the motion of the car?

16
 c. Is the velocity of the car constant or not constant? ___________________
How do you know?

3. List any factors that may have contributed to sources of error in this lab.

Conclusion
Write a conclusion that includes the following items at a minimum:
• the purpose of the lab
• what you did in this lab (all three parts)
• how your data compares (for all three parts)
• what a constant speed graph looks like
• additional information you learned

17
 Name

Date Pd

UNIT II: Review

1. Consider the position vs. time graph at right.

a. Determine the average velocity of the object.

b. Write a mathematical equation to describe the

motion of the object.

2. Shown at right is a velocity vs. time

graph for an object.

a. Describe the motion of the object.

b. Draw the corresponding position vs. time

graph. Number the x - axis.

c. How far did the object travel in the

interval t =1s to t =2s?

d. What is the total displacement? Explain

how you got the answer.

18
Activity # 3 Estimating Distance (foundational)
Questions to be investigated
1. How can we determine the distance from point A to point B with out a meter stick
or ruler?
2. How can we find the average velocity at which we walk?
3. How can we find the total distance of the hallway by counting our steps?

Objectives
1. Define distance, velocity and time.
2. Use the v=d/t equation to solve for the distance of the hallway.

Materials
1. meter stick (to measure out 10 meters)
2. stop watch (one per student)

Safety Concerns
• None

Teacher Notes
This lab requires students to go around a hallway that makes a loop of some kind. If your
school doesn’t have a loop, then you can adapt this lesson and measure the distance
around the school track, basketball court, or another object. Begin by measuring a
distance of 10 meters and mark it with masking tape. In part 1, students will count the
number of steps it takes them to travel 10 meters. In part 2, students will time how long
it takes them to walk 10 meters. They will repeat this two more times and get an average
time. (Students will then use d = 10 meters and their average time to find their average
speed.) It is essential that students do not walk with a partner when determining their
speed or counting the number of steps it takes them to travel 10 meters. Likewise, when
students are traveling around the loop of the hallway, they should also walk individually.
If they walk together, they will match the pace of their partner and the data will be
inaccurate, resulting in an incorrect value for the distance of the hallway.

During the pre-lab discussion discuss with the students why they need to be as consistent
as possible with their pace and the place at which they choose to walk. Students who
walk on the inside of the hall will have a smaller value than those who walk on the
outside of the hall. As long as students are consistent, allow for a range of distances of
the hallway.
To accurately measure the distance of the hallway, the teacher can do the lab walking the
inside, middle and outside to have a range of values that are accepted for the lab.
Another option would be to use a trundle wheel and measure the distance.

19
This lab has students repeat each part so that they time how long it takes to walk around
the loop three times and then average the time. Students then repeat walking around the
loop, but now count steps. If you are short on time, you can tell the students to start their
stop watches, and then begin counting steps all at the same time. In total, students would
only walk three times around the loop opposed to six.

Procedure/Description of Lesson
1. Pre-lab
a. discuss how to calculate distance and complete sample problems on the
board
b. remind students to walk individually and be consistent with their pace and
place in which they walk

2. Allow students to measure out the 10 meter space and verify the distance of 10
meters.
3. Provide each student a stop watch.
4. See attached handout for lab directions and data tables.

Assessment Ideas:
1. Record student distance values to compare values. How accurate are the values to
the actual distance of the hall? What could have contributed to the inconsistency,
if any?
2. Unit II: Worksheet 3 (Modeling handout)

Sources:
©Modeling Workshop Project 2006

20
 Name

Date Hr

UNIT II: Worksheet 3

1. Robin, roller skating down a marked sidewalk, was observed to be at the following
positions at the times listed below:

t (s) x (m)

0.0 10.0

1.0 12.0

2.0 14.0

5.0 20.0

8.0 26.0

10.0 30.0

a. Plot a position vs. time graph for the skater.

b. How far from the starting point was he at t = 6s? How do you know?

c. Write a mathematical model to describe the curve in (a).

d. Was his speed constant over the entire interval? How do you know?

21
2. The following data were obtained for a second trial:

t (s) x (m)

0.0 4.0

2.0 10.0

4.0 16.0

6.0 22.0

8.0 28.0

10.0 34.0

a. Plot the position vs. time graph for the skater.

b. How far from the starting point was he at t = 5s? How do you know?

c. Was his speed constant? If so, what was it?

d. In the first trial the skater was further along at 2s than he was in the second trial.
Does this mean that he was going faster? Explain your answer.

22
3. Suppose now that our skater was observed in a third trial. The following data were
obtained:

t (s) x (m)
0.0 0.0

2.0 6.0

4.0 12.0

6.0 12.0

8.0 8.0

10.0 4.0

12.0 0.0

a. Plot the position vs. time graph for the skater.

b. What do you think is happening during the time interval: t = 4s to t = 6s? How do
you know?

c. What do you think is happening during the time interval: t = 6s to t = 12s? How
do you know?

d. Determine the skater's average speed from t = 0s to t = 12s.

e. Determine the skater's average velocity from t = 0s to t = 12s.

©Modeling Workshop Project 2006 23

23
Name: ______________________________________ Hr: ____ Date: ______________

Physics Lab: Estimating Distance

Purpose: To determine the distance around the entire upstairs hallway, in two
distinct ways, while using the speed equation.

Brainstorm: How could we determine the distance of the hallway?

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Materials:

Procedure:
Note: There are two parts to this lab since we are finding the distance of the
hallway in two distinct ways. Complete the hallway portion for part 1 and part 2,
then come back in the classroom and finish the lab.
Part 1 Procedures : Counting Steps
1. Go to the designated area in the hallway.
2. Using a meter stick, measure out 10 meters. Put tape on the floor to
indicate a starting point and ending point.
3. Count the number of steps it takes you to travel the 10 meters. Record
your answer in Table 1.
4. Repeat step 3 two more times and then find the average.
5. Walk around the entire upstairs hallway counting the number of steps it
takes you to complete the journey. (Do not walk with a friend or partner!)
Record your answer in table 1.
6. Repeat step 5 two more times, then calculate the average.
7. Continue to part 2 procedures before completing the calculations for part 1

Part 2 Procedures : Using Time

8. Walk the same 10 meter distance in part one and time how long it takes

24
 you to walk 10 meters. Record your time in table 2.
9. Repeat step 8 two more times, record your data and then calculate the
average.
10. Walk the entire upstairs hallway and time how long it takes you. Record
your answer in table 2.
11. Repeat step 10 two more times, record your data and then calculate the
average.
12. Return to the classroom to complete the calculations for the lab and to
write your conclusion.
Data Table 1: Counting Steps
Number of steps it took you Number of steps it took you
to go 10 meters. to go around the entire
upstairs hallway.
Trial 1

Trial 2

Trial 3

Average

Part One Calculations:

Remember that the purpose of this lab is to find the distance of the hallway in two
distinct ways. Part 1, we counted our steps. Now it’s time to calculate. Cross-multiply
to find the total distance. Use the example below to help you.

Example: 15 steps = 350 steps Answer = 233 meters.

10 meters x

Now, plug in your numbers from data table 1 to find the distance of the
hall way by counting steps.

25
 Data table 2: Using time

Amount of time it took you Amount of time it took you

to go 10 meters. (seconds) to go around the entire
upstairs hallway. (seconds)
Trial 1

Trial 2

Trial 3

Average

Part 2 Calculations:

We need to use a known distance and a known Now that you know your speed, we can use
time to find our speed. Use your data from it to find distance. Rearrange the speed
table 2 to determine your speed. equation to find distance.

speed = distance (meters)

time (seconds)

Questions: Answer the following questions in complete sentences. (5 points total)

1. Why did we find an average for our steps in 10 meters and our time in
10 meters?

2. Does it matter if your speed changes as you make your way around the
hallway? Explain.

3. Does it matter if you walk on the inside edge or the outside edge of the
hallway? Explain.

26
 4. Is the distance of the hallway greater for a short person or a tall
person? Explain.

5. List three errors that could have taken place during the lab.

Conclusion:

Distance of the hallway for part 1: __________ meters (get this from part 1
calculations)

Distance of the hallway for part 2: _________ meters (get this from part 2 calculations)

Actual distance of the hallway: ____________meters (your teacher will provide this
info.)

Write a short conclusion. Include the following in your conclusion:

A summary of this lab. (Re-state the purpose and brief procedures) (3 points)
Were your distance for part 1 and 2 the same or close to the same? If they are
different, why? (2 points)
How close were your distances to the actual distance of the hallway? If there is a
large distance, determine why. (2 points)

27
Activity # 4 Walk the Graph and Other Graphing Ideas
(foundational)

Questions to be investigated
1. How can we determine if something is moving? What does a moving object look
like on a position vs. time graph?
2. How can we determine if the motion of an object is speeding up, slowing down,
constant or not moving, on a position vs. time graph?

Objectives
1. Students will be able to interpret position vs. time graphs.
2. Students will be able to interpret velocity vs. time graphs.
3. Students will be able to distinguish between objects that are moving, not moving,
speeding up, slowing down, and at a constant speed.

Materials
• Sample graphs
• Students to volunteer as walkers
• Whiteboards with dry erase marker (computer paper can be used as an
alternative)

Safety Concerns
• none

Teacher Notes
Walk the graph is a way to have the students act out the graph. This is particularly
effective for visual learners and kinesthetic learners. This activity engages the walker as
well as the audience. There are many adaptations to this lesson and many additional
graph resources attached at the end of the lesson.

Procedure/Description of Lesson
The teacher provides a graph or a series of graphs for a student to walk. The audience
draws the graph that the student walks.

Assessment Ideas:
1. Unit II: Worksheet 2 (Modeling program)
2. Ranking Activity- Position-Time Graphs (see handout)

28
 Walk the Graph & Other Graphing Ideas

This graph can be walked with 4 different students

all at the same time. Show the graph (to the left) to
all four students and assign each of them a line to
walk. Do not show the graph to the entire class.
Assign groups in the audience to follow one
particular student. Provide the audience groups
with a white board or construction paper. After
observing their walker, audience groups should
draw the shape of the graph. Call on groups to
show their drawings and explain their answer. (Be
sure to tell students to watch the other walkers after
they have the general idea of the shape of their
graph. This will ensure the graphs for B and D are
correct.)

For these graphs, choose three separate individuals to walk. Show all three graphs on
the board prior to students walking and tell the three walkers the order in which they
will walk (quietly so that the audience students don’t know). Provide the audience
students with numbered cards (1-3) of different colors. (See template attached.) After
a student walks a graph, have audience students vote by holding up the numbered card
telling which graph the walker walked.

29
These graphs can be used in several ways. One method could be to pair students and give
each student half the graphs you want them to evaluate. One student can walk the graph and
the other can draw what the student walked to check for accuracy. (Then students switch
roles; Whiteboards work well for this activity) Another method is to give a pair of students
a graph with out the variables and require that students write about a real-life situation in
which the graph represents. Ensure that students include a title, variables and units, and a
scenario that makes sense.

30
Other Graph Websites
http://dev.physicslab.org/DocumentPrint.aspx?doctype=3&filename=Kinematics_Compa
ringSTandVT.xml

http://www.batesville.k12.in.us/Physics/PhyNet/Mechanics/Kinematics/Labs/graph_wksh
t_1.htm

http://gbs.glenbrook.k12.il.us/Academics/gbssci/phys/chemphys/reviews/u6review/u6ans
3.html

http://onlinephys.com/kinematics1D.html

http://jbworld.jbs.st-louis.mo.us/science/mschober/constv/practice.htm

http://www.digitalillusions.ca/applewoodscience/LessonsOnLiine/Physics/physics_exam
_review.htm (MC questions- multiple topics)

http://www.csun.edu/~vceed002/books/sourcebook/chapters/20-ss/graphics-pdf/20-7.pdf
(pictures of graphs)

http://www.nden.k12.wi.us/tlcf/mot3.htm (more MC questions)

http://www.staff.fcps.net/kgill/Physics/unit2.html

31
Voting Cards
Print each number on different colored paper. Laminate and give a set (1-4) to each
student to use. (A, B, C, D can also be placed on the back of the numbers for other
voting type activities.)

1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
32
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2

33
3 3 3 3
3 3 3 3
3 3 3 3
3 3 3 3

34
4 4 4 4
4 4 4 4
4 4 4 4
4 4 4 4

35
36
 Name

Date Hr

UNIT II: Worksheet 2

Sketch velocity vs. time graphs corresponding to the following descriptions of the motion
of an object.

1. The object is moving away from the origin at a

constant (steady) speed.

2. The object is standing still.

3. The object moves toward the origin at a steady

speed for 10s, then stands still for 10s.

4. The object moves away from the origin at a steady

speed for 10s, reverses direction and moves back toward
the origin at the same speed.

37
Draw the velocity vs. time graphs for an object whose motion produced the position vs.
time graphs shown below at left.

5.

6.

7.

38
1 Dimensional Motion – Science literacy assignment – Aristotle versus Galileo

Aristotle developed a system of physics based on what he thought occurred in nature. For example, he
thought that if a stone is released from rest, it instantaneously reaches a speed that remains constant as the
stone falls. He also believed that the speed attained by a stone falling in air varies directly with the weight of
the stone. A 5-pound stone, for example, falls with a constant speed 5 times as great as that of a 1-pound
stone. Aristotle also noted that stones dropped into water continue to fall, but at a slower rate than stones
falling through air. To account for this, he explained that the resistance of the medium through which an
object falls also affects the speed. Therefore, he said, the speed of a falling object also varies inversely with
the resistance of the medium, and this resistance is the same for all objects.

Galileo disagreed with Aristotle's explanation. He generated the following arguments to refute Aristotle.

Consider a stake partially driven into the ground and a heavy stone falling from various heights onto the
stake. If the stone falls from a height of 4 cubits, the stake will be driven into the ground, say, 4
fingerbreadths. But if the stone falls from a height of 1 cubit, the stake will be driven in a much smaller
amount. Certainly, Galileo argued, if the stone is raised above the stake by only the thickness of a leaf, then
the effect of the stone's falling on the stake will be altogether unnoticeable.

On the basis of a careful set of experiments, Galileo argued that the speed of an object released from rest
varies directly with the time of fall. Also, the distance the object falls varies directly with the square of the
time of fall if the effect of air resistance on the object is negligible. Thus, according to Galileo, objects
actually fall with constant acceleration, and if air resistance is negligible, all objects have exactly the same
acceleration.

Questions on passage:

1. Which graph accurately represents Galileo's theory of the relationship between speed and time for
an object falling from rest under conditions of negligible air resistance?

A B C
D

2. A book dropped from a height of 1 meter falls to the floor in t seconds. To be consistent with
Aristotle's views, from what height, in meters, should a book 3 times as heavy be dropped so that it
will fall to the floor in the same amount of time?
A. 1/9 B. 1/3 C. 1 D. 3

39
3. Suppose a heavy object falls to the ground in t seconds when dropped from shoulder height.
According to Galileo, if air resistance were negligible, how many seconds would it take an object half as
heavy to fall to the ground from the same height?
A. 0.5t B. 1.0t C. 1.5t D. 2.0t

4. A piece of putty weighing 2 pounds is dropped down a shaft from the top of a tall building; 1 second
later, a 3 pound piece of putty is dropped down the shaft. According to Aristotle, what happens to the 2
pieces of putty if they fall for a relatively long time?

A. The separation between the 2 pieces constantly increases until they strike the ground.
B. The separation between the 2 pieces is constant until they strike the ground.
C. The heavier piece catches up to the smaller piece, and the 2 pieces travel together with
the speed of the heavier piece.
D. The heavier piece catches up to the smaller piece, and the 2 pieces travel together with a
speed faster than the speed of either.

40
Activity #5: 100 Yard Dash Lab (Capstone)

Questions to be investigated
1) How can you construct a position versus time graph?
2) How can you construct a velocity versus time graph?
3) How can you construct an acceleration versus time graph?

Objectives
1) Record necessary data in data tables provided.
2) Utilizing all data of moving objects, construct a position versus time graph.
3) Upon finding slopes of each line on the position versus time graph, construct a
velocity versus time graph.
4) Upon finding slopes of each line on the velocity versus time graph, construct an
acceleration versus time graph.

Materials
• Stop watches (approximately 20 depending on class size)
• Football field or track (area 100 yards long, marked off in 20 yard segments)
• Pencils (one at each data collection location; 5 total)
• Calculators (one at each data collection location; 5 total)

Safety Concerns
• Students take care if running surface is wet

Real-World Connections
Estimating travel times, velocity, etc

Teacher Notes
In this lab, there will be a total of 7 students that will be running or walking: constant
speed walker in forward direction, constant speed jogger in forward direction, constant
speed sprinter in forward direction, accelerating runner in forward direction, decelerating
runner in forward direction, constant speed runner in the backward direction and a
decelerating runner in the backward direction. Constant speed walkers, joggers and
runners must do their best to maintain a state of constant speed. When graphing the
motion of these students, it is important to stress that students draw a line of best fit
through the data points (best fit straight line on pos/time graph). Accelerating students
must do their best to accelerate at a constant rate. When graphing the motion of these
students, a line of best fit is also drawn (best fit curved line on pos/time graph). It is very
important that students know why these lines are best fit lines. (It is close to impossible
for humans to ensure that they walk at a constant speed or accelerate at a constant rate).
NOTE: Make sure accelerating student accelerates slowly (you don’t want student to
reach their peak speed half way down the football field).

41
To properly set up the lab, take care to do the following:

* Make sure you have at least one person recording data at each station. The
remaining students at each station will be keeping track of the time (these times
will be averaged and the average time is what is recorded).

1) Recording data for students moving in the forward direction:

Set up data recording stations every twenty yards. Therefore, if you are on a
football field, you should have data collection groups on the 20-yard, 40-yard, 60-
yard, 80-yard and the 100-yard (end-zone) lines. All students start their
stopwatches at the same time (when student starts moving from 0-yard line) and
then stop them as the moving student passes their yard line.

2) Recording data for students moving in the backward (opposite) direction:

Set up data recording stations every twenty yards. However, each recording
group must now shift down 20 yards towards the 0-yard line (i.e. 100-yard line
group moves to 80-yard line, 80-yard line group moves to 60-yard line, etc.).
When recording the data, the groups will still be recording in the same column.
That is, even though the 100-yard line group moved to the 80-yard line, they will
still record their data in the 100-yard line column. All students start their
stopwatches at the same time (when student starts moving from 100-yard line)
and then stop them as the moving student passes their yard line.

Procedure/Description of Lesson
1. Assign students their role in the lab (walker, jogger, runners, timer or data
collector); Place timers and data collectors into a yard-line group (20-, 40-, etc…)
2. Pass out lab sheet to each student
3. Read through directions aloud with students as they read quietly
4. Discuss where timer/data collectors will stand and how it will change when
runners move in opposite direction
5. Perform lab
6. Have student groups come up to white board to record their times
7. Have all students copy data into their labs
8. Have students complete the remainder of the lab

42
Assessment Ideas
Use the following graph to answer Questions #1 - #7.

1. Which object(s) is(are) maintaining a state of motion (i.e., maintaining a constant

velocity)?
2. Which object(s) is(are) accelerating?
3. Which object(s) is(are) not moving?
4. Which object(s) change(s) its direction?
5. Which object is traveling fastest?
6. Which moving object is traveling slowest?
7. Which object has the greatest acceleration?

Use the following graph to answer Questions #8 - #13.

8. Which object(s) is(are) maintaining its state of motion?

9. Which object(s) is(are) accelerating?
10. Which object(s) is(are) not moving?
11. Which object(s) change(s) its direction?
12. Which accelerating object has the smallest acceleration?
13. Which object has the greatest velocity?

43
Name: ____________________________________

Objective: Given the proper instruments, students will measure different variables
in order to construct a position versus time graph, velocity versus time graph and
acceleration versus time graph.

Directions:
1. A student will walk/run a 100-yard dash while being timed by his/her classmates.
2. Every 20 yards (20-yard line, 40-yard line, 60-yard line, 80-yard line and 100-
yard line), there will be multiple timers and one data recorder.
3. The timers will start the stopwatch when the walker/runner begins to move (as
teacher yells “GO”) and stop their stopwatches when the walker/runner crosses
their designated yard-line.
4. The timers at each yard-line will average their times and record their average in
the data table below.
5. Before the “opposite direction” runners run, each group should shift down 20-
yards towards the 0-yard line (100-yard line group is now on 80-yard line, 80-
yard line group is on 60-yard line, etc…).
6. The timers will start the stopwatch when the runner begins to move (as teacher
yells “GO”) and stop their stopwatches when the runner crosses their designated
yard-line.
7. The timers at each yard-line will average their times and record their average in
the data table below.
NOTE: Even though each group has shifted 20-yards from their original data
recording position, data will still be recorded in the original column (i.e. group
that is NOW on 80-yard line will still record data in 100-yard column).

44
Data Table:

Walker/Runner Time Time Time Time Time

Type (20 yards) (40 yards) (60 yards) (80 yards) (100 yards)
Walker
(constant speed in
forward direction)
Jogger
(constant speed in
forward direction)
Sprinter #1
(constant speed in
forward direction)
Sprinter #2
(speeding up in
forward direction)
Sprinter #3
(slowing down in
forward direction)
Sprinter #4
(constant speed in
opposite direction)
Sprinter #5
(slowing down in
opposite direction)

Graph #1: Use graph paper to construct a position versus time graph. Plot the data for
all walkers/runners on one graph. Draw a line of best fit through data points for each
walker/runner (straight or curved line when necessary). The y-axis (11 inch side) will be
position (in yards) and the x-axis (8 ½ inch side) will be time (in seconds). Use different
colors to represent different walkers/runners (include a key).

Questions: Use the position-time graph to answer the following questions.

1) Which of the lines show a negative slope? Explain why it is showing this
relationship.

2) Which of the lines show a linear relationship? Explain why it is linear.

3) Explain what the magnitude of each line’s slope reveals to us about each
individual.

45
4) Which of the lines show a non-linear relationship? Explain why it is non-linear.

5) Explain how we can use this position-time graph to help construct a velocity-time
graph.

Graph #2: Construct a velocity versus time graph of the walkers/runners from the
position-time graph. Do this by taking instantaneous velocity measurements at each 20
yard increment on the position-time graph. Instantaneous velocity is found by taking the
slope of the tangent line (if curved) or slope of straight line at the 20 yard, 40 yard, 60
yard, 80 yard and 100 yard displacement markings (these slopes represent the velocity of
the person at that point in time; plot these points and draw a line of best fit). The y-axis
(11 inch side) will be velocity (in yards/sec.) and the x-axis (8 ½ inch side) will be time
(in seconds). Use different colors to represent different walkers/runners (include a key).
Note: Don’t forget to draw the x-axis in the middle of the paper, allowing room for
the y-axis to have both positive and negative values.

Questions: Use the velocity-time graph to answer the following questions.

1) Which line is showing no slope? Explain why.

2) Which line is below the x-axis? Explain why.

3) Which line is above the x-axis? Explain why.

4) Explain what the magnitude of each line’s slope reveals to us about each
individual.

46
Graph #3: Construct an acceleration versus time graph of data from sprinter #2, sprinter
#3 and sprinter #5 from the velocity-time graph. Do this by taking the slope of each
sprinter’s line on the velocity-time graph (these slopes represent the constant acceleration
of that sprinter). The y-axis (11 inch side) will be acceleration (in yards/sec/sec.) and the
x-axis (8 ½ inch side) will be time (in seconds). Use different colors to represent
different sprinters (include a key).
Note: Don’t forget to draw the x-axis in the middle of the paper, allowing room for
the y-axis to have both positive and negative values.

Questions: Use the acceleration-time graph to answer the following questions.

1) Explain why all of the lines on this graph have no slope.

2) What would it tell you about a sprinter if a line DID have slope on this graph?

3) Why would a line be found above the x-axis? Below the x-axis?

4) Why would it be difficult for you to plot data on this graph for the walker, jogger,
sprinter #1 and sprinter #4?

47
Activity #6: Egg on the Teacher’s Head (Capstone)

Questions to be investigated
1) How can you determine the time it takes an object to free-fall a certain distance?
2) How can you determine the time it takes a person to walk a certain distance?
3) How can you make a person walk with a specific velocity?

Objectives
1) Collect and organize necessary data.
2) Utilize appropriate one-dimensional kinematics equation(s) to solve for unknown(s).
3) Properly set up and execute lab so that a raw egg will hit the teacher on the head.

Materials
• 1 egg per group (2-4 students/group)
• Stop watches
Students will request certain materials without teacher input. Possible requested
materials may include:
• Meter stick
• Ruler
• String
• Metronome
• Tape

Safety Concerns
• Raincoat for teacher
• Hard hat is optional

Teacher Notes
This is an inquiry-based lab where a student group is solely responsible for the planning
and execution of the aforementioned objectives. The main objective is for one student in
each group to drop an egg (without looking at the teacher) from a 2nd floor window. The
egg must hit the teacher on his/her head as he/she walks by at the 1st floor level. Aside
from what is listed on the student lab sheet (below), the teacher is to provide no
assistance to the student groups aside from providing the “possible requested materials”
(listed above). Student groups are responsible for EVERYTHING in this lab including:
asking for materials they need (aside from egg and stopwatches which are, naturally,
provided), telling teacher where to start walking, telling teacher how to walk (pace,
direction, etc.), and anything else they deem necessary to ensure success.
Student groups CANNOT do the following: have the teacher come to a stop underneath
the egg-drop point, have the teacher walk at too slow a pace (i.e. one pace every 3
seconds), look at the teacher as he/she is walking down below, or have one student group
member (who is on 1st floor level) tell student (who is dropping egg) when to drop the
egg.

48
STUDENTS CANNOT DROP ANYTHING OUT THE WINDOW (for timing
purposes) PRIOR TO THE FINAL DROP ITSELF!!

Although there are many ways in which this lab can be a success, one successful lab
design is given below:

Students may, first, measure the teacher’s height. Second, students may send a string
(with weight tied to end) out of the 2nd story window to the ground below. Students will
measure the string length to obtain this distance. Students will then subtract the teacher’s
height from the string length (this gives us “d”). Students can then find the time it will
take for the egg to drop this distance using “d = vit + ½ at2” (where “vi” is zero and “a” is
-9.8 m/s2).

Students must now figure out the time it takes for the teacher to walk to the drop point
from his/her point of origin. This is where students usually take different paths. Some
students use a metronome to ensure the teacher walk a constant speed while having them
walk alongside pre-measured markings (i.e. walk 0.5 meters every second). Other
students measure the teacher’s speed (pace) by having them walk a particular distance
and taking time trials (a bit riskier as it depends on the teacher walking the same speed on
the final drop day). Assuming no acceleration in teacher’s pace, they can use “v = d/t” to
find the teacher’s speed.

Now that students have the teacher’s speed, they can use “v = d/t” to solve for the time it
will take for the teacher to walk the distance to the drop point (‘v’ is the teacher’s speed,
‘d’ is distance to drop point and ‘t’ is the unknown time to walk to drop point).

Students now have the time it takes for the egg to drop to teacher’s head and the time it
takes for the teacher to walk to drop point. They can subtract the egg drop time from the
time it takes for the teacher to walk to the drop point (call this answer time “X”). If
student (with egg) on 2nd story starts his stop watch at the exact time the teacher starts
walking the known distance, then the egg can be accurately released at time “X” on the
stopwatch.

NOTE: Student on 1st floor level CAN communicate to 2nd floor student regarding
when to start stop watch.

Procedure/Description of Lesson
1. Allow students to get into 2 to 4 person groups
2. Pass out lab sheet to each student
3. Read through lab aloud with students as they read quietly
4. Discuss the things students CANNOT do during the lab
5. Explain how students will be graded for this lab
6. Allow students to begin the lab

49
Assessment Ideas
Below is a possible post-lab question.

You perform a lab to see if you can hit Tabitha (“the cat lady”) with an egg as she
walks below the classroom windows. You take many measurements that are shown
below. You have Tabitha start walking 20.0 meters from the egg’s drop point. As she
begins to walk, you start your stopwatch. What time will be on the stopwatch when
you release the egg?

Known Information:
Tabitha’s height: 180 cm
Tabitha’s speed: 2.0 m/s
(constant)
Drop Height: 18.0 m
(hand to ground)
Acceleration of egg -9.8 m/s2
Air resistance None
Distance Walked 20.0 m

Drop Point
*

50
 Egg On The Teacher’s Head Lab
Name: ____________________

Partners: _________________________
_________________________
_________________________

50 pts.

Objective:
Students will use their knowledge of one-dimensional kinematics to attempt to drop a raw
egg onto their teacher.

Description of Goal:
In this lab, your ultimate goal is to drop a raw egg from the second story physics
classroom window onto the moving teacher. The teacher will be walking at some pace
directly under the physics classroom windows. You and your partners will determine
when you must drop your egg so that it breaks over the teacher’s head.
What you must do:
You and your partners will need to determine the exact time to release your egg so that it
falls in time to hit the teacher’s head as he/she walks by. Remember, you may want to
consider that the teacher’s pace is a variable and it would be beneficial to somehow
control that variable as the egg accelerates downward to him/her.

In order to properly execute this lab, you will need to measure and calculate many
different things. These things will not be pointed out to you; you must figure them out for
yourselves. You will have one day to brainstorm and take measurements and another day
to perform the egg drop. Remember, teamwork is a crucial part of this lab! The teams that
work together the best and are fastidious in the set-up of lab will be the most successful.

What will be graded?

1. You will hand in a written plan of what your group did to reach your goal of hitting the
teacher with an egg. This plan should include all of the information below including the
data collected by your group (with all measurements and calculations). (30 points)

Question 2 pts
Information 2 pts
Hypothesis 4 pts
Materials 2 pts
Methods 5 pts
Data 10 pts
Conclusion 5 pts
2. You will earn points for how close you come to hitting the teacher’s head with the egg
by the scale given below:

51
 Direct Hit Head 20 pts
Hit, but not on the head 15 pts.
Not hit, but spattered up on teacher 10pts.
Not hit at all 5 pts.

*With the aforementioned grading scale, an individual student can earn a maximum of 50 points*

52
 Unit Assessment/Class Practicum

Goal: The goal of the challenge is to have students determine where (distance) the two
cars will line up.

Materials:
• constant velocity car(s)
• accelerating fan car
• meter sticks (for class to share)
• stop watches (for class to share)

Equipment set-up:

Constant velocity car

Starting line

Fan car

Teacher Notes:
Tape a starting line onto the classroom floor. Place the constant velocity car right at the
starting line. The fan car should be placed in front of the constant velocity car at a
distance that you choose. (Mark this location on the floor.) Students should use meter
sticks, stop watches and calculators to solve this challenge. Be sure to set the constant
velocity car at the speed at which you want it to travel and tell the students not to alter the
speed. The teacher should minimally help students throughout this challenge using
questioning for students who are off track. All students must come to a consensus of
where the two cars will line up, and ALL students must be able to explain how the
distance was determined. When students agree, they should place an “X” with tape on
the ground where the cars will line up. Prior to testing the experiment, chose 3-4
different students to present a portion of how they determined their answer. After
students have presented, (including showing calculations on the board) run their
experiment. Inspire the roar of the crowd when the students get it right ☺.

53
**While solving this challenge, students may test run the fan car and the constant
velocity car individually, but not together at the same time. (Tell this to the students
before lab begins.)

**The fan car and the constant velocity car must begin moving at the same time. (Tell
this to the students before lab begins.)

An adaptation to this lesson for a foundational class is to use two constant velocity cars
set at different velocities. The slower velocity car would be placed in front of the starting
line and the faster car at the actual starting line.

Possible Grading Rubric

This rubric is designed so that all students in the class receive the same score based on
three selected students (by the teacher), and the accuracy of their experiment.

Understands concepts and answered Correctly calculates required

teacher’s questions correctly. variables.
(1 point each) (1 point each)
Student # 1

Student # 2

Student # 3

Experimental Test: YES, cars lined up with in 5 cm of each other. _________/ 2 points
NO, cars didn’t line up (>than 5 cm separation)

Total Class Score: _________________/ 8 points

Source: Gary Campbell, Rochester High School

54
Oakland Schools Physics Resource Unit

Motion in 2 Dimensions

Brian Langley
Novi High School
Novi Community Schools
 Motion in 2 Dimensions
Content Statements
P2.1 Position — Time
An object’s position can be measured and graphed as a function of time. An object’s speed can be
calculated and graphed as a function of time.
P2.2 Velocity — Time
The motion of an object can be described by its position and velocity as functions of
time and by its average speed and average acceleration during intervals of time.
P3.4 Forces and Acceleration
The change of speed and/or direction (acceleration) of an object is proportional to the net force and
inversely proportional to the mass of the object. The acceleration and net force are always in the same
direction.

Content Expectations
P2.1E Describe and classify various motions in a plane as one dimensional, two dimensional, circular, or
periodic.
P2.1h Identify the changes in speed and direction in everyday examples of circular (rotation and revolution),
periodic, and projectile motions.
P2.2f Describe the relationship between changes in position, velocity, and acceleration during periodic
motion.
P2.2g Apply the independence of the vertical and horizontal initial velocities to solve projectile motion
problems.
P3.4e Solve problems involving force, mass, and acceleration in two-dimensional projectile motion restricted
to an initial horizontal velocity with no initial vertical velocity (e.g., a ball rolling off a table).
P3.4f Calculate the changes in velocity of a thrown or hit object during and after the time it is acted on by the
force.
Instructional Background Information:
Constant x and y velocities
Investigations in two dimensions can begin by looking at an object moving with constant
x and y velocities (zero acceleration in both directions). For example, consider a
swimmer that is going to swim with constant speed across the width of a river (call the
width of the river the y direction). While the swimmer swims the width of the river, the
river current flows downstream with a constant speed (call downstream the x direction).
Consequently, as the swimmer swims across the river in the y direction, the current
carries the swimmer in the x direction as well.

It is important to realize that the vertical and horizontal motions are independent. To
illustrate this idea, consider for a moment the motion of the swimmer in the absence of
the river current. If the river were 30 meters wide, and if the swimmer were swimming in
the y direction with a constant speed of 3 m/s, then time for the swimmer to cross the
river can be calculated using the one-dimensional motion equations.

∆d = vi ∆t + ½ a(∆t)2 …since a = 0, the equation simplifies to ∆d = vi ∆t

(30 m) = (3 m/s)∆t … ∆t = 10 seconds

Now consider what happens when the river current is taken into account. The current
acts in a direction perpendicular to the swimmer. The current will not change the width
of the river nor will it change the speed of the swimmer in the y direction. Consequently,
the swimmer will still take 10 seconds to cross the river. However, because the current
will act on the swimmer for the 10 seconds in the x direction, the swimmer will reach the
opposite riverbank with an x displacement with respect to the swimmer’s origin.

Using the same equation, now for the x direction if the river current were 2 m/s:

∆d = vi ∆t …∆d = (2m/s) 10s ….∆d = 20 meters downstream from the origin.

The resultant motion of the swimmer takes into account the y and x components

The resultant displacement, resultant velocity, and resultant angle can be calculated using
vector addition. In this case, the resultant displacement is 36 meters, the resultant
velocity is 3.6 m/s, and the resultant angle is 33.7 degrees.

Projectile motion
Projectile motion involves situations where an object is in motion with a constant
horizontal speed but is accelerating vertically due to gravity only. Projectiles follow
parabolic trajectories in the absence of air resistance.

As in the case of the swimmer discussed above, the x and y components are independent
of one another. In the horizontal x direction, the object possesses a constant velocity
throughout the motion. In the vertical y direction, the object possesses acceleration due
to gravity of approximately -9.81 m/s2 (negative because the acceleration is towards the
ground, commonly considered the negative direction).

As with the swimmer scenario, the horizontal and vertical components share one property
– time. Consequently, when performing calculations of motion in two directions, solving
for time in one direction will allow for the calculations of unknown quantities in the other
direction.

When performing calculations in 2 dimensions, it is often helpful to organize the

assortment of motion variables in a chart similar to this:

X Yup Ydown
direction direction direction
vi
vf
a
t
d
 3 General Projectile Motion Scenarios:
Projectile Motion scenario 1 –
object launched horizontally from Projectile lauched horizontally from a height of 10 meters
a height 12

10

Vertical height (m)

8

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Horizontal range (m)

An excellent strobe photo of this motion, and the independence of the x and y
components, can be found at: http://www.agpix.com/view_caption.php?image_id=138673&photog=1

Projectile Motion scenario 2 –

object launched at an angle from Projectile launched at an angle on level ground

the ground 18

16

14
Vertical height (m)

12

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Horizontal range (m)

Projectile Motion scenario 3 –

object launched at an angle from Projectile launched at an angle from a height of 10 meters

a height 30

25
Vertical height (m)

20

15

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

Horizontal range (m)

Terms and Concepts
Displacement Projectile Parabolic trajectory

Velocity Gravity Air resistance

Acceleration Horizontal range Vertical height
Instructional Resources

The Physics Classroom

http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/vectors/U3L2b.cfm
This site provides notes on projectile motion and includes many helpful drawings and
diagrams.

PhET – University of Colorado at Boulder

http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Projectile_Motion
This site has many free simulations, including a cannonball launcher simulation.

PhysClips
http://www.physclips.unsw.edu.au/jw/projectiles.htm
This site has a nice collection of drawings and video on 2-dimensional motion.

Walter Fendt’s Java Applets on Physics

http://www.walter-fendt.de/ph14e/
This site has many free simulations, including a 2-dimensional motion simulation.

comPADRE
http://www.compadre.org/
This is a network of free online resources in the areas of physics and astronomy.
 MOTION IN 2 DIMENSIONS
Activity #1: The motion of a dropped object versus an object
released horizontally.
Questions to be investigated
Does the time of flight for an object released from a height depend on the initial
horizontal speed of the object?

Objectives
Demonstrate that the horizontal and vertical components of projectiles are independent.

Materials
Pennies (or similar coins), 2 tennis balls (or similar balls), stop watches

Safety Concerns
Be careful of the paths of the pennies and balls.

Real-World Connections
Variety of sports – basketball, baseball, golf, javelin, shot-put, etc.
Objects sliding off tables
Cannonballs

Teacher Notes
There are many ways to approach the independence of horizontal and vertical
components. Mix and match the following procedures as needed. Also, the activities can
be done in groups or as a teacher demonstration.

The objects used in this activity can be substituted for similar objects, and there are
products that can be purchased that can be used. (Such a product can be found at Arbor
Scientific http://www.arborsci.com/detail.aspx?ID=434)

This activity would be suitable for Foundational or Capstone classes.

Procedure/Description of Lesson
Pennies off a table top
In this activity, two pennies are going to be released from a tabletop simultaneously. One
penny will simply drop; the other penny will slide off the table with an initial horizontal
velocity.
Students should predict which penny will hit the ground first and provide a brief
explanation for their prediction.

Procedure:
1. Place a penny at the edge of a table so that the penny hangs over the edge
without falling off the table. Place a second penny on the table and use a
finger to shoot this coin across the tabletop so that this coin just strikes the
first coin. The first coin should fall to the floor while the second coin should
carry off the table with an initial horizontal speed.
2. Students should observe, through sight and sound, which penny strikes the
floor first. Students can repeat the event as needed until they are comfortable
with their observations.
3. Discuss the class results. (Students should find that both pennies hit the
ground at the same time)

Adapted from activities found in:

Arthur, Eisenkraft. Active Physics: An inquiry approach to physics. Armonk, NY: It's

About Time, 2005. 176-80.

Hewitt, Paul G. Conceptual Physics: The high school Physics program. USA: Pearson

Education, Inc, 2009. 75

Tennis balls from a substantial height

In this activity, intended as a teacher demonstration, two tennis balls are going to be
released from the same substantial height (balcony, grandstands, etc.) simultaneously.
One tennis ball will simply drop; the other tennis ball will be tossed horizontally.

Students should predict which tennis ball will hit the ground first and provide a brief
explanation for their prediction.

1. From a substantial height, have a tennis ball dropped to the ground below at
the same time that a second tennis ball is released horizontally.
2. Students should observe the motion of the ball and determine which ball hits
the ground first. The even can be repeated until the class is comfortable with
their observation.
3. Discuss the results. (Students should find that both tennis balls hit the ground
at the same time)

Modification:
This lab can also be done in two phases using stopwatches to record the airborne
time of the released balls. The times for each tennis ball can then be averaged
together as a class to see which ball was in the air longer. (Again, results should
show that both balls were airborne for the same amount of time)
Assessment Ideas:
Class discussion
 MOTION IN 2 DIMENSIONS
Activity #2: Graphing projectile motion.
Questions to be investigated
What does projectile motion look like in displacement vs. time and velocity versus time
graphs?

Objectives
Students should describe objects experiencing 2-dimensional motion through graphing.

Materials
Worksheet

Safety Concerns
None

Real-World Connections
Variety of sports – basketball, baseball, golf, javelin, shot-put, etc.
Objects sliding off tables
Cannonballs

Teacher Notes
The following can be copied and pasted into its own document.
This activity would be suitable for Foundational or Capstone classes, depending on the
scenarios discussed in class. The Capstone class could be asked to derive the graphs
without the examples.
Procedure/Description of Lesson
Students should complete the following science literacy assignment:

In this unit, we have looked specifically at three scenarios of projectile motion:

1. An object launched horizontally from a height greater than zero.
2. An object launched at an angle on a flat surface.
3. An object launched at an angle from a height greater than zero.

In each scenario, we could create displacement versus time or velocity versus time graphs
for both the vertical and horizontal components of an object’s motion. Here are six
examples of what those graphs may look like:

Using the graphs above as possible options, draw the displacement versus time and
velocity versus time graphs for the horizontal and vertical motion of each scenario we’ve
discussed in class. Be sure to label the x and y axis in each graph. (Where the x and y
axis crossed will be considered the origin, 0, 0)
Scenario 1: An object launched horizontally from a height greater than zero.

Displacement versus time Velocity versus time

Horizontal motion

Vertical motion
Scenario 2: An object launched at an angle on a flat surface.

Displacement versus time Velocity versus time

Horizontal motion

Vertical motion
Scenario 3: An object launched at an angle from a height greater than zero.

Displacement versus time Velocity versus time

Horizontal motion

Vertical motion

Assessment Ideas:
1. How well did the students match the proper graphs?
2. What kind of patterns do the students see between the scenarios?
3. What explanations can students give for the patterns?
 MOTION IN 2 DIMENSIONS
Activity #3: Golf Range Rankings
Questions to be investigated
How do initial height, initial angle, and initial velocity affect the flight of a golf ball?

Objectives
Investigate two-dimensional projectile motion.

Materials
Computers with access to the internet

Safety Concerns

Real-World Connections
Variety of sports – basketball, baseball, golf, javelin, shot-put, etc.
Objects sliding off tables
Cannonballs

Teacher Notes
Foundational Physics - parts of this activity can be left out depending on the depth of
content taught. Students should at least be able to solve problems in scenario 1.

Capstone Physics – students could also be asked to quantify different parts of this activity
to support their rankings. This could be done during the qualitative part of the activity or
after they have committed to their rankings. The “Golf Range!” gizmo in
Explorelearning.com will allow for the verification of quantities.
Procedure/Description of Lesson
Students should consider the following scenarios and rank them according to the
directions.

1. The motion of a golf ball launched horizontally from a given height.

Screenshot from
explorelearning.com

Scenario A Scenario B Scenario C Scenario D

Height: 150 m 150 m 150 m 150 m
Vxi: 10 m/s 20 m/s 40 m/s 50 m/s
Angle: 0° 0° 0° 0°

Space for diagrams/calculations:

Rank the scenarios according to flight time from lowest flight time to greatest flight time.

________ ________ ________ ________

Rank the scenarios according to horizontal range from lowest range to greatest range.

________ ________ ________ ________

 2. The motion of a golf ball launched at an angle from the ground.

Screenshot from
explorelearning.com

Initial Scenario A Scenario B Scenario C Scenario D

Height: 0m 0m 0m 0m
Vx: 10 m/s 10 m/s 10 m/s 10 m/s
Angle: 15° 30° 45° 60°

Space for diagrams/calculations:

Rank the scenarios according to flight time from lowest flight time to greatest flight time.

________ ________ ________ ________

Rank the scenarios according to maximum height from lowest height to greatest height.

________ ________ ________ ________

Rank the scenarios according to horizontal range from lowest range to greatest range.

________ ________ ________ ________

 3. The motion of a golf ball launched at an angle from a given height.

Screenshot from
explorelearning.com

Initial Scenario A Scenario B Scenario C Scenario D

Height: 150 m 150 m 150 m 150 m
Vx: 50 m/s 10 m/s 50 m/s 50 m/s
Angle: 0° 0° 30° 60°

Space for diagrams/calculations:

Rank the scenarios according to flight time from lowest flight time to greatest flight time.

________ ________ ________ ________

Rank the scenarios according to maximum height from lowest height to greatest height.

________ ________ ________ ________

Rank the scenarios according to horizontal range from lowest range to greatest range.

________ ________ ________ ________

Assessment Ideas:
Use www.explorelearning.com to verify results, using the gizmo “Golf Range!” This can
be done either on an individual or group basis if the computer equipment exists, or as a
teacher presentation to the entire class. The exact scenarios can be set-up in the gizmo.
Enable “Show paths,” “Show grid,” and “Show crosshairs,” to track the paths of the balls
and determine actual heights and horizontal ranges. Enabling “Advanced features”
allows for the manipulation of initial height. Make sure the atmosphere is changed from
“Air” to “None” to remove air resistance from the simulation.

Explorelearning.com allows users 5 minutes to use a gizmo, which should be enough

time for students to verify their rankings. School districts can obtain a yearly license to
use explorelearning.com; it has a variety of useful simulations.

More, completely free, simulations can be found at http://phet.colorado.edu/index.php.

This sight has a similar simulation to “Golf Range!” that launches various items out of a
canon.
 MOTION IN 2 DIMENSIONS
Activity #4: Rockets!
Questions to be investigated
Does the time of flight for an object released from a height depend on the initial
horizontal speed of the object?

Objectives
Students will be able to predict the range of a pneumatic rocket launched at various initial
velocities and angles.
.
Materials
Pneumatic Rocket Two Meter Sticks
Two Wedges Stopwatch
Two Rocket Caps

Safety Concerns
Be careful of rockets while launching and while falling back to the ground!

Real-World Connections
Variety of sports – basketball, baseball, golf, javelin, shot-put, etc.
Objects sliding off tables
Cannonballs

Teacher Notes
Rocket day is fun for everyone as long as attention is paid to safety. Arbor Scientific has
air-pump powered rockets that can be found at:
http://www.arborsci.com/detail.aspx?ID=342.
The calculations are suited more towards a Capstone class, though with more guidance a
Foundational class could participate.
Procedure/Description of Lesson

BACKGROUND:
A pneumatic rocket is a rocket that is launched by air, in this case provided by a bicycle
pump. If the rocket is launched straight up in the air, and the total time of flight is
obtained, we can calculate the initial velocity of the rocket using the formula:

a = V1 – V0
t

Using half the total time, acceleration due to gravity, and assuming that the final velocity
(at the top of the flight) is zero, we can solve for the initial velocity, using the formula Vo
= -gt.

If the rocket is fired at an angle, it will still maintain the same initial velocity as it had
when it was fired straight up. However, once fired at an angle, the vertical and horizontal
components of this velocity (Vxo and Vyo) must be determined.

Using our Trig ratios, we can say that

Vo Vyo Vxo = Vocosθ and Vyo = Vosinθ

θ
Vxo

Once Vxo and Vyo are known, we can compute the maximum height the rocket attained,
as well as the range (distance the rocket will travel).

When a wooden wedge is inserted underneath a rocket, the rocket will actually be fired at
the wedge’s complimentary angle. Here’s why…

Rocket

Horizontal
Wedge

Rocket Base
So, as you can see, a 50° wedge was used to make the rocket launch at 40° from the
horizontal.
While on the field, I have a suggestion for measuring your Experimental X (yds). Your
rocket will likely not fly straight forward, it’s bound to go off at an angle. If you don’t
account for this deviation, you will get large errors. See the picture below:

0 10 20 30 40 50 40

Measure the long side of the triangle primarily using the yard lines, and add the
remainder that you measure with your yardstick. Then, measure the short side of the
triangle with yardsticks. Use Pythagorean theorem to find the hypotenuse – the true path
of your rocket! This is Experimental X!!!

PRE-LAB:

Use the following hypothetical data to compute the maximum height and range of a
rocket. You must show your teacher this completed work prior to participating in the
Rocket Lab tomorrow! Perform all calculations in the space below, and write your
answers on the lines provided. (You may use a separate sheet of paper, too)

When a pneumatic rocket was shot straight up into the air, it hit the ground 5.60 s later.
The same rocket was then fired at an angle of 55.0° from the horizontal using a 35.0°
wedge.

____________ A. What is the rocket’s initial velocity?

____________ B. What is the maximum height attained when shot straight up?

____________ C. How high did the rocket rise when fired at the 55.0° angle?
(Careful, the time won’t be the same as before. Solve this with
unknown time)

____________ D. How long will the rocket stay in flight at this angle?

____________ E. What is the rocket’s range at this angle?

____________ F. If 1 m = 1.1 yd, and you fired this rocket off from the goal
line, which yard line would the rocket hit closest to?
 ROCKET LAB:

Today, you will be given two different caps (that produce different Vo’s) for your rocket,
as well as two different wedges. Determine the Vo of your rocket using both caps.
Launch the rocket using both wedges. You must complete all 4 launch combinations.
Record all data in the table below. Be sure to show all your calculations on a separate
sheet of paper in an organized format that is easy to follow.

Remember that θ is the compliment of the wedge’s angle. The Cap Strength is low,
medium, high or super. The maximum times are based on your launches straight up, and
must be measured with a stopwatch. Vo is computed from this time. You will also need
to determine Vxo and Vyo for all situations, as well as the “hang time” this rocket will now
have, in order to compute the Theoretical Range, X, that the rocket should clear. You
will need to convert this into yards in order to compare to the Experimental Range that
you will measure on the football field using your yardsticks. Finally, compute the %
Difference between the Theoretical and Experimental Ranges.
Note: Anything written in BOLD must be measured during the lab while on the
field. Everything NOT IN BOLD will be calculated after the lab.

TABLE 1: Flight Time and Initial Velocity for Rocket Shot Straight Up.

Max. Max
Run Cap Vo
Ttot T1/2
1
2
3
4

TABLE 2: Ranges Attained Using Two Caps each at Two Different Angles.

Hang Theor. Theor. Exper. % Diff.

Run θ Cap Vyo Vxo
Time X(m) X(yd) X(yd)
1 θ1=

2 θ2=

3 θ1=

4 θ2=

Here’s some room for jotting notes and performing some calculations. Please show
the remainder of your calculations on a separate sheet of paper.
Assessment Ideas:

CONCLUSIONS:

1. Describe any difficulties that you encountered during the experiment. How did you
overcome them?

2. Explain why the rocket will stay in the air the longest when it is launched straight up
as opposed to at an angle.

3. What could account for the fact that your rocket didn’t travel the same distance as
theoretically computed?

Murawski 2009
 MOTION IN 2 DIMENSIONS
Activity #5: Projectile assessment.
Questions to be investigated
Do the students understand projectile motion?

Objectives
Assess student understanding of projectile motion.

Materials
Worksheet

Safety Concerns

Real-World Connections
Variety of sports – basketball, baseball, golf, javelin, shot-put, etc.
Objects sliding off tables
Cannonballs

Teacher Notes
Foundational class – adapt the assessment according to the scenarios discussed. This will
probably be more of a qualitative assessment than quantitative.

Capstone class – students could also be asked to include calculations with their reason.
Also, the Capstone class does not necessarily need the initial horizontal and vertical
velocity components for the two scenarios launched at angles. They could be asked to
calculate these values from the given: “Projectile launched at a 60° angle with an initial
speed of 20 m/s.”

Procedure/Description of Lesson
Students are given 3 scenarios, with graphs to represent the motion of each, and then
asked a series of questions regarding the scenarios.
Assessment Ideas:
Questions:

1. Considering the labels A, C, and F on the previous graphs, which represent a

moment in the motion where vertical acceleration is zero? Defend your answer
with reason.

2. Considering the labels A, C, and F on the previous graphs, which represent a

moment in the motion where vertical velocity is zero? Defend your answer with
reason.

3. Considering the labels B, D, E, G, and H on the previous graphs, rank the

segments in terms of time from least amount of time to greatest amount of time.
Defend your answer with reason.
Answer key:

1. Vertical acceleration is constant for any object experiencing projectile motion due
to the force of gravity upon it. So in this case, there is no moment in the motion
where vertical acceleration is zero. Students could contend that vertical
acceleration is zero at point A if they consider that the point where the object has
yet to be released.

2. Vertical velocity will be zero at all three points, A, C, and F. For point A, this
represents the instant that the object was released horizontally, where the initial
vertical velocity is zero. For points C and F, these points represent the moment
that the object’s motion changes from going up to coming down.

3. Segment B will have the least amount of time because the object has the least
amount of vertical displacement – 10 meters. Segments D, E, and G will all have
the same time, since they all represent a vertical displacement of 15.25 meters.
Segment H will have the greatest time, since it has a vertical displacement of
25.25 meters.
Oakland Schools Physics Resource Unit

Forces & Vectors

Richard Dunaj‐Ring
Southfield Lathrup High School
Southfield
 Forces & Vectors
Content Statements
P3.1 Basic Forces in Nature
Objects can interact with each other by “direct contact” (pushes or pulls, friction) or at a distance
(gravity, electromagnetism, nuclear).
P3.1x Forces
There are four basic forces (gravitational, electromagnetic, strong, and weak nuclear) that differ greatly
in magnitude and
range. Between any two charged particles, electric force is vastly greater than the gravitational force.
Most observable forces (e.g., those exerted by a coiled spring or friction) may be traced to electric
forces acting between atoms and molecules.
P3.2 Net Forces
Forces have magnitude and direction. The net force on an object is the sum of all the forces acting on
the object. Objects change their speed and/or direction only when a net force is applied. If the net force
on an object is zero, there is no change in motion (Newton’s First Law).
P3.3 Newton’s Third Law
Whenever one object exerts a force on another object, a force equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction is exerted back on the first object.
P3.4 Forces and Acceleration
The change of speed and/or direction (acceleration) of an object is proportional to the net force and
inversely proportional to the mass of the object. The acceleration and net force are always in the same
direction.

Content Expectations
P3.1A Identify the force(s) acting between objects in “direct contact” or at a distance.
P3.1d Identify the basic forces in everyday interactions.
P3.2A Identify the magnitude and direction of everyday forces (e.g., wind, tension in ropes, pushes and pulls,
weight).
P3.2C Calculate the net force acting on an object.
P3.2d Calculate all the forces on an object on an inclined plane and describe the object’s motion based on the
forces using free-body diagrams.
P3.3A Identify the action and reaction force from examples of forces in everyday situations (e.g., book on a
table, walking across the floor, pushing open a door).
P3.3b Predict how the change in velocity of a small mass compares to the change in velocity of a large mass
when the objects interact (e.g., collide).
P3.4A Predict the change in motion of an object acted on by several forces.
P3.4B Identify forces acting on objects moving with constant velocity (e.g., cars on a highway).
P3.4C Solve problems involving force, mass, and acceleration in linear motion (Newton’s second law).
Instructional Background Information:
The following information is needed to teach forces.
1. What is a Force? A force is a vector that has magnitude
and direction.
2. All objects that are in motion have forces acting on them.
3. Gravity is a universal force that acts on all objects.
4. Newton’s 3rd Law: Whenever one object exerts a force on
another object, a force equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction is exerted back on the first object.
5. Newton’s 2nd Law: The change in speed and/or direction
(acceleration) of an object is proportional to the net force
and inversely proportional to the mass of the object. The
acceleration and the net force are always in the same
direction.( F=ma)
6. Newton’s 1st Law: The net force on an object is the sum
of all the forces acting on the object. Objects change their
speed and/or direction only the net force is applied. If the
net force on an object is zero, there is no change in
motion.
7. There are 4 types of forces gravitational, electromagnetic,
strong and weak nuclear and we are going to deal at this
time with gravitational force.
8. Friction is a force that acts on all objects.
9. All objects have a gravitational attraction to each other.
10. Talk about static equilibrium in regards to Newton’s First

Law.
11. Show how to draw free body diagrams on all objects.
Show how to sum up the vectors in free
body for all situations.
∑ F=ma

mgsinθ-f =ma

∑ F = ma

Mg-T =F1

+ mg-T =F2

Mg + mg = Ma +ma

Mg + mg =a
M+m
 12. There 2 types of friction: static friction and kinetic
friction.
13. Static friction is where the object is not in motion.
14. Kinetic friction is force acting in the opposite direction of
motion.
15. The equation for friction is f =µN.

Reference:
www.science.glencoe.com –Science Textbook Web site.
Giancoli, D.C., 2005, Dynamics: Newton’s Laws of Motion, Physics 6th edition, New
Jersey, Pearson Prentis Hall.
http://members.shaw.ca/barry-barclay/Quizzes/Equilibrium/quiz1.htm -Quiz on Static
Equilibrium.
Terms and Concepts
Force Vectors Static Friction

Kinetic Friction Free Body Diagrams Net Force

µ= coefficient of Newton’s 3 Laws Gravitational Force
Friction
F=ma f=μN Static Equilibrium

Electromagnetic Force Strong and Weak

Nuclear Forces

Instructional Resource
www.science.glencoe.com - Text Book
www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/gbsci/phy/class/1Dkin/U - Lecture Material
www.physicsclassroom.com - Lecture Material
http://eta.physics.uoguelp.ca/tutorials/fbd/intro.html -Newton’s Laws
http://vectorracer.boschloo.net/ - Racing Vectors
http://hendrix.uoregon.edu/~demo/Demo/Mechanics/Newton’S_Laws/base.html -
Newton’s Law Demo
http://physics.tsu-li.com/courses/phys102/downloads/shockwave/free_fall.swf - Free-fall
http://physics.tsu-
li.com/courses/phys102/downloads/shockwave/newtons_second_law.swf - Newton’s
Second Law.
http://members.shaw.ca/barry-barclay/Quizzes/Equilibrium/quiz1.htm -Quiz on Static
Equilibrium.
 FORCES & VECTORS
Activity #1 Friction on an Inclined Plane (Foundational)
Questions to be investigated: Finding friction on a block of wood.

Objectives: To find out which material between the block and the
inclined plane will cause the least amount of friction.

Materials:
1 Inclined Plane (long board or shelving)
1 Numbered Block
1 Piece of White Paper
1 Piece of Plastic Wrap
1 Piece of Wax Paper
1 Piece of Sandpaper
1 Protractor
Masking Tape

Safety Concerns:
None

Real-World Connections:
Showing the importance of Friction on objects relating it to Automobiles showing that
without friction they would not move and showing that reducing friction will save
energy.

Teacher Notes:
Make sure students know how to use balance and protractor. Make sure they are
measuring the angle at the right spot on the inclined board. Show students how to set
plane so one end does not move. Have students predict which material will cause the least
friction.

Procedure/Description of Lesson:
1. Predict which material will have the least friction. Prediction_________________
2. Set up the inclined plane so one end does not move.
3. Place the block of wood near the top of moveable part of ramp.
4. Raise the inclined plane until the block just begins to slide down the plane. At this
point measure the angle of the plane with the flat floor. Record in data table provided.
5. Repeat steps 2 and 3 placing the other material around the block one at a time
until all different materials are used.
 Data Table:
Material Angle( Degrees)
Wood on Wood

White Paper on Wood

Plastic Wrap on Wood

Wax Paper on Wood

Sandpaper on Wood

Assessment Ideas: Have students answer the following questions.

1. In your prediction why did you pick the material you choose?
2. Was your prediction right?
3. Which material had the greatest friction and why do you believe it had the
greatest friction.
4. In what real world situation would you want to have a great deal of friction and
explain why that would be important?
5. Describe two types of friction and provide an example of each.
 FORCES & VECTORS
Activity #2 Friction on an Inclined Plane (Capstone)
Questions to be investigated: Finding the coefficient friction on a block
of wood.

Objectives: To find out which material between the block and the
inclined plane will have the least coefficient of friction and to calculate
the forces acting on the wood block.

Materials:
1 Inclined Plane (long board or shelving)
1 Numbered Block
1 Piece of White Paper
1 Piece of Plastic Wrap
1 Piece of Wax Paper
1 Piece of Sandpaper
1 Protractor
Balance
Masking Tape

Safety Concerns:
None

Real-World Connections:
Showing the importance of Friction on objects relating it to Automobiles showing that
without friction they would not move and showing that reducing friction will save
energy. Showing what forces are acting on an automobile to make it go.

Teacher Notes:
Make sure students know how to use balance and protractor. Make sure they are
measuring the angle at the right spot on the inclined board. Show students how to set
plane so one end does not move. Have students predict which material will cause the least
friction. Have students draw free body diagram of situation before it slides and after it
slides.
Here is an example of a data table:

Material Angle Mass of Block

Here is an example of a calculation table:

Weight Normal Perpendicular Parallel Frictional Coefficient
Force Force Force Force Force of Friction

Procedure/Description of Lesson:
1. Measure the mass of the wood block and record in a data table with its number.
2. Set up an inclined plane so one end does not move.
3. Place the wood block near the top of the moveable part of the ramp.
4. Raise the plane until the block just begins to slide down the ramp. At this point
measure the angle of the plane with the flat floor. Record the data in a data table
provided by you.
5. Draw a free body diagram of the block at the point where the block just begins to
slide on the ramp.
6. Calculate the forces on the block from your free body diagram and record in a
calculation table provided by you.
7. Calculate the coefficient of friction and record in your data table.
8. Repeat steps 3-7 with the other materials wrapped around the block one at a time.

Assessment Ideas: Have students answer the following questions.

1. Which material had the greatest coefficient and explain why it had the greatest
coefficient?
2. Why is important to reduce friction in the real world?
3. In what real world situation would you want a lot of friction and explain why?
4. Prove that the tangent of the angle at which it slides is equal to the coefficient of
friction?

Situation:
During winter, you are trapped in the middle of a frozen duck pond. It is so cold that
the ice is completely FRICTIONLESS (not exactly a real situation but close). You
can not walk of crawl off or make friction. How would you get off this frictionless ice
covered pond? Note: The helicopter that dropped you on this pond is gone and you
are alone; you would starve before the ice melts!
 FORCES & VECTORS
Activity #3 Newton’s Laws (Foundational)
Questions to be investigated: To find situations that prove or disproves
Newtown’s Laws.

Objectives: to show situations of Newton’s Laws

Materials:
Tape or DVD
Television

Safety Concerns:
None

Real-World Connections:
To allow students to see Newton’s Laws at work in the world whether real or not.
Relating what you see in movies and on television may not support Newton’s Laws.

Teacher Notes:
In this project make sure they are using a tape or DVD that can be run on your computer
or VCR if you allow them to use tape.

Procedure/Description of Lesson:
YOUR MISSION IS TO CATCH ON VIDEO OR DVD COMMERICALSOR
CARTOONS THAT EITHER:
1. Illustrates all 3 of Newton’s Laws
2. Disproves all 3 of Newton’s Law
To make any investigative assignment complete there must be a written report to
accompany your tape or DVD upon delivery to explain its meaning in case you don’t
make it back to home base.

Guidelines:
In your report to the motion ruler Sir Isaac himself, make sure to site specific
examples of each law in your video and proof of your findings. Remember that
quality not quantity counts. As you embark on this journey remember two things-
always check the batteries in your weapon (the universal remote of science) and
always remember never to forget the FORCE will always be with you.
Assessment Ideas:
Have students present their video or DVD in class explaining what laws they represent.
Presentation and paper usually make 100 points.

The next day after all the Videos and DVDs have been presented the previous day replay
several of the videos or DVDs and have students write down on either a piece of paper or
use your white boards to tell which law the video or DVD represented and then have a
discussion if there are any discrepancy about which laws was uses and have students
explain why they believe their answer is correct.
 FORCES & VECTORS
Activity #4 Newton’s Laws (Capstone)
Questions to be investigated: To find situations that prove or disproves
Newtown’s Laws.

Objectives: to show situations of Newton’s Laws

Materials:
Tape or DVD
Television

Safety Concerns:
None

Real-World Connections:
To allow students to see Newton’s Laws at work in the world whether real or not.
Relating what you see in movies and on television may not support Newton’s Laws

Teacher Notes:
In this project make sure they are using a tape or DVD that can be run on your computer
or VCR if you allow them to use tape.

Procedure/Description of Lesson:
YOUR MISSION IS TO CATCH ON VIDEO OR DVD COMMERICALS OR
CARTOONS THAT:
1. Illustrates all 3 of Newton’s Laws
2. Disproves all 3 of Newton’s Law
To make any investigative assignment complete there must be a written report to
accompany your tape or DVD upon delivery to explain its meaning in case you don’t
make it back to home base.

Guidelines:
In your report to the motion ruler Sir Isaac himself, make sure to site specific
examples of each law in your video and proof of your findings. You will also be
required to draw free body diagrams of each situation in your video and explain each
force that is acting on each object in each illustration. Remember that quality not
quantity counts. As you embark on this journey remember two things-always check
the batteries in your weapon (the universal remote of science) and always remember
never to forget the FORCE will always be with you.
Assessment Ideas:
Have students present their video or DVD in class explaining what laws they represent
and have them draw the free body diagram explaining each force. Presentation and paper
usually make 100 points.

The next day after all the Videos and DVDs have been presented the previous day replay
several of the videos or DVDs and have students write down on either a piece of paper or
use your white boards to tell which law the video or DVD represented and then have a
discussion if there are any discrepancy about which laws was uses and have students
explain why they believe their answer is correct.
 FORCES & VECTORS
Activity #5: Measurement of acceleration on a plane using
hanging masses. (Foundational)
Questions to be investigated: To find the acceleration of a cart by
changing the hanging mass on a pulley keeping the total mass the
same.
Objectives:
To find acceleration of the cart being pulled by a hanging mass and to verify Newton’s
2nd Law.

Materials:
1 Pasco track
1 Pasco cart
1 pulley
1 mass hanger
1 weight set
1 meter stick
1 balance
Length of string
1 stopwatch
(If you have motion sensors use instead of stopwatch)

Safety Concerns:
None

Real-World Connections:
Shows that Newton’s 2nd Law is at work in the world around us everyday.
Example: Cranes that are lifting and lowering beams into place on a construction site
when building a new high rise.

Teacher Notes:
In this lab make sure the track is as level as possible. Use fish line to connect the cart and
the hanging mass hanger. Keep the total mass in the system constant. Use the following
equation for calculating acceleration: a=2d
t2
The following is a diagram of the experimental setup:
You should provide a specific length of string in the lab so the student is not cutting their
own length and it will keep the string standard.
They should work in groups of 2-3 so you have a timer, puller and recorder.

Procedure/Description of Lesson:
1. Level the track by setting the cart on the track to see which way it rolls. Adjust the
leveling feet to raise or lower the ends until the cart placed at rest will not move.
2. Use the balance to find the mass of the cart and record in data table provided.
3. Attach the pulley to the end of the track.
4. Place the cart on the track and tie the string to the cart.
5. Place the string over the pulley and then tie the string to the weight hanger.
6. Pull the weight hanger to the floor making sure the cart just touches the end of the
ramp. If it does not go to the end of the ramp adjust the string so it does.
7. Pull the cart back until the mass hanger reaches the pulley.
8. Mark the position with a piece of tape on the ramp. This will be the start position
for all trials.
9. Measure the distance from the tape to the end of the ramp using the meter stick
and record the distance in meters in data table.
10. Place 4 -50 gram masses in the cart.
11. Record the mass of cart and masses in the cart in your data table.
12. Pull back the cart till the hanger just touches the pulley.
13. Have timer time the cart from the tape to the ramp when the puller releases the
cart.
14. Have recorder record the time in the data table.
15. Repeat sets 11-14 by taking 50 grams from the cart one at a time and placing it on
the weight hanger till all the masses have been used.
16. Calculate the acceleration of each trial using the following formula a = 2d/t2 and
record in the data table.
 Data Table:
Mass of cart plus Distance Traveled Time Traveled Acceleration
masses

Assessment Ideas: Have students answer the following questions.

1. Plot a graph of acceleration versus mass of cart and masses.
2. After plotting the graph and connecting the dots what can you conclude about
acceleration and mass?
3. What other factor could have affected the results of the experiments.
 FORCES & VECTORS

Activity #6: Measurement of acceleration on a plane using

hanging masses. (Capstone)
Questions to be investigated: To find the acceleration of a cart by
changing the hanging mass on a pulley keeping the total mass the
same.
Objectives:
To find acceleration of the cart being pulled by a hanging mass and to verify Newton’s
2nd Law.

Materials:
1 Pasco track
1 Pasco cart
1 pulley
1 mass hanger
1 weight set
1 meter stick
1 balance
Length of string
1 stopwatch
(If you have motion sensors use instead of stopwatch)

Safety Concerns:
None

Real-World Connections:
Shows that Newton’s 2nd Law is at work in the world around us everyday.
Example: Cranes that are lifting and lowering steel beams into place at a construction
site..

Teacher Notes:

In this lab make sure the track is as level as possible. Use fish line to connect the cart and
the hanging mass hanger. Keep the total mass in the system constant. Use the following
equation for calculating acceleration: a=2d
t2
The following is a diagram of the experimental setup:
You should allow the students to cut their own length of string in the lab so the student
can judge the amount they need.
They should work in groups of 2-3 so you have a timer, puller and recorder.
Data Table:
Mass of Cart with Hanging Mass(m) Time Distance
Masses(M)

Calculation Table:
Acceleration (a= 2d/t2) Force on System( F = Acceleration with Force
M+m)a Equations( a=mg/(M+m))

These are only suggested tables and you can have them draw them whatever way you
like.
Have them draw a free body diagram of the system.
Procedure/Description of Lesson:
1. Place the cart on the ramp and adjust the ramp so friction is not a factor in
determining acceleration by adjusting the leveling feet to raise or lower the ends
until the cart placed on the ramp will overcome friction.
2. Use the balance to find the mass of the cart and record in data table you provide.
3. Attach the pulley to the end of the track and cut a piece of string just long enough
with a little extra to go from the top of the ramp to the end of the floor.
4. Place the cart on the track and tie the string to the cart.
5. Place the string over the pulley and then tie the string to the weight hanger.
6. Pull the weight hanger to the floor making sure the cart just touches the end of the
ramp. If it does not go to the end of the ramp adjust the string so it does.
7. Pull the cart back until the mass hanger reaches the pulley.
8. Mark the position with a piece of tape on the ramp. This will be the start position
for all trials.
9. Measure the distance from the tape to the end of the ramp using the meter stick
and record the distance in meters in data table.
10. Place 4 -50 gram masses in the cart.
11. Record the mass of cart and masses in cart.
12. Record the mass on the hanger in your data table.
13. Pull back the cart till the hanger just touches the pulley.
14. Have timer time the cart from the tape to the ramp when the puller releases the
cart.
15. Have recorder record the time in your data table.
16. Repeat sets 11-15 by taking 50 grams from the cart one at a time and placing it on
the weight hanger till all the masses have been used.
17. Calculate the acceleration of each trial and record in the calculation table.
18. Calculate the force for each trial on the system and record in your calculation
table.
19. Draw a free body diagram on the system.
20. Calculate the acceleration using the combined force equations and record in
calculation table.
Assessment Ideas: Have students answer the following questions.
1. Plot a graph of acceleration versus mass of cart and masses.
2. After plotting the graph and drawing a curve what can you conclude about
acceleration and mass?
3. Plot a graph of acceleration versus 1/mass.
4. What type of curve do you get?
5. What can you conclude from the slope of this curve?
6. Compare the acceleration that you calculated and the acceleration from the force
equations and are they the same. If they are not equal; what are some of the
possible reasons they are not the same. If they are equal then why are they the
same?

General Assessment after the Force and Vector Unit

What do you think?

1. An astronaut is traveling in a straight path in space towards Mars. Outside the
ship while doing a repair, she lets go of her wrench. The wrench will a) fall
behind and get left, b) remain with her floating in space as they go to Mars, or c)
speed up and get to Mars before she does. Defend you answer.
2. The force exerted on the tires of a car to directly accelerate the car along a road is
exerted by what and why is this the cause?
3. Suppose an astronaut is outside her spaceship wishes to play a solitary “throw
and catch” game by bouncing an elastic ball off the spaceship’s outer wall. If the
ball is as massive as the astronaut what is going to happen?
4. A tennis ball and a steel ball the same size are dropped on earth at the same time.
Which ball has the greatest force acting on it and why?
5. You are standing in a bus. Explain why you fall backwards as the bus starts to
move forward.
6. You are trapped in the middle on a frictionless surface with only a backpack. You
can not walk or crawl off the surface or make friction. How would you get off the
surface?

The answers to the above question are:

 1. B. Newton’s First Law – Object at rest remains at rest.
2. Road, Newton’s Third Law- Equal and opposite.
3. Several things will happen; first when the ball hits the spaceship the spaceship
will go forward and the ball will come back to the astronaut and then the astronaut
will go the other way and the ball will bounce back towards the ship. This whole
situation is Newton’s Third law.
4. The Steel Ball, F=ma or F=mg
5. Newton’s Third Law-Equal and opposite.
6. Throw the backpack in the opposite direction and you will move the other way
and continue to move. Newton’s First and Third laws will allow you to get off the
frictionless surface.

I usually make each question worth 3 points each.

Performance Assessment after the Force and Vector Unit

1. On an Atwood machine mass m1 is 60kg and m2 is 100kg. Draw a free body diagram
and find the acceleration on the machine if the movement is in the downward direction on
m2. Find the tension on the string.
 ANSWER: Free Body Diagram

Acceleration Calculation:
a= (m2 – m1) g (100-60) (9.8) =a a=2.45 m/s2
(m1 + m2) (60 +100)

Tension Calculation:
T =m1a + m1g T= (60*2.45) + (60*9.8) T=735 N

Each part is worth 5 points each.

Free body diagram: 5 points for all 4 vectors labeled
Acceleration Calculation: 2 points equation, 2 points substitution, 1 point answer with
units.
Tension Calculation: 2 points equation, 2 points substitution, 1 point answer with
units.

2. A tension force on a rope must be exerted when attached to a wagon in order to

cause the wagon to accelerate up the hill. A.) Draw a free body diagram of the
situation. B.) Derive an equation that represents how large the tension force must be.
Answer:
A.) Free body diagram- 5 points = 3 points correct vectors, 2 points labeled
vectors.

B.) Correct equation- 5 points: T=ma + mgSinθ, partial credit if they have
some indication of how to start.
Performance Assessment # 2:

Predict the time a given mass released from rest at a known height will take
to reach the floor, when it is pulling a cart of known mass up a ramp of 22o.

Given Material:
Pasco Ramp
Cart (Friction) if used for Capstone.
String
Masses
Pulley
Clamps
Protractor (Capstone)

Answer:
Foundational

First they must find the acceleration of the system.

a= (m2g –m1gsinθ)/ (m1 + m2) Answers will vary depending on numbers you
use for masses and angle of incline.

Next they can find time to reach the floor by using the equation:
X=1/2at2 again the answer for time will vary from the height that you give
students and the answer from the acceleration

Scoring:
2 points for free body diagram
3 points for deriving the acceleration equation
3 points for showing time equation
2 points for correct substitution
2 points for correct answer
Total of 12 points.
 Capstone:
First they must find the coefficient of friction:
They do this by pulling ramp up till the friction cart just begins to slide. Measure the
angle with protractor and then take tangent of angle and that is the coefficient of
friction.
μ= tan θ
Next they must find the acceleration of the system.
a = (m2g-m1gsinθ –μm1gcosθ)/ (m1 +m2) Answers will vary depending on you use for
masses and angle of incline.
Next they can find time to reach the floor by using the equation:
X=1/2at2 again the answer for time will vary from the height that you give
students and the answer from the acceleration

Scoring:
2 points for finding μ
3 points for free body diagram
3 points for deriving the acceleration equation
3 points for showing time equation
2 points for correct substitution
2 points for correct answer
Total of 15 points.

Free Body Diagram:

For the Foundation student have them ignore friction on the ramp and when drawing the
free body diagram..
For the Capstone student have them include friction on the ramp.

For the capstone student use the following quiz on static equilibrium:
Static Equilibrium Assessment
1. An object is supported by two ropes attached to the ceiling.

a) Draw the free-body diagram. (2 points)

b) Solve for the mass of the object using the component method. Clearly state the
equations for the and the . Show all work. (5 points)

2. An 85 kg object is suspended from a ceiling and attached to a wall.

a) Draw the free-body diagram. (2 points)

b) Solve for the tension in each rope, using either component or closed vector triangle
method. Show all work. (5 points)
Static Equilibrium

Solution:

1. An object is supported by two ropes attached to the ceiling. What is the mass of the
object?

a) Draw the free-body diagram. (2 points)

b) Solve for the mass of the object using the component method. Clearly state the
equations for the and the . Show all work. (5 points)
2. An 85 kg object is suspended from a ceiling and attached to a wall.

a) Draw the free-body diagram. (2 points)

b) Solve for the tension in each rope, using either component or closed vector triangle
method. Show all work. (5 points)

This quiz is worth 14 points for a capstone student on Static Equilibrium.

Oakland Schools Physics Resource Unit

Momentum

Judy Davis
Walled Lake Central High School
Walled Lake Consolidated Schools
 Momentum
Content Statements

P3.5x Momentum
A moving object has a quantity of motion (momentum) that depends on its velocity and mass. In
interactions between objects, the total momentum of the objects does not change.
P3.1 Basic Forces in Nature
Objects can interact with each other by “direct contact” (pushes or pulls, friction) or at a distance
(gravity, electromagnetism, nuclear).
P3.2 Net Forces
Forces have magnitude and direction. The net force on an object is the sum of all the forces acting on
the object. Objects change their speed and/or direction only when a net force is applied. If the net force
on an object is zero, there is no change in motion (Newton’s First Law).
P3.3 Newton’s Third Law
Whenever one object exerts a force on another object, a force equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction is exerted back on the first object.
P3.4 Forces and Acceleration
The change of speed and/or direction (acceleration) of an object is proportional to the net force and
inversely proportional to the mass of the object. The acceleration and net force are always in the same
direction.

Content Expectations

P2.3a Describe and compare the motion of an object using different reference frames.
P3.1A Identify the force(s) acting between objects in “direct contact” or at a distance.
P3.2A Identify the magnitude and direction of everyday forces (e.g., wind, tension in ropes, pushes and pulls,
weight).
P3.3A Identify the action and reaction force from examples of forces in everyday situations (e.g., book on a
table, walking across the floor, pushing open a door).
P3.3b Predict how the change in velocity of a small mass compares to the change in velocity of a large mass
when the objects interact (e.g., collide).
P3.3c Explain the recoil of a projectile launcher in terms of forces and masses.
P3.3d Analyze why seat belts may be more important in autos than in buses.
P3.4f Calculate the changes in velocity of a thrown or hit object during and after the time it is acted on by the
force.
P3.4g Explain how the time of impact can affect the net force (e.g., air bags in cars, catching a ball).
P3.5a Apply conservation of momentum to solve simple collision problems.
Instructional Background Information:
In physics terms, momentum refers to mass in motion. Momentum depends on two
variables: how much stuff is moving and how fast that stuff is moving. Momentum is
the product of mass and velocity. The equation for momentum is:

p = mv

where p = momentum, m = mass, and v = velocity.

Momentum is a vector quantity, with its direction matching that of the velocity. Its SI
units are kilograms-meter/second (kg·m/s).

According to Newton’s second law, when a net force acts on an object, the object
accelerates. That is:

Fnet = ma

or
Δv
Fnet = m
t

Multiplying both sides of the equation by t gives:

Fnett = mΔv

where the product Fnett is known as Impulse and mΔv is change in momentum. The units
for Impulse are Newton-second (N·s). It can be shown that a N·s is equivalent to a
kg·m/s . The equation Fnett = mΔv is known as the Impulse-Momentum Theorem. The
theory can be expressed in this way: If an object experiences a non-zero net force for a
specific amount of time, the object’s mass will undergo a change in velocity (thus a
change in momentum) by either speeding up or slowing down (or changing direction).
In a collision between two objects a and b, the forces experienced by each are equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction, according to Newton’s Third Law. Since each
object experiences the same size force over the same amount of time, the impulses
exerted on each object are also the same size, but in opposite directions. Thus:

Fat = -Fbt

Because impulse equals change in momentum, it follows that:

maΔva = -mbΔvb
or
ma(vaf – vai) = -mb(vbf – vbi)

The above equation is one statement of the Conservation of Momentum which states that
during a collision, the momentum change of one object is equal in size but opposite in
direction to the momentum change of the second object. That is, if object a gains
momentum during a collision, object b gains the same amount of momentum, and visa-
versa.

By distributing the negative sign on the right side of the equation and rearranging the
terms we have:

ma vai + mb vbi = mavaf + mbvbf

This statement of Conservation of Momentum shows that the initial momentum of a two
object system is the same before and after a collision. Thus, momentum is conserved.

Note:
In a capstone course, the difference between elastic and inelastic collisions should also be
explored.
Terms and Concepts
Acceleration Impulse Newton’s Second Law

Change in momentum Law of Conservation of Newton’s Third Law

Energy
Change in velocity Law of Conservation of Proportional
Momentum
Collision Mass Vector

Impact Force Momentum Velocity

Impact time Net Force
Instructional Resources

comPADRE
<http://www.compadre.org/>

Intuitor Insultingly Stupid Movie Physics

<http://www.intuitor.com/moviephysics/>

PhET – University of Colorado at Boulder

<http://phet.colorado.edu/index.php>

Physics Lab.
<http://dev.physicslab.org>

Ranking Task Exercises in Physics.

Thomas L. O’Kuma, David P. Maloney, Curtis J. Hiebbelke. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Pearson Education, Inc., 2004.

The Physics Classroom

<http://www.physicsclassroom.com>
Momentum

Activity #1: Gathering Momentum (Foundation course)

Questions to be investigated
How does an increase in mass affect the momentum of a car as it hits an object?
Why is it unwise to cut in front of large vehicles and brake sharply?

Objectives
Calculate speed, momentum, acceleration, and force in systems.

Materials
Hall’s carriage car, 100 g masses, stopwatch, meter stick, ramp, blocks/books, milk
carton filled with sand (or other heavy object)

Safety Concerns
None

Real-World Connections
Driving and safety, collisions, stopping distances vs. speed, sports

Teacher Notes
If possible, have a discussion with students prior to giving out lab sheet about how they
would put together a lab to investigate the questions. Blocks or other heavy objects can
replace the milk cartons. If the carton has too much mass, the car may not have enough
momentum to move it.

Procedure/Description of Lesson
See Attached.

Assessment Ideas:
See Attached.
 GATHERING MOMENTUM

Purpose: To determine how an increase in mass affects the momentum of a car as it hits
an object.

Equipment needed: Hall’s carriage car, 100 g masses, stopwatch, meter stick, ramp,
books, milk carton filled with sand.

Preliminary questions:
1) How many feet should you stay behind another vehicle on the freeway?

2) What happens if you don’t see the car in front of you as it brakes?

3) What could happen if you cut off a semi in busy traffic on a freeway?

4) Which vehicle can stop faster, a small car or a semi-truck?

Procedure:

1) With your ramp flat on the floor, place the back of the car’s wheels at one end of
the ramp and measure the distance from the front of the ca to the end of the ramp.
Record this as “distance car travels” on the data sheet.
2) Raise the ramp up on a few books. Place the milk carton at the bottom of the
ramp positioning a meter stick just behind and offset from the milk carton so that
when the carton is hit, it will move without disturbing the meter stick.
3) Determine the mass of the empty car and record your results on the data sheet.
4) Place the back of the car’s wheels at the top end of the ramp.
5) Release the car as you start the stopwatch. Stop timing when the car hits the milk
carton. Record this time on your data sheet.
6) Observe the car and the milk carton as the car hits the milk carton. Record the
distance that the milk carton moved.
7) Complete three trials using the same mass. Record all data.
8) Add a 100 g mass to the car. Record the combined mass of the car and its load.
Repeat steps 4 – 7.
9) Add another 100 g mass (200 g total). Record the combined mass of the car and
its load then repeat steps 4 – 7.
Data:

Distance car traveled _________________

Mass Mass Trial Time Distance milk carton

(g) (kg) (s) (s) moved (m)
Empty 1
car 2
3
Average =
Car + 1
100 g 2
load 3
Average =
Car + 1
200 g 2
load 3
Average =
Average time for all
trials =

Analysis:

1) Convert mass from grams to kilograms and record in the Data Table.
2) Calculate the average time for all trials and record in the Data Table.
3) Calculate the average distance the milk carton moved for each mass and record in
the Data Table.
4) Calculate the average speed of the car while traveling down the ramp and record
in the chart below. The final speed is the same for each car.
5) Since your car started from rest and we can assume it accelerated at a constant
rate, the final speed (the speed at impact) is twice the average speed. Determine
your car’s final speed and record in the chart below.
6) Copy the values for mass (kg) in the chart below and calculate the momentum of
each of the three cars at impact. Record in the chart.

Mass Average speed Final velocity Final momentum

(kg) (m/s) (m/s) (kg m/s)
Empty car
Car + 100 g
Car + 200 g
7) Use the final velocity you calculated above and the fact that the initial velocity
was 0 m/s to calculate your car’s acceleration rate. Use the average time for all
the trials. Record below.
8) Copy the values for mass (kg) to the table below and calculate the force applied to
the milk carton.

Mass Average acceleration Force

(kg) (m/s2) (N)
Empty car
Car + 100 g
Car + 200 g

Conclusion:

1) What observations did you make about the movement of the milk carton?
2) Why were three trials done for each part of this experiment?
3) What observations did you make about the movement of the car during the
collision?
4) Which car had the greatest momentum?
5) What is the relationship between mass and momentum?
6) What do you predict would happen to the distance the milk carton would move if
you added another 100 g of mass to the car?
7) Which car had the greatest force on the milk carton?
8) Using knowledge learned in this investigation, write a convincing paragraph
explaining why it is important not to cut in front of large vehicles and then brake
sharply.

Science Course Module: Integrated Physics and Chemistry (IPC). 2005. University of
Houston. 26 Jun 2009. < www.coe.uh.edu/texasipc/units/motion/momentum.pdf>
ASSESSMENT IDEA:

Shown below are six cars that are moving along horizontal roads at specified speeds. Also given are the
masses of the cars. All of the cars are the same size and shape, but they are carrying loads with different
masses. All of these cars are going to be stopped by plowing into identical barriers. All of the cars are
going to be stopped by the same constant force by the barrier.

Rank these situations from longest to shortest on the basis of the stopping time that will be needed to stop
the cars with the same force. That is, put first the car that requires the longest time and put last the car that
requires the shortest time to stop the car with the same force. If any of the situations require the same time
indicate this with an “=” sign.

Ranking: _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____

Explanation:

O’Kuma, Thomas L., David P. Maloney, Curtis J. Hiebbelke. Ranking Task Exercises in
Physics. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc., 2004.
ASSESSMENT RUBRIC:

FΔt = mΔv

mΔv
then Δt =
F

Vf = 0 for all cases and F is the same in all cases

So Δt is directly proportional to the initial momentum of each car.

pA = 10,000 kg m/s
pB = 20,000 kg m/s
pC = 30,000 kg m/s
pD= 30,000 kg m/s
pE = 20,000 kg m/s
pF = 40,000 kg m/s

Thus:
F>C=D>B=E>A
Momentum
Activity #2: Tailgated by a Dart (Foundation course)

Questions to be investigated
How can we use the conservation of momentum to determine the initial speed of a dart
fired at a toy car?

Objectives
To estimate the speed of an object by applying conservation of momentum to a collision.

Materials
Velcro fastener tape, toy car, toy dart gun using rubber darts, stopwatch, meter stick,
balance

Safety Concerns
None

Real-World Connections
Collisions, crash reconstructions, recoil, sports

Teacher Notes
If possible, have a discussion with students prior to giving out lab sheet about how they
would put together a lab to investigate the questions. Blocks or other heavy objects can
replace the milk cartons. If the carton has too much mass, the car may not have enough
momentum to move it.

Procedure/Description of Lesson
See Attached.

Assessment Ideas:
See Attached.
 TAILGATED BY A DART

Purpose: To estimate the speed of an object by applying conservation of momentum.

Equipment needed: Velcro, stopwatch, toy car, meter stick, toy dart gun using rubber
darts, balance

Procedure:

1) Fasten Velcro to the back of the toy car and to the cup end of a rubber dart. When
the toy car is hit, it must be free to coast a straight line on a level table until it
comes to a stop. Practice shooting the dart onto the back end of the car. The dart
should stick to the car and cause it to coast.

a. What is the relationship between the momentum of the dart before the
impact and the combined momentum of the dart and the car just immediately after
the impact?

2) Measure the distance and time that the car coasts after it is hit by the dart, until it
comes to a stop. Record your data in the table. Repeat the procedure until you
have five trials with close values.

3) Calculate the average speed of the car after impact for the five trials, and record in
the table below.

Trial Coasting Distance Coasting Time Average Speed of Car

(m) (s) After Impact
(m/s)
1
2
3
4
5

b. Was the speed of the car constant as it coasted? Explain.

 c. If the friction force on the car is assumed to be nearly constant, how does
the speed of the car immediately after impact compare with the average speed?

4) Using the equation d = ½(vi + vf) t, calculate the speed of the car/dart immediately
after impact.

vi(car/dart) = ____________________

5) Find the masses need to compute the momenta.

mass of car = ____________________

mass of dart = ___________________

6) Write an equation showing the momenta before and after the collision, then solve
for the speed of your dart.

vd = __________________________

Analysis:

7) Is the momentum of the tailgated car constant the whole time it is moving?
Explain.

Robinson, Paul . Conceptual Physics. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2002.
Assessment idea:

The six situations below show before and after “snapshots” of a car’s velocity. All cars
have the same mass.

Rank these situations in terms of the changes of these momenta, from most positive to
most negative. Negative numbers, if any, rank lower than positive ones (-20 m/s < -10
m/s < 0 < 5 m/s). If any of the situations have zero velocity indicate this with an “= 0"
sign.

Ranking: _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____

Explanation:

O’Kuma, Thomas L., David P. Maloney, Curtis J. Hiebbelke. Ranking Task Exercises in
Physics. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc., 2004.
ASSESSMENT RUBRIC:

Since the mass is the same in each case, change in momentum will depend on change in velocity only.

∆vA = + 10 m/s
∆vB = - 10 m/s
B

∆vC = - 20 m/s
∆vD = 0
∆vE = - 10 m/s
∆vF = - 10 m/s

Therefore:
A>D>B=E=F>C
MOMENTUM
Activity #3: Egg Drop Lab (Foundation and Capstone courses)

Questions to be investigated
What type of container can we design in order to protect a raw chicken egg from breaking
when dropped from a height of approximately 5.5 meters?

Objectives
Understand how the time of impact can affect the net force exerted on an object.

Materials
raw chicken eggs
various materials provided by students

Safety Concerns
Since containers are dropped from a second story balcony, be sure no one is under the
drop area.

Real-World Connections
seat belts, airbags, bumpers, sports

Teacher Notes
Messes can be eliminated if egg is placed inside a small plastic bag before being inserted
into container. Requiring a minimum mass per container eliminates the temptation to
insert egg inside a large sponge (the lazy way to create a container).

Procedure/Description of Lesson
See Attached.

Assessment Ideas:
See Attached.
 Egg Drop Lab
Purpose:
To use the physical principles of impulse and momentum in the design of a “container”
of restricted size that will protect raw chicken egg, from breaking after a fall from a
height of approximately 5.5 meters.

Requirements:

The container can be of any design, but may NOT include any of the following:
packaging materials (bubble wrap, Styrofoam, packing peanuts, etc), liquid or gases
(other than air at atmospheric pressure), glass or ceramic materials. The use of duct tape
or any reinforced tape is also prohibited. The empty container must have a mass of 100
grams (¼ pound) or more but no dimension of the container must measure more that 24
cm (9½ in). A raw large egg will be provided the day of the drop. The container must
free-fall (no parachutes). The egg must survive intact (no cracks).

Rules:
1) Students may work individually or in teams of no more than three people to
design and construct their container. Commercially constructed containers are not
legal.
2) To ensure proper size, it must be possible to pass the container with egg through a
9½ inch hoop.
3) Any container that violates any rule or uses illegal materials will earn an
automatic zero.
4) Students will provide all materials for the container.
5) A small amount of class time will be allowed for construction.
6) Cracked eggs are not considered to have survived.
7) Students are responsible for cleaning any and all “messes” that occur in the
process of creating, testing, or dropping their containers.
8) Students should plan on time out of class to complete some of the work involved
in this lab.
9) Students must individually submit a written explanation describing how the
principles of impulse and momentum applied to their container.

Assessment Criteria:
Prepared for “construction day” having all necessary materials and ____/5
appropriate use of class time during “construction day”
Diagram of design including dimensions and mass (without egg) ____/5
List of materials used ____/5
Written explanation ____/20
Successfully drop container without breaking egg ____/5
ASSESSMENT IDEA and RUBRIC:

The written explanation specified in the lab includes:

description of forces acting on contraption ___/5

identification of which of Newton’s Laws are being demonstrated ___/5
explanation of how the laws are demonstrated ___/10
identifying features of container that lessens or alters the effect of the forces ____/5
explains how the features serve to lessen or alter forces ____/5
Momentum
Activity #4: Analysis of Ship Collision ( Foundation and Capstone)

Questions to be investigated
Should the Speed II good guys be thrown through the windshield when the ship crashes
into the dock?

Objectives
Practice calculating momentum and acceleration
Practice graphing, drawing lines of best fit, and finding slopes
Using graphs to make predictions

Materials
The movie Speed II, stopwatches, graphing paper, rulers

Safety Concerns
None

Real-World Connections
Collisions

Teacher Notes
Begin the movie just after the cruise ship sideswipes the oil tanker (about 2/3 of the way
through). Although students won’t begin timing until the ship hits the dock, it’s just fun
to watch what happens in the meantime. Play the movie until the ship stops then rewind
and have students begin timing. It’s very easy for them to get times and speeds.
Although they should stop timing once the ship actually stops, continue to play to see
what happens when the anchor finally falls.

Procedure/Description of Lesson
See Attached.

Assessment Ideas:
See Attached.
 ANALYSIS OF SHIP COLLISION
Movie: Speed II: Cruise Control (1997), Sandra bullock, Jason Patric, Willem Dafoe

Purpose: Determine if the Speed II good guys would be thrown through the windshield
when the ship crashes into the dock.

Background: As the ship moves forward it hits the dock and slows down, or in physics
terms, accelerates backwards. People on the ship feel like they are being pushed forward
during the collision since their inertia resists changes in their forward motion. In reality
they’re being pushed backward by the friction force between their feet and the deck. This
causes a person to accelerate backwards along with the ship. If the friction force is too
low the person will slide forward relative to the ship’s deck.

For a person to crash through the windshield the deck’s acceleration must be so high that
friction can’t hold him in place. Also the person’s momentum must be high enough to
shatter the window and propel him through the opening. At accelerations above 9.8 m/s²
friction force would not prevent a person from sliding. Accelerations below 0.98 m/s²
would feel like a nudge from a gentle breeze.

A ship’s windshield must resist storm-driven waves and thus is very strong. For a person
(even a good guy) to be propelled through the ship’s windshield would require a high-
speed collision. Ten mi/h (about 4.4 m/s) would not qualify as high speed. Keep this
figure in mind as you analyze the conditions when the heroes are thrown through the
window.

Procedure: Estimate the ship’s acceleration. Begin timing when the ship hits the dock.
The first mate calls out the ship’s speed as it slows down. Record this below along with
the time. Also record the time at which our heroes flew out the window. Using an
average mass of 75 kg, calculate our heroes’ momenta at each time.

Data and analysis: (To find the velocity in m/s multiply knots/h by 0.5)

Time (s) Velocity (knots/h) Velocity (m/s) Momentum (kg m/s)

time heroes went through windshield

Plot the ship’s velocity vs. time and momentum vs. time.

Indicate on your graphs when our heroes were thrown through the windshield.

Determine from your graph the acceleration of the ship and heroes. Show work below.

Determine from your graph the net force acting on the ship and our heroes. Show work
below.

Conclusions: Using your graphs and calculations, explain why or why not our heroes
should have been thrown through the windshield.

Intuitor Insultingly Stupid Movie Physics. 1997-2006. 26 Jun 2009.

<http://www.intuitor.com/moviephysics/>
ASSESSMENT IDEA:

1) A basketball and a racquetball are dropped simultaneously from the same height.
After striking the ground both return to the same height. If the basketball is 7
times more massive than the racquetball, which ball experiences the largest
impulse when it strikes the ground? Explain your reasoning.

2) The same basketball and racquetball are dropped simultaneously from the same
height. This time, however, the racquetball returns to a much higher height than
the basketball. Which ball experiences the largest impulse now? Explain your
reasoning.

Physics Critical Thinking Principles and Problems. Columbus: Glencoe/McGraw, Hill,

2002.
ASSESSMENT RUBRIC:

5) Although we do not know the exact height from which the balls are released, we
do know that, neglecting air resistance, both balls will strike the ground with the same
speed. Because both balls return to the same height they must have the same speed just
after hitting the ground. This means they have the same change in velocity during the
collision with the ground. Because the basketball is more massive its change in
momentum (MΔv) must be larger than the change in momentum of the racquetball
(mΔv).

2) The smallest possible impulse delivered to the basketball occurs when it does not
bounce at all; its final speed is zero. The impulse delivered to the basketball by the
ground is the ball’s change in momentum (Mvmax) where vmax is the speed of the ball just
as it strikes the ground. The largest possible impulse delivered to the racquetball occurs
when it bounces all the way back to its original height (since it obviously cannot bounce
any higher). The change in the racquetball’s momentum is m(2vmax). Because the
basketball’s mass (M) is 7 times larger than the racquetball’s mass (m), the impulse
delivered to the basketball, even in this extreme case, is 7 times larger than the impulse
delivered to the racquetball.

Leonard, William J., Robert J. Dufresne, William J. Gerace, and Jose P. Mestre . Minds
on Physics. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Co., 1999.
Momentum
Activity #5 Conservation of Momentum(Capstone course)

Questions to be investigated
How does the total momentum of two objects before a collision compare to the total
momentum of two objects after a collision?
Objectives
To experimentally verify that momentum is conserved during one-dimensional collisions.
To examine how the change in velocity of a small mass compares to the change in
velocity of a large mass when the objects interact.
Materials
Ramps with a plumb line
C-clamps
meter sticks
steel ball bearing
glass marble
sheets of blank paper
sheets of carbon paper
compass

Safety Concerns
none
Real-World Connections
collisions
Teacher Notes
Students use projectile motion concepts to determine the horizontal velocity of steel
bearing before the collision and the bearing and marble after the collision.
Procedure/Description of Lesson
See attached.
Assessment Ideas:
See attached
 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM LAB

Purpose: To experimentally verify that momentum is conserved during one-dimensional

collisions.

Equipment needed: 1 ramp with a plumb line, 1 c-clamp, 1 meter stick, 1 steel ball
bearing, 1 glass marble, 2 sheets of blank paper to use as your target paper, and several
sheet of carbon paper, compass

Procedure:

1) Set up your ramp as shown in the illustration shown above. Clamp your ramp to
the table so that it does not move during the experiment.
2) Tape your target paper to the floor. Using your plumb line, mark the "edge of the
table" on your target paper.
3) Measure the mass of your steel ball and your glass marble. Record your answers
in the table below.
4) Measure the height of your table and record it in the table below.
5) Place carbon paper on top of your target paper and release the steel ball 10 times
from the top of the ramp. Catch the ball each time after it initially strikes the
target paper. Make sure that you record only one bounce per trial. When all 10
trials are done, use a compass to draw the smallest possible circle around your
collision points and label it:
• Part I: Steel Ball Alone
6) Swing out the supporting stand attached to the end of your ramp and carefully
position the glass marble on its tip. Once again release the steel ball from the top
of the ramp. This time both the glass marble and the steel ball will strike the
paper. Make sure that you only record one bounce for each projectile. Repeat this
process 10 times.
7) When all 10 trials are done, use a compass to draw the smallest possible circles
around your two groups of collision points and label them:
• Part II: Steel Ball After Collision
• Part II: Glass Ball After Collision
8) Using your meter stick, measure the distance to the center of each circle on your
target paper. Record your measurements in the appropriate columns in the data
table provided below.
Preliminary Tables:

Mass Data:
(g) (kg)
steel bearing
glass marble

Table Data:

height of table m
initial vertical velocity m/s
vertical acceleration m/s2

Distance Data:

Part I
• steel ball alone m
Part II
• steel ball after m
• glass ball after m

Time Calculation:

Using kinematics, determine the time required for the ball bearing and the glass marble to
reach the ground. Show your calculations.

time for each ball to reach the ground (s)

Momentum Calculations:

Average Distance Horizontal Velocity Momentum

(m) (m/s) (kg m/s)

Mass Part I Part II Part I Part II Part I Part II

(kg)
Steel
Glass
Experimental Error:

Using the information calculated in the previous table, determine your experimental error
by calculating the percent difference between the total momentum for Part I and the total
momentum for Part II.

Total Momentum:

Part I (kg m/s)

Part II (kg m/s)
% difference

Conclusion:

Calculate the change in the momentum of the steel ball bearing and the change in
momentum of the glass ball. How do they compare?

Which of the two underwent the largest change in velocity? Explain.

Write a general conclusion about how the momentum before a collision compares to the
momentum afterward. Be sure to account for any percent difference.

Physics Lab. 1997-2009. Mainland High School. 26 Jun 2009.

<http://dev.physicslab.org/Document.aspx?doctype=2&filename=Momentum_Conservati
onMomentum.xml>
Assessment Idea:

The figure below shows four situations in which there is a one-dimensional collision
between two blocks of masses m1 = 2 kg and m2 = 3 kg on a frictionless floor.
Information about the speeds and directions of travel are given for before and after each
collision, except for the final velocity v2f of block 2.

Rank the situations in terms of the velocity v2f, most positive first, most negative last. If
any of the situations have the same velocity indicate this with an “=” sign. If any of the
situations have zero velocity indicate this with an “= 0" sign.

Ranking: _______ _______ _______ _______.

Explanation:
Assessment Rubric:
m1 := 2⋅ kg m2 := 3⋅ kg

Conservation of momentum: m1⋅ v 1i + m2⋅ v 2i := m1⋅ v if + m2⋅ v 2f

(m1⋅vv1i + m2⋅ v2i − m1⋅ v1f)

1
Solving for v2f: v 2f :=
m2

m m m
Case (a): v 1i := 4⋅ v 2i := 0⋅ v 1f := 1⋅
sec sec sec

(m1⋅ v1i + m2⋅ v2i − m1⋅ v1f)

1 −1
v 2f := v 2f = 2s ⋅m
m2

m m m
Case (b): v 1i := 4⋅ v 2i := 2⋅ v 1f := 2⋅
sec sec sec

(m1⋅ v1i + m2⋅ v2i − m1⋅ v1f)

1 −1
v 2f := v 2f = 3.333s ⋅m
m2

m m m
Case (c): v 1i := 4⋅ v 2i := −2⋅ v 1f := −1⋅
sec sec sec

(m1⋅ v1i + m2⋅ v2i − m1⋅ v1f)

1 −1
v 2f := v 2f = 1.333s ⋅m
m2

m m m
Case (d): v 1i := 6⋅ v 2i := −6⋅ v 1f := −2⋅
sec sec sec

(m1⋅ v1i + m2⋅ v2i − m1⋅ v1f)

1 −1
v 2f := v 2f = −0.667s ⋅m
m 2

Ranking: b > a > c > d.

Momentum
Activity #6: Impulse‐Momentum Lab (Capstone course)

Questions to be investigated
How does an object’s momentum change compare to the impulse it receives.
How do average and peak forces in impulses compare.

Objectives
Use LoggerPro to illustrate the relationship between net force, time, and change in
velocity.

Materials
Motion detector
Clamp
Force sensor
String
Rubber bands
Dynamics car
500-g mass
LoggerPro

Safety Concerns
None
Real-World Connections
Collisions, sports

Teacher Notes

Procedure/Description of Lesson
See Attached

Assessment Ideas:
See Attached
 IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM LAB

Purpose: For this experiment, a dynamics cart will roll along a level surface. Its
momentum will change as it reaches the end of an initially slack elastic tether, much like
a horizontal bungee jump. The tether will stretch and apply an increasing force until the
cart stops. The cart then changes direction and the tether will soon go slack. The force
applied by the tether is measured by a force sensor, the cart’s velocity throughout the
motion with a motion detector. Using Logger Pro to find the average force during a time
interval, you can test the impulse-momentum theorem.

Equipment Needed: Motion detector, Clamp, Force sensor, LoggerPro, String, Rubber
bands, Dynamics cart, 500-g mass

Preliminary Questions:
1) In a car collision, the driver’s body must change speed from a high value to zero.
This is true whether or not an airbag is used, so why use an airbag? How does it
reduce injuries?

2) You want to close an open door by throwing either a 400-g lump of clay or a 400-
g rubber ball toward it. You can throw either object with the same speed, but they
are different in that the rubber ball bounces off the door while the clay just sticks
to the door. Which projectile will apply the larger impulse to the door and be
more likely to close it?

Procedure:

1) With the 500-g mass attached, measure the mass of your dynamics cart and record
the value in the data table.
2) Connect the force sensor and motion detector to the Universal Lab Interface.
3) Logger Pro will plot the cart’s position and velocity vs. time, as well as the force
applied by the Force sensor vs. time. Data are collected 50 times per second for 5
seconds.
4) Attach the Force sensor to one end of the table with the clamp. Set the motion
detector at the other end of the table. Attach string to both sides of the rubber
bands. Tape one end of the string to the dynamics cart and tie the other string to
the force sensor. Choose a string length so that the cart can roll freely with the
cord slack for most of the table length, but be stopped by the cord before it
reaches the motion detector. When the cord is stretched to maximum extension,
the cart should not be closer than 0.4 m to the detector.

5) Click “zero”, then “zero force”, to zero the force sensor.

6) Practice releasing the cart so it rolls toward the motion detector, bounces gently,
and returns to your hand. The force sensor must not shift and the cart must stay
on a straight path. Arrange the cord so that it does not interfere with the cart’s
motion. Keep your hands away from between the cart and the motion detector.

7) Click “collect” to take data; roll the cart and confirm that the motion detector
detects the cart throughout its travel. Inspect the force data. If the peak is
flattened, then the applied force is too large. Roll the cart with a lower initial
speed. If the velocity graph has a flat area when it crosses the x-axis, the motion
detector is too close and the run should be repeated.

8) Once you have made a run with good distance, velocity, and force graphs, SAVE
AND PRINT YOUR GRAPHS, and analyze your data. To test the impulse-
momentum theorem, you need the velocity before and after the impulse. Choose
a time interval just before the bounce when the speed was approximately constant.
and drag the mouse pointer across the interval. Click the Statistics “Stat” button
and read the average velocity. Record the value in your data table. In the same
manner, determine the average velocity just after the bounce and record the value
in your data table. Remove the floating boxes by clicking the graph close box in
their upper right corners.

9) On the force vs. time graph, drag across the impulse, capturing the entire period
when the force was non-zero. Find the average value of the force by clicking the
Statistics button. Record the value in your data table.

10) To determine the length of the time interval over which your average force is
calculated, divide the number of points used (shown in the “Stat” box) in the
average by the data rate of 50 points per second. Record the value in your data
table.

11) Perform a second trial by repeating Steps 9 - 12, record the information in your
data table.
12) Change the elastic material attached to the cart. Repeat steps 9 - 13. Record the
information in your data table.

Analysis:

1) Calculate the change in velocities and record in the data table. From the mass of
the cart and the change in velocity, determine the change in momentum as a result
of the impulse. Make this calculation for each trial and enter the values in the
second data table.

2) Determine the impulse for each trial from the average force and the time interval
values. Record these values in your data table.

3) If the impulse-momentum theorem is correct, the change in momentum will equal

the impulse for each trial. Experimental measurement errors, along with friction
and shifting of the Force sensor, will keep the two from being exactly the same.
One way to compare the two is to find their percentage difference. Divide the
difference between the two values by the average of the two, then multiply by
100%. How close are your values, percentage-wise? Do your data support the
impulse-momentum theorem?

4) Look at the shape of the last force vs. time graph. Is the peak value of the force
significantly different from the average force? Is there a way you could deliver
the same impulse with a much smaller force?

5) When you use different elastic materials, what changes occurred in the shapes of
the graphs? Is there a correlation between the type of material and the shape?

6) When you used a stiffer or tighter elastic material, what effect did this have on the
duration of the impulse? What affect did this have on the maximum size of the
force?
 Data Table:

Mass of Cart kg

Trial Final Initial Change of Average Duration Impulse Change in % difference

Velocity Velocity Velocity Force of momentum between Impulse
v v0 Δv F Impulse FΔt Δp and Change in
Elastic 1 (m/s) (m/s) (m/s) (N) Δt (N·s) (kg m/s) momentum
(s) (N·s)
1
2
Elastic 2
1
2
Assessment Idea:

Drivers of cars, trucks, and buses sometimes encounter places where forks in the road
demand quick decisions. Highway safety expert know that drivers approaching such a
fork at high speed have become confused, lost control of their vehicles, and plowed into
the apex of the concrete divider that separates the diverging roads. The result has often
been a serious accident.

For many years, safety engineers tried to improve the safety of road travel by improving
lighting and road signs. Nevertheless, drivers still got confused and found themselves
hurtling toward a virtually immovable concrete barrier and certain injury or death.
Another solution had to be invented - and it was. The invention, a series of cans filled
with sand and placed in front of the concrete barrier, was the idea of a former race-car
driver named John Fitch. The arrays of such cans are called Fitch Inertial Barriers. In
this exercise, you will explore practical applications of Fitch’s invention. Assume that
the only variable in the construction of the cars in the table is mass and that the occupants
of the cars are of equal mass.

CAR MASS (KG) VELOCITY

(KM/H)

1 910 82

2 1675 29

3 1200 50

4 1350 63

5 1500 40
1) What general principle accounts for the safety of the Fitch barriers?

2) Which car will travel further into the array of Fitch barriers? Explain your
answer.

3) Which car will stop in the shortest distance? Explain your answer.

4) Consider only cars 3 and 5. In which of these cars are the occupants least likely
to sustain series injuries? Explain your answer.

5) If the Fitch barriers were absent, in which car would the occupants be most likely
to sustain serious injuries? Assume the concrete divider is an immovable object. Explain
your answer.

6) If the Fitch barriers were absent, in which car would the occupants be least likely
to sustain serious injuries? Explain your answer.
Assessment Rubric:

1) Fitch barriers increase the time during which the force of a collision is exerted on
a vehicle and its occupants. The longer it takes to bring a car to rest, the smaller
the force exerted on the car and its occupants.

2) Car 4 has the greatest momentum so will travel the furthest.

3) Car 2 has the least momentum so will travel the shortest distance.

4) The occupants of car 5 are least likely to suffer serious injuries. Both cars have
the same momentum so will travel the same distance in the same amount of time
before stopping. However, because car 3 is traveling faster its acceleration rate
must be greater.

5) Without the barriers the occupants of car 1 would have the most serious injuries.
Because all cars would come to an abrupt stop in a very short period of time, the
car that experiences the largest change in momentum will experience the largest
force.

6) Because the velocity of car 3 is the least, its occupants would be least likely to
sustain serious injuries.

Adapted from Glencoe Physics Principles and Problems. Columbus. McGraw-Hill.

Oakland Schools Physics Resource Unit

Mechanical Energy Work &

Heat

Eric Thuma
William Ryan Slade
Stoney Creek High School
Rochester Community Schools
Mechanical Energy Work & Heat
Content Statements
P4.1x Energy Transfer — Work
Work is the amount of energy transferred during an interaction. In mechanical systems, work is the
amount of energy transferred as an object is moved through a distance, W = F d, where d is in the same
direction as F. The total work done on an object depends on the net force acting on the object and the
object’s displacement.
P4.2 Energy Transformation
Energy is often transformed from one form to another. The amount of energy before a transformation is
equal to the amount of energy after the transformation. In most energy transformations, some energy is
converted to thermal energy.
tP4.3 Kinetic and Potential Energy
Moving objects have kinetic energy. Objects experiencing a force may have potential energy due to
their relative positions (e.g., lifting an object or stretching a spring, energy stored in chemical bonds).
Conversions between kinetic and gravitational potential energy are common in moving objects. In
frictionless systems, the decrease in gravitational potential energy is equal to the increase in kinetic
energy or vice versa.
P4.3x Kinetic and Potential Energy — Calculations
The kinetic energy of an object is related to the mass of an object and its speed: KE = 1/2 mv2.
P4.11x Heat, Temperature, and Efficiency
Heat is often produced as a by-product during energy transformations. This energy is transferred into
the surroundings and is not usually recoverable as a useful form of energy. The efficiency of systems is
defined as the ratio of the useful energy output to the total energy input. The efficiency of natural and
human-made systems varies due to the amount of heat that is not recovered as useful work.

2
Content Expectations

P3.2B Compare work done in different situations.

P4.1A Account for and represent energy into and out of systems using energy transfer diagrams.

P4.1B Explain instances of energy transfer by waves and objects in everyday activities (e.g., why the ground
gets warm during the day, how you hear a distant sound, why it hurts when you are hit by a baseball).
P4.1c Explain why work has a more precise scientific meaning than the meaning of work in everyday
language.
P4.1d Calculate the amount of work done on an object that is moved from one position to another.

P4.1e Using the formula for work, derive a formula for change in potential energy of an object lifted a
distance h.
P4.2A Account for and represent energy transfer and transformation in complex processes (interactions).

P4.2C Explain how energy is conserved in common systems (e.g., light incident on a transparent material,
light incident on a leaf, mechanical energy in a collision).
P4.2D Explain why all the stored energy in gasoline does not transform to mechanical energy of a vehicle.

P4.2e Explain the energy transformation as an object (e.g., skydiver) falls at a steady velocity.

P4.3A Identify the form of energy in given situations (e.g., moving objects, stretched springs, rocks on cliffs,
energy in food).

P4.3C Explain why all mechanical systems require an external energy source to maintain their motion.

P4.3d Rank the amount of kinetic energy from highest to lowest of everyday examples of moving objects.

P4.3e Calculate the changes in kinetic and potential energy in simple mechanical systems (e.g., pendulums,
roller coasters, ski lifts) using the formulas for kinetic energy and potential energy.
P4.3f Calculate the impact speed (ignoring air resistance) of an object dropped from a specific height or the
maximum height reached by an object (ignoring air resistance), given the initial vertical velocity.
P4.11a Calculate the energy lost to surroundings when water in a home water heater is heated from room
temperature to the temperature necessary to use in a dishwasher, given the efficiency of the home hot
water heater.
P4.11b Calculate the final temperature of two liquids (same or different materials) at the same or different
temperatures and masses that are combined.

3
Instructional Background Information:

The Nature of Energy

( http://www.nisd.net/taft/classrooms/martin/Notes_index.htm#KE )
2
Energy is the ability to cause changes. Energy is measured in Joules (J) or kg*m/sec .
When work is done on an object, energy is given off.

Basic Forms of Energy:

1. Light Energy –
• Any form of light contains energy: Infrared Light, Visible Light, Ultraviolet
Light, etc.. The energy in light often gets converted into heat energy. Light energy
can be converted into chemical energy through the process of photosynthesis.
2. Thermal Energy –
• The energy contained within a substance due to the movement of molecules. If
something feels hot or cold to the touch you know that you have just experienced
the transfer of thermal energy from one object to another. The transfer of thermal
energy is known as heat. If an object feels warm or hot to the touch, thermal
energy is being transferred from the object to your hand. If an object feels cool or
cold, thermal energy is being transferred from your hand to the object. So if
something feels hot, warm, cool, or cold to the touch you are experiencing
thermal energy.
3. Chemical Energy –
• The energy associated with the chemical bonds between elements. Chemical
energy is a stored energy that can be released. Food or batteries are good
examples of stored chemical energy. You can see or feel when stored chemical
energy is converted into heat and sometimes light energy in an exothermic
reaction.
4. Sound Energy –
• Any audible or inaudible sound demonstrates sound energy. It is the energy
associated with the vibrations of molecules and atoms. Most sound energy is
easily detected using our ears, however they can not detect it all!
5. Kinetic Energy –
• The energy associated with the movement of objects. Anything that is moving has
kinetic energy. A moving car, hand, pencil, molecule, etc… has kinetic energy
6. Elastic Energy –
• Anything that can stretch and come back to its original shape is considered elastic.
When a rubber band, balloon, or spring is stretched it contains elastic energy.
7. Electrical Energy –
• The energy associated with the separation and movement of charged particles
called electrons. Many appliances must be powered using electrical energy by
plugging them into an electrical socket. Electrical energy is also associated with
the force of attraction or repulsion between positively and negatively charged

4
 particles which can do work. This can be seen through the force caused by “static
cling” or rubbing a balloon on your head and watching it move toward the wall.
Batteries convert chemical energy into electrical energy.

The seven different forms of energy can be classified into either one of the two states:

• Potential Energy- stored energy

• Kinetic Energy- energy in motion

Kinetic Energy
• Is the energy of motion.
• An object must have mass and must be moving to have kinetic energy. The greater the
mass or velocity of an object, the greater the kinetic energy will be.
2
• The formula for kinetic energy is expressed as 1/2 mv , where m=mass and v=velocity.

Potential Energy
• Is the stored energy that a body possesses because of its position. Some examples are
chemical energy in fuels or food. The energy of these two is available when atoms are
rearranged, that is when the position of the atoms is changed. An elevated book also has
potential energy, it may fall and its potential energy will become kinetic energy.
• The potential energy due to elevated position is called gravitational potential energy and
is expressed as GPE= weight x height. Remember that weight is the product of gravity
(9.8m/s2) and mass (Kg), therefore gravitational energy is expressed as P.E.= mgh where
m=mass, g=9.81m/s2, and h=height.

Energy Conversions
• Energy is almost always converted into another form of energy.
• One most common conversion is the changing of potential energy to kinetic energy or
the reverse.
• The transfer of energy from one object to the next is a conversion of energy. . The law
of conservation of energy states that all energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it is
just converted into another form.
• Energy conversions occur without a loss or gain in energy, therefore KE=PE.
• Energy is transferred or transformed by the process of doing work (applying a force
over a distance.)

In order to make the car go a certain speed, say 60 mph, the engine must do work on the
car because it is increasing the kinetic energy of the car by transforming potential energy
stored in the car's gasoline. The car with the high-power engine will be able to reach 60
mph more quickly because its engine can do work faster. If the high-power engine has
twice the power of the low-power engine, then the car with the high-power engine will
reach 60 mph twice as fast as the other car. In the United States, we often use units of
horsepower (hp) to rate engines, and 1 horsepower = 746 wafts.

5
Extension: Capstone

• Work-energy theorem – the relationship between doing work and a resulting change in
energy.

• Developed by James Prescott Joule

2 2
• Unit of energy – Joule (J) ( kg m /s )
• ΔK = W

• Work
• describes something done to an object, which causes a change in the amount of energy
the object has
• W = Fd
• Only true if force is exerted in the direction of the motion, not if perpendicular
• Constant force at an angle
o Find the x and y component F = F cos θ ; F = F sinθ
x y
o Because the displacement is in the x direction, the y component does no work
so,
W = F cosθ d or Fd cos θ

• A graph of force vs. displacement is used when force is changing and not constant. The
area under the curve is the work.

• Conservation of Energy
The principle of conservation of energy is that energy is never created or destroyed.
Energy is always conserved, completely and absolutely. Sounds neat, but what does it
mean? On the surface, it seems to contradict many simple observations. For example,
isn’t potential energy created when a rock is lifted, and doesn’t that energy dissipate
when the rock is dropped? And isn’t kinetic energy created when a dart is thrown, and
doesn't that energy dissipate when the dart hits the dartboard? And what about pushing a
crate across the floor? The work that is done (the energy into the system) seems to
dissipate immediately—the crate neither rises to a higher elevation nor does it accelerate
to a higher speed: it starts at rest and ends at rest. Are these all exceptions to the
principle of conservation of energy? They are not. And to this date, a violation of
conservation of energy has yet to be found. So what’s going on? The creation or
destruction of energy does not happen. Ever. But energy does undergo transformations
from one type to another. Consider the sequence of energy transformations depicted
below. (And understand that many others are possible!)

6
 FROMTHE SUN TOTHE EARTH
Energy produced in nuclear fusion reactions in the sun is radiated away in all directions.
About 3% of the sun’s energy is "absorbed" by the earth. That energy warms the air,
land, and water, and is also an integral part of photosynthesis, which makes this apple
tree grow. The sun’s energy is stored in the chemical bonds of the molecules produced by
photosynthesis. Our good buddy, Ike, comes along and picks an apple. He promptly eats
the apple. FROMTHE APPLE TO IKE In the digestion process, energy stored in the
molecular bonds of the sugars in the apple is released as those bonds are broken. Most of
that energy is used by Ike’s body to maintain metabolic processes.

FROM IKE TOTHE APPLE CORE

Ike then hurls the apple core as far as he can. Energy flows from Ike to the apple core as
he imparts kinetic energy to it.

FROM THE APPLE CORE TO THE ENVIRONMENT

But what happens to the energy Ike gave to the apple core when the core hits the ground?
Some of it dissipates as sound that gives energy to the surrounding air molecules. The
rest is dissipated as thermal energy: the apple and the ground experience localized
temperature increases.

7
 Analytical Example
The simplest conservation of energy problems involve conservation of mechanical
energy. There are two forms of mechanical energy: potential and kinetic. When no work
is being done on a system, total mechanical energy is conserved. That is, the sum of
potential energy and kinetic energy before an event is equal to the sum of potential
energy and kinetic energy after the event. To get a sense of the analytical
power of the principle of conservation of energy, consider the following numerical
problem. A popular carnival game involves striking a lever with a mallet to propel a
weight up a pole. If the lever is struck with sufficient force, the weight rises to the top of
the pole where a mounted bell is struck, and the contestant wins a prize. If the weight
consists of a 1 kg mass, the lever propels the weight through a
distance of 16 cm, and the pole is 5 m tall,

a. how much force is needed to propel the weight to the bell?

b. with what speed will the weight leave the lever if struck with that force? Neglect
retarding forces.

Given information
m = 1 kg h = 5 m d = 0.16 m
a. W = PE
F·d = mgh
F = mgh/d
F = 1 kg · 9.8 m/s2 · 5 m / 0.16 m
F = 310 N
b. KEbottom = PEtop
1/2mv2 = mgh
v=( (2gh))
v=( (2 · 9.8 m/s2 · 5 m) v = 10 m/s (= 22 mph)

8
 Hooke's Law: (Capstone)

The Hooke's Law can be used to introduce the quantification of elastic potential energy. Students
know that as the force acting on an elastic system increases, so does the energy stored in the system.

Spring force is proportional to the stretch. The general equation for spring force is F = kx , where
the slope, k, indicates the force per unit length of stretch.

Derivation of Elastic Potential Energy Equation

1) We defined the area under the curve to be the energy stored in the spring, Eel = 1 2 Fx .

From the graph at left, one can see that to determine the work done
when x1 ≠ 0, one can subtract the area of the smaller triangle from that
of the larger.
Eel = 1 2 F2 x2 − 1 2 F1 x1

Hooke’s Law states: F = kx .

When this substitution is made into the equation above, one obtains
Eel = 1 2 (kx2 )x2 − 1 2 (kx1 )x1 , which simplifies to Eel = 1 2 k (x 22 − x12 ).

Conservative vs. Non-Conservative Forces

It is crucial to stress the effect that friction has on energy interactions in the analysis of working; it is
important to distinguish between conservative forces and non-conservative forces. The standard
treatment of work and energy tends to gloss over this potentially confusing issue. Friction is a non-
conservative force because energy transfers are non reversible, whereas gravity is a conservative
force because the total change in energy depends only on the difference between the initial and final
positions.

Let us first consider the case of lifting an object at constant velocity. [Assume the system is the
object and the earth, so the agent providing the lifting force is external, and the gravitational force is
an internal interaction]. A lifting force FT is working on an object. As a result of the lifting work,
the energy stored as gravitational potential energy increases: W = ∆Eg. No other energies are
involved. The amount of energy gained is only a function of the net change in position
(displacement). No matter how many times one moves the object up or down, the net increase (or
decrease) in Eg depends only on the initial and final positions of the object, not the path followed.

One can better understand this statement by considering the signs of the lifting force and the
displacement. The applied force is always upwards (+). If the object is moving upwards also (+∆x),
the work will be positive (+W), indicating that energy has been added to the system, now stored as
Eg. If, however, the object is lowered, FT is still positive, but the displacement is negative, so W =

9
+FT(-∆x). The negative sign on W indicates that energy has been transferred from the system,
resulting in a reduction in Eg.

Unlike situations in which frictional forces are involved, these transfers of energy into or out of the
system with change in direction are reversible. When the object is lowered, energy is removed from
the system. But that "loss" can be completely recovered by moving the object back to the original
position. There is no energy "lost" to internal storage modes. The final amount of work done will
be the sum of all these positive and negative energy changes resulting from the up and down
motions. Ultimately the final change in Eg depends only on the object's initial and final positions.

This means that if the object is returned to its original position, there has been no net change in the
system's energy, and thus no net working has occurred. Because the displacement is 0, the net
energy transferred to the system as a result of working is also zero. Hence, we call gravity a
conservative force.

FT f

Δx

By contrast, one cannot only consider the final displacement when the situation involves the
non-conservative force of friction. Some energy is always going to be stored as internal energy
due to the physical interaction at the surface boundaries. The process of working by an external
force results in some energy transfer that is NOT recoverable (via working).

For example, consider the case where a box is pulled at constant speed through a displacement ∆x,
then is pushed back to the starting position. Since friction is involved, some energy is transferred to
the system via working in both directions. Even though the displacement is 0, the system has more
energy than when it started. In the case of a non-conservative force, the energy of the system always
increases, regardless of the direction of motion.

10
 Quick Reference: Mechanical Energy
The Book of Phyz © Dean Baird.All rights reserved. 1/22/06 db

Physical Quantities • Symbols • Units • Brief Definitions

• Work • W • joule: J • A form of mechanical energy transfer.

• Potential Energy • PE • joule: J • Energy of position.
• Kinetic Energy • KE • joule: J • Energy of motion. Notice the spelling: NOT “kenetic.”
• Power • P • watt: W • Rate at which energy is transferred or transformed, often the rate at
which
work is done.

Equations in Symbols and Words

• W =F · d • work = force · distance (THE FINE PRINT: Work is a scalar quantity that can
be positive, negative, or zero. Since work is not a vector, the sign does not indicate
direction; it indicates whether energy is being added or removed. If F and d are in the
same direction or at an acute angle to each other, W is positive; if F and d are opposite to
each other or at an obtuse angle, W is negative; if F and d are perpendicular, no work is
done.)
• PE = mgh • gravitational potential energy = mass · gravitational acceleration · height
• KE = 1/2mv2 • kinetic energy = 1/2 · mass · speed squared
• P = W/t • power = work / time
• P = F · v • power = force · speed (THE FINE PRINT: Power is a scalar quantity that can
be positive, negative, or zero. Since power is not a vector, the sign does not indicate
direction; it indicates whether energy is being added or removed. If F and v have
components parallel to each other, P is positive; if F and v have components anti-parallel,
P is negative; if F and v are perpendicular, no power is developed.)

11
Terms and Concepts

Energy Work Power

Gravitational Potential Kinetic Energy Force

Energy
GPE = mgh KE = 1/2mv2 Conservative/Non-
conservative forces
Thermal Energy Electrical Energy Efficiency

Elastic Potential Energy EPE = 1/2kx2 Hooke’s Law

12
Instructional Resources
• Notes, Concept Maps, and PowerPoint’s
http://www.physicsclassroom.com
http://www.classnotesonline.com
http://www.nisd.net/taft/classrooms/martin/Notes_index.htm#KE
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hframe.html
http://www.worldofteaching.com/powerpoints/physics/

• Simulations
http://phet.colorado.edu
http://wps.aw.com/aw_young_physics_11/0,8076,898587-,00.html

• Demonstration Ideas
http://groups.physics.umn.edu/demo

• Curriculum Resources (Lessons, Worksheets, and Lab Ideas)

http://modeling.asu.edu/modeling-HS.html
http://compadre.org/portal/index.cfm
http://homepage.mac.com/phyzman/phyz/
http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us

• Practice Problems
http://www.stmary.ws/physics/home/review/review_all.htm
http://library.thinkquest.org/10796/

• Video on Demand Lecture Material

http://www.learner.org/resources/series42.html?pop=yes&vodid=66973&pid=568#
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CgqBg44azYk&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8UuY8n0RLto

13
Part I: Energy Transformations & Conservation
Activity # 1 Energy Transformations
Questions to be investigated
• What is Energy? What are the types of Energy? How is energy transformed?

Objectives
• P4.1A, P4.1B and P4.2A

Materials
• Slideshow and handouts.
• Variety of materials demonstrating energy conversions. Example(s) light bulb, mixer,
radio, light stick.

Safety Concerns
• Make sure to follow and adhere to safety regulations instructed by manufacturer.
• Goggles

Real-World Connections
• Energy conservation in everyday items.

Teacher Notes
• Purpose of 2 minute commercial is to elicit prior knowledge and introduce appropriate
vocabulary.
• Encourage discussion about energy transformation.
• The students will be provided an opportunity to explore and identify different types of
energy transformations during the INVESTIGATING ENERGY TRANSFORMATIONS
Lab

Procedure/Description of Lesson
• Begin lesson with brief 2 minute commercial “Honda Cog”
(http://homepage.mac.com/phyzman/webvideo/).
• Complete Activity: INVESTIGATING ENERGY TRANSFORMATIONS
(http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us )
• Provide Energy PowerPoint to students. (http://www.worldofteaching.com)
• Energy Transformations handout for independent student homework in foundational
course
(www-bioc.rice.edu )
• Energy Transfer, Potential and Kinetic Energy handout for capstone. (Longman
Foundation for Science)

14
 Assessment Ideas:
• Handouts for foundational or capstone could be used as an assessment other possibilities
could be the construction and/or analysis of Rube Goldberg devices, mousetrap
propulsion cars, energy conversion game, or potential energy toys. Rubrics for Rube
Goldberg and Mousetrap Cars have been provided. A project that outlines energy
transformations from power supply companies to consumers has also been provided
which would be appropriate for a capstone course.

15
 ENERGY TRANSFORMATIONS—TEACHER NOTES (LAB)

KEY CONCEPT: Energy can be transformed from one form to another. It is not lost in the
process, just changed in its form.

OBJECTIVE: The objective for this activity is to allow the students the opportunity to
investigate energy transformations "in action" by a series of simple, yet illustrative hands-on
activities.

ADVANCE PREPARATION
You will need to collect all the materials and make the procedure cards. You can arrange a room
with tables or areas around the perimeter that would serve as good work stations for students to
rotate through, OR put the materials and procedure card for each activity in a tub and rotate the
tubs.

MATERIALS
Station 1: toy car and ramp
Procedure: Put the car at the top of the ramp and let it go. Record your observations.

Station 2: vinegar, baking soda, plastic shampoo bottle, cork, paper towel, safety goggles,
tablespoon, teaspoon
Procedure: Read the directions through first. Put about a tablespoon of vinegar into the bottle.
Put about a teaspoon of baking soda into a small piece of paper towel and twist it shut at both
ends. Put the baking soda package into the bottle and cork it shut (not too tightly though). Aim
the bottle away from people and breakable objects and shake it up. Record your observations.
Repeat, if necessary, with differing amounts of vinegar and baking sode. Wash out the bottle.

Station 3: yo-yo
Procedure: Make the yo-yo go up and down on the string. Record your observations.

Station 4: bouncing balls

Procedure: Bounce the rubber ball. Record your observations.

Station 5: flashlight, batteries

Procedure: Look inside the flashlight. Record your observations.

Station 6: small candies/fruit pieces on a paper plate

Procedure: Eat one piece of fruit. Record your observations.

Other Station Ideas

• small model electric motor, battery, 2 wires
Procedure: Connect the motor so that it runs. Record your observations.
• balsa wood plane
Procedure: Take the plane out into the hall or other open space. Let the plane go by
pushing the plane lightly. Retrieve the plane and record your observations about both the
plane observations about both the plane and the person pushing.

16
 • small toy boat, tub of water
Procedure: Put the boat in the water and make waves with your had. Also fan the boat,
creating a wind. Record your observations about both the boat and the fanning on the
boat.
• wind-up toy
Procedure: Wind up the toy and watch it run along a path. Record your observations.
• battery operated toy (helicopter or truck)
Procedure: Turn on the toy and watch it run along a path. Record your observations.
• battery, wires, alligator clips, light source
Procedure: Read the directions through first. Connect the battery to the bulb using the
wires and the alligator clips. Be sure that there is a complete circuit. Take apart the
circuit when you are finished.

PROCEDURE
1. Make procedure cards (included on the next page).
2. Set up work stations around the room with procedure cards (5 x 8 cards taped next to each
one.)
3. Have student pairs rotate through stations. For each station they should follow the procedure
card, then make a diagram showing the energy transformations that occur.
4. After each station is completed, the pair working there should be sure that the station is put
back in its original state.
5. Ask the students to draw diagrams for energy transformations at each station. They should
report their findings to each other in small groups.
6. Discuss with the whole groups each of the stations, asking first one student who worked at the
station to show their work. Include the processes of energy transformation and energy
conservation in each of the stations.
7. Compare energy transformation diagrams to see if there is some common source of energy for
all of them. If the diagrams have been done carefully and far back enough, the students should
be able to see that the sun is a common source of energy.
8. Provide a closure for the lesson by discussing the law of conservation of energy.

TYPES OF ENERGY
Potential, kinetic, chemical, thermal, radiant, nuclear, electrical

EXAMPLES OF ENERGY TRANSFORMATION DIAGRAM

potential energy Æ kinetic energy Æ electrical energy

radiant energy Æ chemical energy Ækinetic energy

17
STATION ONE STATION TWO

Materials Materials
toy car and ramp vinegar, baking soda, plastic shampoo bottle, cork,
paper towel, tablespoon, teaspoon, safety goggles
Procedure
Put the car at the top of the ramp and let it go. Procedure
Record your observations. 1. Read the directions through first, then put on
Make a diagram showing the energy transformations the safety goggles.
that take place. 2. Put a tablespoon of vinegar into the bottle.
3. Put a teaspoon of baking soda into a small
piece of paper towel and twist it shut at both
ends.
4. Put the baking soda package into the bottle and
cork it shut (not too tightly though).
5. Aim the bottle away from people and
breakable objects and shake it up.
6. Record your observations.
7. Make a diagram showing the energy
transformations that take place.
8. Wash out the bottle.

STATION THREE STATION FOUR

Materials Materials
yo-yo bouncing balls

Procedure Procedure
Make the yo-yo go up and down on the string. Bounce the rubber ball.
Record your observations Record your observations.
Make a diagram showing the energy transformations Make a diagram showing the energy transformations
that take place. that take place.

18
STATION FIVE STATION SIX

Materials Materials
flashlight, batteries fruit pieces, paper plate

Procedure Procedure
Look inside the flashlight. Eat one piece of fruit.
Record your observations. Record your observations.
Make a diagram showing the energy transformations Make a diagram showing the energy transformations
that take place. that take place.

PROCEDURE CARDS

19
Name: Date:
Class:

INVESTIGATING ENERGY TRANSFORMATIONS

BACKGROUND: Energy can be transformed from one form to another. It is not lost in the
process, just changed in its form. In this activity, you will investigate energy transformations "in
action".

Name and define the seven types of energy.

Type of Energy Definition

At each station perform the procedure as written on the cards.

When finished, put all materials back in good order.

STATION ONE

Observations:

Energy Transformation Diagram:

20
STATION TWO

Observations:

Energy Transformation Diagram:

STATION THREE

Observations:

Energy Transformation Diagram:

STATION FOUR

Observations:

Energy Transformation Diagram:

STATION FIVE

Observations:

Energy Transformation Diagram:

21
STATION SIX

Observations:

Energy Transformation Diagram:

22
Energy Transformation Worksheet
(Foundational)

• Identify the different types of energy transformation in each of the pictures

Windmill Flashlight Microwave

Energy Transformation: Energy Transformation: Energy

Transformation:

Firecracker Bicycle Battery

Energy Transformation: Energy Transformation: Energy Transformation:

• Give an example where the following energy changes would take place:

Electrical to Thermal

Chemical to Thermal

Electrical to Mechanical

23
 (CAPSTONE)

Energy Transfer, Potential and Kinetic Energy

1 In any energy transfer, the total amount of energy available before the transfer is
exactly the same as the energy after the transfer. So, if a piece of cheesecake contains
2000 J of energy before you eat it, then it must be converted into 2000 J of other forms
of energy after you have eaten it. This energy, stored as chemical energy in the food,
must be turned into sound energy (when you speak), heat energy (to keep you warm)
and kinetic energy (to help you move). This can be shown by the energy transfer
diagram below:

Chemical Energy Sound Energy (500 J)

Stored in Cheesecake Heat Energy (600 J)
(2000 J) Kinetic Energy (900 J)

Answer the following questions:

a) How much energy is there stored in the cheesecake?

b) What types of energy is this energy turned into?
c) What is the total amount of these different energies produced after you eat the
cheesecake?
d) Would this 2000J always be turned into 500J of sound energy, 600J of heat energy
and 900J of kinetic energy? Explain your answer.

2 David and Asim are having a conversation about energy transfers. David says: “I think
that a light bulb changes electricity into light energy.” Asim says: “I think that a light
bulb changes electricity into light energy, but a great deal of the energy is also wasted as
heat.”

a) Who has given the better explanation?

b) Explain your answer.

3 Sanjeet’s little sister asked her:

What happens to the electrical

energy when I turn my TV
on?

Write an answer for Sanjeet so that she can answer her sister’s question.

24
 4 A pendulum, like the one shown below, swings backwards and forwards. What types of
energy does the pendulum have at the points X, Y and Z? Use the information in the
diagram to help you.

End of swing
Speed = 0 m/s Moving up
Speed = 1 m/s
X
Z
Z
Y
Lowest point
Speed = 3 m/s

5 A small hedgehog rolls down a hill. At the top of the hill, the hedgehog has 5200J of
gravitational potential energy. Copy and complete the table below to show how much
energy the hedgehog has at each of the points stated. The first one has been done for
you:

Position of Amount of potential Amount of kinetic

energy (J) energy (J)
Hedgehog
Top of hill 5200 0
Halfway down hill
Bottom of Hill
6 Extension question. The amount of gravitational potential energy that a body has can be
calculated using the equation in the box below.

change in gravitational = mass x gravitational field x height moved

potential energy strength

25
 a) Use the equation to work out the amount of
gravitational potential energy that a 45kg monkey
would have gained if he had climbed to the top of a tree
of height 65m if the gravitational field strength is 10
N/kg..

b) What do you think the value would be if he could

climb the same height on the moon? Explain your
answer.

26
Assessment Ideas: Rube‐Goldberg (Foundational)
http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/gbssci/phys/projects/q2/rgover.html

Overview:

In this project, you will demonstrate your knowledge of principles in physics by designing,
creating and explaining a Rube Goldberg device.

Sample: Professor Butt's Scientific Barometer, 1931

Flash of lightning (A) from distant thunderstorm, sends electrical vibrations (B) to magnetic
spring (C) which contracts and causes knife (D) to cut cord (E) and release horseshoe (F),
allowing it to fall on string (G), and pull trigger on cannon (H) which shoots hole in wall. Rat (I),
seeing a new entrance to living room, enters and is caught in trap ( J) which springs and pulls
rope (K) raising storm signal flag (L). Sailor (M) is a little cuckoo, thinks he is at sea and hauls
down sail (N) causing top boom (O) to stroke against arrow (P) and swing into position
indicating storm. If you have trouble finding a nutty sailor, get a sane sailor and drive him crazy
by telling him they are going to close up saloons all over the world.

Directions:

1. Design of Rube Goldberg Device

a. Brainstorm some ideas about what type of goals you wish to accomplish with this sort of
device (e.g., light a candle, turn on a light, etc.). Fill in the blanks in the table below. In
the example above, Professor Butts designed a device with the goal of turning the
weather signal to the storm position by means of a lightning bolt.
b. Do a literature search (2 different resources, 2 sources per resource for full credit) to find
out about simple machines and how they work. In addition to resources listed in the book,
there are a variety of resources on the Internet. Determine what machines would be best
for your situation (e.g., screw, levers, inclines, pulleys, etc.).
c. List many of the ways in which energy can be transformed from one form to another. Fill
in the blanks in the table below.
d. Determine some machines that can be used to make these transformations and that can be
physically assembled. Fill in the blanks in the table below.

27
 e. Decide on a Rube Goldberg device that will achieve one of your goals listed in the table
above through the use of technology/machines that transforms energy from one form to
another. There should be at least 5 transformations involved in your machine.

Possible Goals Energy Transformations Possible Machines

1. ________________ 1. ________________
1. ________________
2. ________________ 2. ________________
3. ________________ 3. ________________
2. ________________
4. ________________ 4. ________________
5. ________________ 5. ________________
3. ________________
6. ________________ 6. ________________
7. ________________ 7. ________________
4. ________________
8. ________________ 8. ________________

2. Explanation of Rube Goldberg Device (Paper)

Submit a formally-written, word-processed lab report. The lab report should include the
following sections:

a. Purpose: Describe the purpose of your project. In a few sentences, describe the scenario
which you are trying to model and identify the goal which you will be attempting to
accomplish. The statement should be a purpose statement (procedural steps should not be
discussed).
b. Description of the Model: The different parts of the device should be described in detail
as to how they function. References to information from the literature search should be
included here. A discussion as to the ability of the individual machines in the device to
perform their duties is recommended.
c. Theoretical Background: The energy transformations should be described in this part. A
way to keep track of the type and amount of energy is required, e.g., bar charts, sample
calculations, etc. Make reference to conserved or non-conserved machine inputs. If the
system is non-conserved (an external force does work), where does the external work
come from and what is its effect on the system?
d. Data Section: This should include a record of variable changes that had to be made as the
design process unfolded with specific results included. For example, if the launch
velocity of a projectile to reach a certain point is too high for the launch device, what will
be altered and how? Organize your data in a meaningful way using a tabular format.
e. Discussion of Results: Describe the final successful (we hope) version of the model you
have constructed. Describe in detail any problems or difficulties this device might have in
completing the goal. Discuss its reliability (i.e., can it get repeatable results?). Discuss the
possible energy losses or machine malfunctions which might take place over time.

28
3. Creation of Rube Goldberg Device (Product)

Using actual hardware, design your Rube Goldberg device and package it in a manner that
makes it presentable to the public. Once the device is made and successfully accomplishes a
goal, request a time for a videotaped presentation; your teacher will videotape a successful
operation of the machine. (And if first you don't succeed, try... .). If necessary, consider the
need for re-design and re-building.

29
Outcomes
Score
w/criteria
0 1 3 5
1. Purpose
Didn't understand Vaguely understood Mostly understood Completely
the problem and the problem and/or the problem and/or understood the
Did they understand didn't successfully utilized less than 5 successfully problem and
the problem, write a utilize any transformations of utilized at least 5 successfully ______
proper purpose and transformations of energy. transformations of utilized at least 5
involve at least 5 energy. energy. transformations of
transformations of energy.
energy?

2. Literature 0 1 3 5
Search-
Did not do a Did a partial Did a good Did a thorough
Did they produce an literature search literature search literature search literature search
informative and using at least 1 using at least 1 type using at least 2 using at least 2 ______
accurate summary of type of literature of literature and different types of different types of
their literature and finding 1 finding 1 source per literature and literature and
search? source per type. type. finding 1 sources finding 2 sources
per type. per type.
3. Physical 0 1 3 5
Model
Didn't model Partially modeled Adequately Exceptionally
Did they correctly and/or describe the and described the modeled and modeled and ______
and completely device from an device from an described the described the
describe the device energy standpoint. energy standpoint. device from an device from an
and how it energy standpoint. energy standpoint.
functions?
4. Explanation 0 1 3 5

Did they effectively Didn't present the Very few of the All of the energy All of the energy
account for the energy energy considerations and considerations and
energy considerations and considerations and the external work the external work ______
transformations in the external work the external work done on the devices done on the devices
detail and include an done on the done on the devices were not totally were outlined in
analysis of external devices. were outlined. outlined. detail.
work done on the
system?

30
5. Record of 0 1 3 5
Construction
Did they produce They failed to They produced an They produced an They produced a
a running record produce any log of incoherent log of incomplete log of complete log of the
the construction in the construction in the construction in construction in
of the process from start process from start process from start process from start
construction to finish. to finish including to finish including to finish including
process? intermediate intermediate results. intermediate
results. results.
6. Reliability 0 1 3 5

Did they discuss They did not They included an They included an They included a
possible problems include a incomplete incomplete complete
concerning discussion of the discussion of the discussion of the discussion of the
reliability of the feasibility that the feasibility that the feasibility that the feasibility that the ______
device, design would work design would work design would work design would work
workmanship and consistently over consistently over consistently over consistently over
possible energy time. time. time. time.
losses over time?

7. Product 0 1 3 5

Did they produce a The device doesn't The device could The device could The device
workable device that work and the actually work and actually work and produced actually ______
reflected their desired outcome is complete the complete the worked and
design? not obtainable desired outcome desired outcome completed the
without severe with a few major with a few desired outcome.
alterations. alterations. alterations.
TOTAL

______
Comments:
(out of
35)
Your project will be graded based on the following scoring rubric.

Your score is _____/35; which is scaled to a ______________%.

31
Assessment Ideas: Mousetrap Propulsion (Foundational)
Build a vehicle powered solely by the energy of one standard-sized mousetrap that will travel the
greatest linear distance.

Project Rules:

• The mousetrap cannot be physically altered except for the following: four holes can be
drilled only to mount the mousetrap to the frame and a mousetrap’s spring can be removed
only to adjust the length of its lever arm.
• The device cannot have any additional potential or kinetic energy at the start other than what
can be stored in the mousetrap’s spring itself. (This also means that you cannot push start
your vehicle.)
• The vehicle must steer itself. Measurements of distance will not measure the total distance
traveled only the displacement distance.
Materials:

Materials can vary; this list is just an example of what your group may need:

• Mousetrap
• Body of the car: wood scraps, balsa wood, craft sticks, foam, coat hanger wire
• Car axles: dowel rods, metal tubes, coat hangar wire
• Wheels: various metal lids, wheels from old toys, CD’s
• Pull cord: String, fishing line
• Super glue
• Hot glue gun and glue sticks
• Old ball bearings (from old roller blades or skates)
• Rubber bands
• Various kinds of tape (transparent, masking, duct)

Procedure

1. Your group will be creating a car that is propelled by a mousetrap. Your car will be
racing for distance.

2. Before you begin construction of your car, discuss some of the following aspects of
your car with your group. Create a sketch of the design you decide on.

a. Propulsion: Transferring energy is quite simple. You can start by attaching a dowel
rod to the arm of the mousetrap. Tie a string to the end of the dowel and then wrap
the other end around one of the car’s axles. When the mousetrap is released, it
pulls the string and propels the car. Try varying the length of the rod to increase
speed or distance.

b. Chassis: The chassis is the body of your car. It will hold the mousetrap and the
axles. You need to decide on a shape that is aerodynamic and lightweight. You
must decide what the chassis will be made out of and how you will shape it.

32
 c. Axles: The axles of your car should be lightweight, but strong. To make them turn
freely, use bearings that are attached to the chassis of your car. Be careful not to
get any glue on the face of the ball bearing!

d. Wheels: Old CDs make great wheels. Try stretching a rubber band around the
edge to give them added traction.

e. Pullcord: Your pullcord must be strong so the force put on it by the mousetrap does
not break it.

f. Alignment: If your mousetrap car steers to one side, your speeds and distances
won’t be very good. Be sure your wheels remain aligned.

3. Once your group has a sketch, show it to your teacher and explain how your car will
work.

4. Begin construction of your car! Be especially careful with the tools and glue!

5. Once your car is complete, fill in the pre-race data sheet.

6. When time and your teacher permits, do three trial runs with your mousetrap car.
Fill in the Test Day Data Sheet. If possible, make changes to your car. Note them
on the Data Sheet.

7. When you have completed the construction and testing of your mousetrap car,
complete the Mousetrap Car Question sheet.

8. On race day, compete against the other teams in your class. Good Luck!

Mousetrap Car Example

This mousetrap car was built for a distance competition.

33
Pre-Race Data Sheet
Group members’names:_________________________________________

Name of mousetrap car: _________________________________________

Materials used:

a. Wheels:_________________________________________
b. Grip material for wheels:___________________________
c. Chassis:________________________________________
d. Lever Arm:______________________________________
e. Other Parts:_____________________________________
f. Connecting Materials (to hold the vehicle
together)_______________________________________

Sketch of finished car:

34
 Mousetrap Car Designs Worksheet
http://people.uleth.ca/~keith.roscoe/Processes.html

Name: _____________________
Class: ________

Name of Website: __________________________________________

URL: _____________________________________________

1. MOUSETRAP CAR DESIGNS. Find three mouse trap cars on

the website that you think have a good design. Copy and paste
them here. (Resize the pictures so that they small enough to fit
here)

2. MOUSETRAP CAR PERFORMANCE. If available on the

website, copy information about the above vehicles’ performance:
best distances, times, number of trials.

3. MOUSETRAP CAR MATERIALS. Look at the designs on the

website and list three or more materials that were used for each
part of the car.

a. Wheels:

b. Grip material for wheels:

c. Chassis:

d. Lever Arm:

e. Other Parts:

f. Connecting materials (to hold the vehicle together):

________________________________________________

35
 Mousetrap Car Evaluation Report

Tester-Evaluator: _______________________________________

Other Team Members: _____________________________

Class: ________

1. OUR TEAM’S MOUSETRAP CAR. Paste the best two or three photos of
your completed car here. (Resize the pictures so that they are small enough
to fit in the box)

2. SELF-EVALUATION OF OUR TEAM’S MOUSETRAP CAR.

(a) Ways our car met the criteria for design, construction, and testing:

(b) Ways our car did not meet the criteria for design, construction, and
testing:

(c) Unique features of our mousetrap car:

3. IMPROVEMENTS TO OUR MOUSETRAP CAR DESIGN. List and briefly

explain five improvements to your vehicle design below.

1. _______

2. __________________________

3. ________________

4. _____________________

5. ____________

36
Test Day Data Sheet

Group members’ names:_________________________________________

Distance Table

Distance
Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3

What problems did your car experience?

What can be done to improve your mousetrap car’s performance?

Speed Table

Distance Time Calculated Speed

Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3
Average Speed:

What problems did your car experience?

What can be done to improve your mousetrap car’s performance?

37
 Mousetrap Car Questions

1. Your mousetrap car uses potential energy. Where is this energy

stored? Be specific.

2. How would the cars designed for distance differ from those designed
for speed? (Give at least 2)

3. Fill in the blanks in the following table:

Distance Time (seconds) Speed (m/s)

(meters)
Trial 1 4.00 7.1
Trial 2 4.00 6.2
Trial 3 4.00 6.8
Average Speed

4. What is the kinetic energy of a 325 gram mousetrap car traveling at

1.3 m/s? (Remember to convert mass to kilograms!)

5. How much work would have to be done by friction in order to make it

come to a stop?

38
 6. If the mousetrap car begins from rest and reaches 2.5 m/s in 10
seconds, what was the acceleration of the car? (acceleration = change
in speed ⁄ time)

7. How does friction affect the efficiency of a mousetrap car?

8. Explain how Newton’s first, second and third laws apply to the
performance of a car.

9. Discuss the effect of the length of the lever arm in the pulling force of
your car.

10. Discuss how the length of the lever arm is related to the power output
of your car.

Thank you to Dolores Gende and NASA

39
Assessment: Transformation Worksheet (Foundational)

You can use the provided worksheet filled out by each student to assess their individual
understanding of the concepts involved in the activity. You may want to use the following
suggested questions for further assessment as part of a quiz or test. The first three questions
were taken directly from the classroom assessment suggestions for the 6th and 8th Grade
Indiana State Standards.

1. When two sticks are rubbed together to start a fire,________energy is converted into
__________energy. (Circle the best answer)
A. Chemical, sound
B. Light, mechanical
C. Mechanical, heat
D. Nuclear, sound

2. Electric energy enters a light bulb. This energy is converted to other forms of energy.
Which statement is true? (Circle the best answer)
A. Some of the electric energy is destroyed.
B. All of the electric energy is destroyed.
C. The electric energy is equal to the converted forms of energy.
D. The electric energy is less than the converted forms of energy.

3. Describe two different forms of energy that come from a windmill.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________.

4. When you are watching your TV, electrical energy is being converted into what different
forms of energy? (Fill in the blank)

_____________________________________________________________________.

5. When you stretch a rubber band, _____________ energy is converted into _________
energy.

A. Mechanical, chemical
B. Elastic, rubber
C. Mechanical, elastic
D. Light, elastic

40
Creative Writing Assessment: Daily energy conversions
Have your students write an essay about how they experience energy from the time they get up
in the morning to the time they walk into your classroom. They should include the different
forms of energy with which they come in contact or observe, and give several examples of how
they experience separate form of energy. They should also include any experiences they observe
of energy conversion from one forms to another. The paper should be graded on the student’s
ability to provide personal examples and correctly identify the different forms of energy or
energy conversions that are present.

Internet Resources:
• http://www.eere.energy.gov/education/lesson_plans.html
• http://www.energyquest.ca.gov/teachers_resources/lesson_plans.html

Author: Aaron Debbink

41
Name___________________________________Date____________________________

Energy Conversion Games

One of the things that makes energy an important quantity in our lives is the many forms it can
take. It can exist in the form of motion. This is known as kinetic energy. The motion can be of
different things. If the motion is of a large object, the kinetic energy is said to be mechanical. If
the moving objects are electrically charged, they are said to form an electric current. If the
moving objects are individual molecules, there are two possibilities. If their motion is organized
into waves, their kinetic energy is associated with sound. If their motion is completely
disorganized, their kinetic energy is associated with what we call heat (physicists call it
“thermal energy”). Another form of kinetic energy is light (and other forms of electromagnetic
radiation, like radio waves and microwaves).

Other forms of energy do not have the form of motion, but they can cause an increase in motion
at a later time. Water at the top of a dam can spill over the dam. A battery can produce an electric
current when it is connected into a circuit. Fuels can be burned to produce heat. All of these are
examples of potential energy.

Energy in one form, kinetic or potential, can be converted into any other form. The purpose of
this activity is to give you experience in identifying energy conversions in your life and the
devices that bring about these conversions. One way to see how many of these devices you can
name is to fill in the energy conversion chart below. You will learn more about energy
conversion devices by playing the game “energy conversion dominoes,” described below.
DEVELOP YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Energy Conversion Chart: Energy exists in many forms in our everyday lives; among these
forms are mechanical (energy of motion of large objects), electrical, chemical, thermal, sound,
and light. Energy in any of these forms can be converted to energy in any other form. In the chart
below, write the NAME OF A DEVICE that converts energy from each form to another. Do this
for as many cases as you can.

TO/FROM Mechanical Electrical Chemical Thermal Sound Light

Mechanical

Electrical

Chemical

Thermal

Sound

Light

42
Energy Conversion Dominoes: Cut out the 24 energy conversion dominoes on the handout.
(For extra durability they can be mounted on card stock beforehand.) Place them face down on a
table. Distribute 12 of the dominoes equally among the players. That is, two players will each
draw six dominoes, three players will each draw four, four players will each draw three, and five
or six players will each draw two. (The game is not suitable for a larger number of players.)

In “regular” dominoes, the highest “double” is played first. The energy conversion dominoes
corresponding to “doubles” are those that convert a form of energy to the same form—for
example, the refinery (converting one form of chemical fuel to another chemical fuel), the
transformer (converting electric energy to another form of electric energy), and the drive shaft
(converting one form of motion to another form of motion). Whoever has the double beginning
with the earliest letter of the alphabet (in the order “chemical,” “electrical,” and “motion”) plays
it first, and play continues counterclockwise from that point. Succeeding players complete their
turn as follows: if they have a domino in their hand that can connect to exposed ends of
dominoes on the board (e.g., the internal combustion engine, which uses chemical fuel,
connected to the chemical fuel output of the refinery), they may play one domino from their hand
per turn. If they cannot properly play a domino from their hand, they must draw from the still
overturned dominoes (historically called the “graveyard”) until they draw a domino that can be
properly played. The first player to play all of his/her dominoes wins.

Note that proper play of the energy conversion dominoes requires not only matching the same
forms of energy but matching them in the same direction. That is, the energy output from one
domino must match the energy input to the domino adjacent to it. (This is not a requirement of
regular dominoes!) An actual device corresponding to the sequences of dominoes, which is
characterized by a sequence of energy conversions, is known as a “Rube Goldberg” device. You
may have seen devices like this on sale at gift shops, particularly at airports.

Part II: Energy, Work & Heat

2
 electricity
light

transformer rubbing
electricity electricity
motion objects heat
electricity

sound

internal motor
combustion
chem fuel engine motion electricity motion

waste heat

absorber speaker
sound waste heat electricity sound

light

photocell nuclear reactor

light electricity nuclear fuel steam

generator plant

motion electricity light chem fuel

Thermocouple toaster
heat electricity electricity heat
 motion light

drive shaft fire

motion motion chem fuel heat

motion sound

tuning fork battery charger

motion sound electricity chem fuel

light bulb glowing

heat object light

electricity light

waste heat

ear drum battery

sound motion chem fuel electricity

steam turbine boiler

chem fuel steam

steam motion

waste heat

4
 chem fuel

microphone refinery

sound electricity chem fuel chem fuel

chem fuel

Produced by the Research Foundation of the State University of New York with funding from the New York
State Energy Research and Development Authority (NYSERDA)
www.nyserda.org

Should you have questions about this activity or suggestions for improvement, please contact Bill Peruzzi at
billperuz@aol.com

5
Assessment Ideas: Conservation (Capstone)
Energy transformations, electrical sources and transmission physics applications scenario.
• You are working for an energy supplier company. Within this group you are a PR consultant for the
Department of Energy Conservation. Recently, there has been a lot of debate over the use of
alternative energy sources (e.g. wave power, wind turbines, solar panels, solar lighting, geothermal
power, hydrogen cars). Your company uses one of these; you have to sell that to customers. Your role
is to produce a report or brochure that shows how your company’s electricity is generated and
distributed compared with traditional coal-fired power stations. This work must also inform customers
with the latest ways of transforming energy efficiently for your given location provided by your company.
Your report/ brochure should aim to fulfill the grading criteria below:

Grading Criteria
The grading criteria that this assignment relates to:
• Describe the energy cycles in diagrams and in writing.
• explain situations involving energy conversions and energy conservation within energy cycles
• calculate energy consumption and the efficiency of energy conversions in energy cycles
• describe two ways in which electricity may be produced
• explain two applications of electricity
• analyze the problem of energy losses when transmitting electricity and when converting it into other
forms for consumer applications

This is how you will present your work to me for assessment.

• Provide a report or brochure or use other media in preparation for presenting the information to
customers, you have to sell your companies products. It may be that your production alternative to
fossil fuels are less efficient but ‘greener’ say so and explain the difference and importance.

You will receive a passing grade (D or C) if you:

• Research and gather information about two energy cycles where at least three or four transformations
are taking place in a domestic or industrial situation. The information could be obtained from a tutor
demonstration, a lesson, a recommended textbook, a website or another information source about
energy cycles. Check that your information sources cover the unit content shown above. Use the
information gathered to describe the energy cycles in diagrams and in writing. You are to use and
compare a fossil fuel electricity generating station with an alternative of your choice. You will need to
have; flow charts, etc which graphically show energy flow, change and loss.

You will receive a good grade (B) if you:

• Using your data for the power stations explain what happens at every energy change, explain how
losses can be minimized but not eradicated.
• You have to describe, with diagrams, how electrical energy is converted to other forms in appliances.
You must not use the same type twice, eg light bulb and toaster, which depend upon heating in a high
resistant wire. Give details of the efficiency of each. Why use electricity? For example why use electric
cars when petrol and diesel fuels are readily available. Many consumer applications of electricity
require a transducer or a transformer e.g. mobile phones, laptop computers, loud speakers etc.

6
You will receive an excellent grade (A) if you:
• Calculate energy consumption and the efficiency of energy conversions in energy cycles. Find out what
energy is coming in and how much there is. You must use real figures. I know that this may be difficult
but your prospective customers will not buy if you do not give comparative prices. A power station may
give so many metric tons of coal and so many megaWatts produced. Find the average energy content
of a ton of coal and scale that up. Remember, even if your alternative is less efficient it may be greener
or more sustainable, emphasize that but don't ignore the facts.
http://www.brit.croydon.sch.uk/Liberal/Science/physics%20assignments%201%20and%204.pdf

7
Activity #2: Work and Energy Connections
Questions to be investigated
• What is the relationship between work and energy?

Objectives
• P3.2B, P4.1C, P4.1D and P4.1E
Materials
• Carts and tracks, timers, meter-sticks, photo-gates.

Safety Concerns
• Be careful when climbing stairs. Students should wear gym shoes.

Real-World Connections
• Electric Bills, Power metering.

Teacher Notes
• The purpose of both the capstone and fundamentals labs is to begin exploring the relationship between
work and energy. Note that the capstone, work-energy lab could be done with photo-gates, motion
sensors or even hand timers. The lab provided is simply an example.

Procedure/Description of Lesson
• Foundational students will relate the concepts of work, power, and energy by calculating their power
output while running up a set of stairs. An example lab, “Work, Energy, and Human Power” is provided
(Arizona State Modeling Curriculum)
• Capstone students will relate the concepts of work, power, and energy by relating the work done on a
cart to its final kinetic energy. An example lab, Work–Energy Theorem: W = ∆E is provided.
http://step.nn.k12.va.us/science/phy/req_labs/P19_Work_Energy.doc

Assessment Ideas:
• Have capstone students use a level air-track, and a glider, along with light string, a spring, and photo-
gates to demonstrate energy conservation. The purpose of this lab is to stretch the spring certain distance
and then determine the work required to do this. The system is then released and the students then
measure the kinetic energy of the glider using photo-gates and a triple beam balance. You could provide
some incentive by excusing students from a lab report if the work done is within 5% of the measured
kinetic energy.
• Have foundational students create a lab where they compare the work done lifting a mass to the work
done lifting the same mass using a pulley or ramp.

8
Work, Energy Name_______________________________

and Human Power (Fundamentals) Date__________________Period________

A simple way to measure the power output of a person is to measure the time it takes the person to run up a
flight of stairs of known height. In this experiment, you will determine your own work and power output as
well as those of your classmates. You will also convert your calculations of work and power from SI units to
other commonly used units for work, energy, and power.

When James Watt developed his steam engine, he was asked how many horses the engine could replace. To
find out, Watt built a rope-and-pulley device with which he could measure the time it took a horse to lift various
weights. He found that a standard work horse could lift a 550 lb bucket of water through a distance of 1 foot
each second, a rate that could be sustained steadily throughout the horse’s work day.

It is expected that after completing this experiment, you will have a better understanding of the joule as a
work/energy unit and its relationship to other commonly used energy units. You should also have a better
understanding of the watt as a unit of power and its relationship to other power units.

Equipment: Bathroom scale, metric tape, stopwatch, tennis shoes

Procedure: Locate a staircase at least 1.5 meters in vertical height, preferably with a railing. There should also
be a clear area of at least 2 meters at the top and bottom of the stairs. Measure the vertical height of the
staircase, from the bottom of the first step to the top of the last step.

Use the bathroom scale to measure your weight. Convert this weight from pounds to the Newton’s using the
conversion factor 1 lb = 4.45 N.

The premise of your calculations is that if you get a running start and run (walk, crawl) up the stairs at a
constant speed there will be no change in your kinetic energy and therefore the energy “expended” while
climbing the stairs will be equal to your increase in gravitational energy.

Set the stopwatch to zero. Your partner should run of the stairs as fast as is safely possible. You do not have to
use each step. It is not necessary to run if you are not interested in a peak power value. Start the watch when
your partner’s foot passes the plane of the first step, and stop the watch when both feet are on the top floor. If
time permits you may repeat the trials.

Analysis

1. Determine the energy “used” by you and three other classmates in climbing the stairs (measured in
joules). Convert your energy to the units of calories, Calories, kilowatt-hours, ft-lbs, btu’s, ergs, and
MeV. Show all “work” done in each calculation and conversion. Arrange the results of your
calculations in an easy-to-follow data table.

2. Determine the power output of yourself and three other classmates in watts. Convert each of these
values to kilowatts and horsepower. Show all “work” done in each calculation and conversion. Arrange
the results of your calculations in an easy-to-follow data table.

9
0

3. Find the power ratings of several (a minimum of five) household electrical items that you use. These
might include items such as a light bulb, a television, a stereo, a blow drier, or some electric appliance or
tool. The power ratings can usually be found stamped or printed directly on the device or on an attached
label. They can also be found in the specifications section of the owners manual. Sometimes the power
is not specified in watts (W). When this is the case, the voltage in volts (V) and the current in amperes
(A) are usually specified. The power in watts can be determined by multiplying the voltage in volts by
the current in amperes. What does the power rating tell you about the device? What does your power
rating as determined in part 2 tell you? Compare the power rating of the device to the power ratings of
you and your classmates. Consider the possibility of “powering” each device by your own energy
instead of that purchased from the electric company. Could you “power” the devices? Explain! How
long do you think you could continue to run the devices under your own power? Explain. How does
your power output relate to the horsepower as originally defined by Watt?
4. Check your family electric bill to determine the rate charged for electricity at your home. If this is not
possible, call the electric company for information on rates in your area. This rate will be expressed as
the cost per kilowatt-hour. Convert this to the cost per joule. Using this rate, approximate what it costs
your family per month for you to use the appliances you described in the previous part. Consider the
personal expense of “powering” the devices with your own energy for a month and compare this to the
dollar cost of purchasing it from the electric company. Extrapolate this to consider all of the energy that
is expended for your benefit in a month. Can you think of any relation between this and the world’s
energy crisis?
5. Make a menu which lists each of the items you might eat and drink in a typical meal. This can be a meal
that you prepare at home or one that you might purchase at a restaurant. Research the amount of energy
content in this meal. This will typically listed in Calories (not calories). Determine the cost of this
meal. Using this information, determine the cost per joule for food energy in your meal. How high a set
of stairs could you climb if you could convert all of the energy into mechanical energy of your body?
6. Determine the cost per gallon of gasoline. Research the energy content in gasoline (known as heat of
combustion.) What is the cost per joule of energy when it is purchased as gasoline. Compare the cost
per joule for gasoline energy to the cost per joule for electrical energy and the cost per joule for food
energy. Can you explain the “hierarchy” of costs? How is this related to the energy crisis?
7. Assume you eat three meals per day which are essentially the same as the meal discussed in question 5.
What does it cost per day to run you with food? What would it cost per day if you could just plug
yourself in and get your energy from the electric company? What if you could just filler up with
gasoline?
8. Consider the nature of agriculture 100 years ago from an energy perspective. Compare it to modern
agriculture from an energy perspective. Consider as many of the energy costs in putting food on your
table as possible from the field to the table comparing 1890’s agriculture to 1990’s agriculture. Is this
change good? Explain! What part does modern agriculture play in the energy crisis?
9. Describe each of the energy transformations that ultimately occur in the process of getting you up the
stairs. This should be taken back as far as possible--to the nuclear reactions in the sun that made getting
you up the stairs possible.
All of the questions posed in the previous items should be answered as carefully and thoughtfully as you can. It
is expected that each item should be your own personal work. Discussing ideas in this experiment is
encouraged. Sharing data beyond weight and time information is not allowed. Beyond item 2, all information
must be yours. Lay out your discussions so that it is easy for me to find your responses to each of the questions
posed on this sheet.

10
Work–Energy Theorem: W = ∆E (Capstone)

(Force Sensor, Photogate/Pulley System)

Concept Data Studio Science Workshop (Mac) Science Workshop (Win)
Energy P19 Work Energy.DS P22 Work-Energy Theorem P22_WORK.SWS

Equipment Needed Qty Equipment Needed Qty

Economy Force Sensor (CI-6746) 1 Mass and Hanger Set (ME-8967) 1
Photogate/Pulley System (ME-6838) 1 String (SE-8050) 1m
Balance (SE-8723) 1 Universal Table Clamp (ME-9376) 1
Dynamics Cart (inc. w/ Track) 1 1.2 m Track System (ME-9435A) 1
What Do You Think?
Using the definition of work in the background section, is work done when a person is studying? Is work done
when a person lifts a backpack up from the floor?
Take time to answer the ‘What Do You Think?’ question(s) in the Lab Report section.
Background
For an object with mass m that experiences a net force Fnet over a distance d that is parallel to
the net force, the work done is:
W = Fnet d
If the work changes the object’s vertical position, the object’s gravitational potential energy
changes. However, if the work changes only the object’s speed, the object’s kinetic energy
changes as follows:
W = ΔKE = KE f − KEi = 12 mv f − 12 mvi
2 2

where W is the work, vf is the final speed of the object and vi is the initial speed of the object.

SAFETY REMINDER
• Do not let the cart run away from the user. Catch the
cart before the cart crashes into the bumper or travels off
from the table.
• Follow the directions for using the equipment.

11
For You To Do
The purpose of this laboratory activity is to compare the work done on an object and the change in kinetic
energy of the object. Use the Force Sensor to measure the force applied to the cart. Use the Photogate/Pulley
System to measure the motion of the cart as it is pulled by the weight of the hanging mass. Next, use Data
Studio or Science Workshop to plot and analyze the data.
PART I: Computer Setup Sc
ien
ce
Wo

1. Connect the Science Workshop interface to the

rks
ho
p™
DA
TA
LO

computer, turn on the interface, and turn on the

GG
ING
INS
TR
UC
TIO

computer.
500 NS
PA In
scieSC terfa
ntif O ce
ic
APN
AA
scieSLOC
ntif GOCH
ic AN

2. Connect the Photo gate’s phone plug to Digital

NE
LS

Channel 1.
S
Wo cien
rksh ce
op™
300
Inte
rfa
ce

3. Connect the DIN plug of the Force Sensor to

Analog Channel A.
4. Open the document titled as shown:

Data Studio Science Workshop (Mac) Science Workshop (Win)

P19 Work Energy.DS P22 Work-Energy Theorem P22_WORK.SWS

• The Data Studio document has a Workbook display. Read the instructions in the Workbook.
• The Science Workshop document has a Graph display of Force vs. Distance and a Table display of Speed.
• Data recording is set at 50 Hz for the Force Sensor.
PART II: Sensor Calibration and Equipment Setup
• You do not need to calibrate the Photogate/Pulley System.
• To calibrate the Force Sensor, refer to the description in the Force Sensor Manual.
1. Use the thumbscrew that comes with the Force Sensor to mount the sensor onto the accessory tray of the
cart.
2. Measure the mass of the cart and Force Sensor, and record the value in the Data Table in the Lab Report
section.
3. Place the Dynamics Track on a horizontal surface. Level the Dynamics
Track by placing the Dynamics Cart on the Dynamics Track. If the
cart rolls one way or the other, use the Adjustable Feet at one end of
the Dynamics Track to raise or lower that end until the Dynamics
Track is level and the cart does not roll one way or the other.
4. Put one end-stop at the right end of the track. Place the cart next to the
end stop.
5. Use the Pulley Mounting Rod to attach the Pulley to the tab on the Photogate.
6. Put a table clamp on the end of the track. Mount the Photogate/Pulley System’s rod in the table clamp so
that top edge of the pulley is approximately the same height as the hook on the Force Sensor that is
mounted on the cart.

12
7. Use a piece of string that is about 10 centimeters longer than the distance from the top of the
Photogate/Pulley System to the floor. Connect one end of a string to the Force Sensor’s hook. Place the
string in the Pulley’s groove.

8. Press the tare button on the Force Sensor.

9. Attach an object of known mass to the end of the string so that the bottom of the object is just above the
floor when the end of the cart is against the end-stop. Record the value of the hanging mass in the Data
Table in the Lab Report section.
PART III: Data Recording
1. Pull the cart away from the Photogate so the object on the end of the string is just below the pulley.
2. Turn the pulley so the beam of the Photogate is not blocked (the light-emitting diode or LED on top of the
Photogate is not lit).
3. Start data recording.
4. Release the cart so that it can move toward the Photogate.
5. End data recording just before the cart reaches the end stop.
• Run #1 will appear in the Data list in the Experiment Setup window.
Analyzing the Data

1. Click on the Table display to make it active. Click the “Statistics” button ( ).
• Statistics will be displayed at the bottom of the Table.
2. Record the value of the maximum velocity for Run #1 in the Data Table in the Lab Report section.
3. Use the Calculator to make a calculation for Kinetic Energy.

In Data Studio, click the ‘Calculate’ button ( )

in the main toolbar.
The Calculator window will open. The window shows
the calculation for Kinetic Energy that was created as
part of this activity.

If the total mass value for your cart and sensor and hanging mass is different, highlight the mass value in
the ‘mass’ window and type in your total mass value.

13
 Click the ‘Accept’ button to save your change.
Close the Experiment Calculator window. The Kinetic Energy Calculation should be displayed in the
Table. If it is not, drag the Table display icon to the Calculator.

In Science Workshop, to create a calculation for Kinetic Energy, click the Calculator button ( ) in the
Experiment Setup window.

In the formula area, type ‘0.5’ and then click the multiplication button ( ).
Type the total mass value for the mass of your cart plus sensor plus hanging mass such as 0.852, and click
the multiplication button again.

Click the ‘INPUT Menu’ button ( ). Select ‘Digital 1, Velocity (v)’ from the INPUT menu. Type
“^2”.
Type ‘Kinetic Energy’ in the Calculation Name area. Type ‘KE’ in the Short Name area. Type ‘J’ in the
Units area. Press <enter> or <return> on the keyboard.

Click the Table display. Click the ‘Add Plot Menu’ button ( ). Select ‘Calculation, Kinetic Energy’
from the Add Plot Menu.
4. From the Table display, find the maximum value for KE. Record this value in the Data Table in the Lab
Report section.
5. Click in the Graph display to make it the active window.
6. In the Force vs. Position Graph display, click and drag the cursor to highlight the region of data that
corresponds to the motion.
7. Integrate to find the area under the curve of the Force vs. Position Graph.

• In Data Studio, click the Statistics menu button ( ) and select ‘Area’.

• In Science Workshop, click the Statistics button ( ) to open the Statistics area on the right side of the
graph. In the Statistics area, click the Statistics Menu button ( ). Select ‘Integration’.
8. Record the absolute value of the integration in the Data Table in the Lab Report section.

14
Record your results in the Lab Report section.

Lab Report - Activity P19: Work–Energy Theorem: W = ∆E

Using the definition of work in the background section, is work done when a person is studying? Is work done
when a person lifts a backpack up from the floor?

Data Table
Item Value

Mass (hanging)
Mass (cart and sensor)
Maximum Velocity
Maximum Kinetic Energy
Work (from integration)

Questions
1. What is the percent difference between the maximum kinetic energy and the work done?

2. What are possible reasons for the difference?

Optional
1. Repeat the data recording and analysis after adding a mass bar to the top of the cart. Prior to collecting
data, hold the cart in place, pull the string toward the cart to remove the force from the hanging mass and
push the tare button to zero the sensor. After you have tarred the sensor, return the hanging mass to its
initial position and prepare for data recording.

15
Optional Data Table

Item Value

Mass (hanging)
Mass (cart and sensor and mass bar)
Maximum Velocity
Maximum Kinetic Energy
Work (from integration)

Optional Questions
1. What is the percent difference between the maximum kinetic energy and the work done?

2. How does the data for the cart with the mass bar added compare with the first run of data?

16
 MECHANICAL ENERGY WORK & HEAT
Activity #3: How does energy relate to speed and height?
Questions to be investigated
• Is Energy Conserved? How is energy related to speed and height?

Objectives
• P4.1e, P4.2C, P4.3d, P4.3e, P4.3f

Materials
• Carts and photo-gates

Safety Concerns
• None

Real-World Connections
• Roller-coasters

Teacher Notes
• The purpose of the lab is to develop a qualitative sense of energy conservation in a fundamentals course
and begin the quantitative discussion for a capstone course. Note there is likely to be some energy lost to
friction and this should be explicitly discussed. A pendulum or roller coaster style track could easily be
substituted for the cart and track.

Procedure/Description of Lesson
• As an introduction a bowling ball can be suspended from the ceiling of the lecture hall, becoming the
bob of a large pendulum. The lecturer takes the bowling ball and moves back until the arc of the ball's
swing is at the level of his nose. He then marks the spot. If he then lets the ball go, when it swings back
it will just touch the tip of his nose. Remaining motionless when the ball swings back toward you is
difficult because the heavy bowling ball is moving pretty fast at the bottom of its swing, and you knew
that it's headed directly for your nose. But, as energy is conserved, the ball can't possibly rise higher than
its original height. The gravitational potential energy put into the ball by raising it to the height of your
nose is converted into kinetic energy of motion at the bottom of its swing. Of course, the taller the
lecturer the faster the ball travels at the bottom of its swing. Make certain that the ball isn't pushed when
released. The following links have videos of similar demonstrations.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8GLtFNaiMH8 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8k8uJlHLpBc
These should be used to spark discussion and generate interest.

• Students will set a cart on an incline that is equipped with a photo-gate. They will use this to relate the
motion and position of the cart to energy concepts. Labs for both capstone and foundational courses are
provided.

17
 • Capstone Students could be given the Quantitative Energy Problems Worksheet (Arizona State
Modeling Curriculum) after energy conservation calculations have been modeled. Additional problems
have also been provided.

Assessment Ideas:

• Have students create a “Launcher” for a ball using pipe insulation, or hot wheels track, as shown below (
an interrupted pendulum could be substituted.) The track should allow the ball to roll horizontally a
short distance. Challenge the students to predict where it will land based on the height of the launcher
above the table. Note that they will need to use projectile mechanics to solve the problem. This would
be the most appropriate for a capstone course.

• Conservation of Energy Lab Challenge (Arizona State Modeling Curriculum) could act as an
appropriate assessment for a fundamental course.

• The Energy Skate Park Simulation at

http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Energy_Skate_Park
could also be used. A sample assessment to go with it has been provided.

18
 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY ON AN INCLINE PLANE (Foundational)
Equipment

1 computer with a lab interface or a photo-gate timer

1 air track unit (at an angle) with compressor
4 glider weights
2 Photo-gates attached to stands
1 digital scale on the counter

Object To show that the total energy of a body moving down a frictionless inclined plane is conserved.

Set a cart on an incline that is equipped with a photo-gate. Allow the cart to move down the incline. Measure
the speed at different heights when the cart is released from rest. Record the data below.

Height Speed

19
Conclusions

Create a graph of Speed v. Height on a sheet of Graph paper.

Which way does this graph slope? What does this tell you about the relationship between speed and the distance
an object falls?

Is the graph a straight line? What does this tell you about the relationship between speed and the distance an
object falls?

Make a bar graph showing the potential energy of the cart at the top of the incline (initial) and at the bottom of
the incline at full speed (final.)

Initial Energy Flow Final

Diagram
Ek Eg Ee E k E g Ee E int

0 0

According to your energy bar charts, as the glider moves down the air track (circle one), the glider's

kinetic energy increases decreases stays constant

potential energy increases decreases stays constant
total energy increases decreases stays constant

20
 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY ON AN INCLINE PLANE (Capstone)
Equipment

1 computer with a lab interface or a photo-gate timer

1 air track unit (at an angle) with compressor
4 glider weights
2 Photo-gates attached to stands
1 digital scale on the counter

Object To show that the total energy of a body moving down a frictionless inclined plane is conserved.

FIG 1.

Set a cart on an incline that is equipped with a photo-gate. Allow the cart to move down the incline. Measure
the speed at different heights when the cart is released from rest. Record the data below.

Height Speed

21
Data and Calculations: Calculate the potential, kinetic and total energy at each position and record it below.

mass of glider m = ___________

K U TE
Height
[J] [J] [J]

Conclusions

Create a graph of Kinetic Energy v. Height on a sheet of Graph paper.

On the same graph show a graph of Potential energy v. Height in a different color.

On the same graph show a graph of Total energy v. Height in a different color.

Summarize your results below

According to your energy bar charts, as the glider moves down the air track (circle one), the glider's

kinetic energy increases decreases stays constant

potential energy increases decreases stays constant
total energy increases decreases stays constant

22
Energy (Capstone) Name_______________________________

Quantitative Energy Problems Date__________________Period________

For each situation shown below:
1. Draw a physical diagram which describes the situation Identify the system you will analyze and the zero reference level for the
determination of gravitational energy, and label each important position for your problem. (See example in problem 1)
2. Complete energy bar graphs and energy flow diagram for each situation.
3. From the energy bar graphs/flow diagram, write the energy equation associated with the situation.
4. Use standard problem solving procedures to solve for the required quantities in each problem.
5. For each of the problems after problem 1, do all work on a separate sheet of paper.

1. An 8.00 kg cart is moving at 5.00 m/s when it hits a spring of spring constant 50.0 N/m. When the cart has
come to rest, how much is the spring compressed? Work this problem in the space below
Position A Position B

ZRL
A B Ek Eg Ee Ek Eg Ee Eint

2. A 20.0 kg cart, initially at rest, rolls down a hill. What is the speed of the cart when it is 5.00 meters
lower than its initial position, assuming that 10% of the energy is dissipated by friction.

3. A 500 g block is placed on a spring of spring constant 100 N/m, compressing it 0.300 m. If the block is
released from rest, what is the greatest height reached by the block.

23
 4. The 25.0 g bullet traveling at 350 m/s strikes a block of wood. The block of wood exerts an average
force of 50,000 N opposing the motion of the bullet. How far does the bullet penetrate while stopping?

5. A 200. kg box is pulled at constant speed by the little

engine pictured to the right. The box moves a distance
of 2.50 m across a horizontal surface.
A frictional force of 400 N opposes the motion of the
box.
a. Draw a force diagram of all relevant forces acting
on the box.
b. Construct a qualitative energy bar graph/flow
diagram for this situation. Be sure to specify your system.
c. How much energy is transferred to the system by the engine?
d. What type of motion would occur if the engine pulled with a force of 500 N?
Modify your force diagram and apply Newton's 2nd Law.

6. How far could the box in problem 5 be pulled at constant velocity with the expenditure of 8,000 J of
energy?

7. A person pulls a 50.0 kg box pictured below with a

force of 100. N. A frictional force of 20.0 N
opposes the motion of the box

a. Sketch a force diagram for the box.

b. How much of the force acts in the direction of
motion? How much energy is transferred (via
working) by the person who pulls the box a
distance of 10.0 m?
c. Is the box moving at constant speed? Explain
how you know. What does this tell you about the
kinetic energy of the system?
d. How much energy is stored as internal energy
due to friction in the pulling process? What eventually happens to this energy?
e. Show that energy is conserved in the system, accounting for all the energy stored and transferred in
the process.

24
Capstone (Optional)

A roller coaster car, 500 kg, is to travel from 8 m/s down a wavy hill. It will coast without friction. Near the end
of the ride it will make a death defying jump.

1. What is the total energy of the system at the top of the hill?

2. What is the total energy of the system at the bottom of the hill?

3. What is the speed of the car at a height of 30 meters?

4. What is the speed of the cat at the bottom of the hill?

5. What is the speed of the car after landing on the 15 m hill?

25
 Conservation of Energy Lab Challenge (Foundational)

Challenge: Your task is to determine the amount of elastic potential energy stored in a toy “popper” using the
law of conservation of energy. Since we do not have an equation for elastic potential energy in a popper, we
must find another method. The only equipment available to you is a metric ruler, a balance, and a calculator.
Due to error inherent in the lab, you should perform at least five trials and average your results.

Energy Diagrams:
Fill in energy diagrams for the following scenarios. Each scenario shows a different location in the popper’s
movement.

Just before release Just after release At Max Height Just before hitting ground

GPE

EPE

KE

TE

Procedure:
In your lab notebook, write a detailed procedure (step-by-step) how you plan to determine the elastic potential
energy stored in your popper. Include all measurements you plan to take and list the equations you plan to use.
Then make a data table to organize all measurements. Run the lab, making sure to show all calculations
clearly. You must run at least 4 trials since there is a lot of error involved in the lab.

Post-lab Questions:
1. Based on your results, how much elastic potential energy was stored in the popper before it was
released?
2. How much kinetic energy did the popper have just after being released?
3. What is the popper’s initial velocity as it leaves the ground?
4. How much total energy does the toy have when it is at half of its maximum height?
5. List two main sources of error in this lab. (Be specific!)
Build-a-Park (Capstone or Foundational)

26
 Used for the conclusion project for the energy unit.

Learning objectives:
- Apply the properties of kinetic and potential energy
- Identify and describe the transfer of potential energy to kinetic energy
- Predict the role of friction
- Describe the effects of gravity

You just hired to design a skate park for your community. Your park needs to be fun and exciting, yet safe.
There should be at least 3 different features in your park. The challenge is to ensure your features are safe,
and that your skaters will not fly off the ramps. Make sure you have friction turned on, as there is friction in
the real-world. (Put on the second line in from the none side).
Have fun designing!!!

1. Sketch your new park:

2. Identify 3 variables or factors you had to consider when making your features?

3. On your sketch in number 1, label all the points of maximum kinetic energy in red, and all points of
minimum kinetic energy in blue.

4. On your sketch in number 1, label all the points of maximum potential energy in green and minimum
potential energy in orange.

5. How does the potential energy relate to the kinetic energy at these points you labeled?

6. Also on your sketch, label all points where kinetic energy is exactly equal to potential energy in pink.

27
Now let’s make some adjustments to your park:

7. Predict what do you think would happen if you took friction off?

8. Try it, and record what happened.

9. Would this park be more or less safe on the moon? Why?

10. Would this park be more or less safe on Jupiter? Why?

12. Make an advertisement for your park. Ideas/things to include:

-Why should people come?
- Why is it better than others?
- What features does it have?
- Who should come skate there? (age, weight, ability level)

28
Activity # 4: Heat and Energy
Questions to be investigated
• How is heat related to energy?

Objectives
P4.2C, P4.2D, P4.3C, P4.11a, P4.11b

Materials
• Thermometers, beakers, Bunsen Burners, ice, lead and steel shot.

Safety Concerns
• Students should be careful when warming water in the specific heat lab.
• Students should wash their hands after handling lead shot.

Real-World Connections
• Water heaters and heating bills.

Teacher Notes
• Note there are many different ways of establishing the mechanical equivalence of heat. Use of
thermistors or other specialized equipment can be substituted. Links to alternatives are provided below.

ftp://ftp.pasco.com/Support/Documents/English/ET/ET-8781/012-08780a.pdf
ftp://ftp.pasco.com/Support/Documents/English/TD/TD-8551A/012-04331E.pdf

You may want to begin the lesson by demonstrating or having students build a hero engine (plans provided) and
asking students to trace the energy transformations or simply by having students rub their hands together and
ask where the heat comes from.

Procedure/Description of Lesson
• Students perform a lab that investigates the idea of specific heat and the difference between heat and
temperature is also provided.
http://www.apsu.edu/robertsonr/nova/heatlab.pdf
• Students measure the temperature increase in lead and steel shot when dropped.
http://74.125.93.132/search?q=cache:MlXamUOQKU8J:terra.chemeketa.edu

Assessment Ideas:
• Students will design a method for increasing the temperature of a material and quantifying that method.
An extension for capstone students is provided.
Adapted from Columbia University Department of Physics Lab Manual for Undergraduate Students.
http://columbia-physics.net/

29
Hero's Engine
http://www.cockeyed.com/incredible/hero/hero1.php
/incredible/hero/hero1.php
One of the simplest forms of an engine is known as a Hero's engine.

A Hero's engine uses heat from a fire to create steam. That steam is then
forced to exit through a pipe or jet, which causes the entire apparatus to
spin.

I'm certain the design was derived from a covered pot suspended over a
fire.

I did a little research and found that a soda can is a

terrific platform for building a Hero's engine.

I couldn't resist trying such a cheap experiment.

I began with an unopened can of Black Cherry Soda.

I don't recommend trying this experiment with a beer

can. I tried it 12 different times, and each time I got
started with a beer can, I became euphoric and
disoriented.

I poked a hole into the can, about halfway up the side.

I tried to twist the pin to one side, in hopes of giving an

angle to the hole, but the can was bleeding black cherry
so bad, I just pulled out the pin and kept my distance.

30
I really like how these pictures captured the high-
pressure stream.

This is just one version of the Improvised Super Soaker

Device (ISSD) that insurgent kids use around the pool
during the summer.

You can almost see the inspiration for those first Pepsi-
jet printers. Mine would probably still be working if I
hadn't tried refilling the Mountain
Dew Ink
cartridge with Safeway Brand Mountain
Shocker.

I actually had to resist including four more pictures of this soda can spraying out Black Cherry soda. It was just
amazing to me how far the little jet of soda was going.

31
Steam would soon be streaming out of this tiny hole, but it needed to exit at an angle.

Once the can was done spraying, I used a push pin to pry
the little hole to one side. It didn't seem to work very
well.

I poked a similar hole into the other side of the can.

Next, I used a special technique known as "reverse

shotgunning" to suck about four ounces of water back
into the can.

Finally, I spun the pull tab so it was positioned above

the unpierced opening, and carefully bent the pull tab up to give the can a tidy little hanger.

Be careful with this step if you try this at home. If you crack open the top, this can will be ruined. The two side
jets have to be the only exit for the steam, and you won't be able to dig through the neighbor's recycling bin to
get another one. It has to be sealed on the top.

Now it was time to test this baby!

Using fishing line, I hung the can a few inches above a

burning candle.

I patiently waited for the water to heat up.

32
It didn't work. The water inside was getting hot, and making sizzling noises, but not much steam was coming
out of the holes. I wasn't very surprised. The Hero's Engine is usually described as being above a fire or bunsen
burner. The heat from the candle wasn't enough to really get the water to a boil. The rotating can also prevented
any one spot on the can from getting a good dose of heat.

So, the next step was to increase the number of candles

and to get them a lot closer to the soda can.

I tried again with three tea light candles positioned with

their flames just tickling the bottom of the can.

33
Sure enough, three candles worked a little better. The can began to turn, and I could begin to see steam shooting
out of the holes.

Still, it needed improvements. The turning was slow, and I could see that the holes I had poked were mainly
forcing steam straight out, perpendicular to the surface of the can wall.

Perhaps a square can would have worked better. The round can was built for spinning, but it was difficult to
poke holes in it that could were at an angle. It was like trying to poke a hole through a sheet of paper at an
angle.
At any rate, I upped the candle count to four. This is the same number of tea lights I use when I'm barbecuing.

It worked! Four candles got the water boiling hot, and the new, aggresively-angled jet-holes pushed the can into
a rapid spin!

Here is a photo from above. You may be able to discern a misty white halo of steam around the can. It was
really moving.

Experience has taught me that cheap parlor tricks don't last for long, so I kept watching for a few minutes and
tried to think of improvements.

The Hero's engine did not disappoint. Those tealight candles last for five hours, and those few ounces of water
lasted more than 30 minutes. Back to Contents

34
Name _______________________

The Heat Lab (Foundational and Capstone)

http://www.apsu.edu/robertsonr/nova/heatlab.pdf
Taking the Heat
1. Add tap water to some crushed ice in a 400 mL beaker so that you have a slurry of ice water. Then pour about
120 g of the cold water (not ice) into a 250 mL beaker. Use a thermometer to quickly get the temperature of the
cold water. It should be very close to 0°C. Then put the beaker immediately on an iron ring with wire gauze and
heat using a “cool” Bunsen burner flame underneath. Take the temperature every 30 seconds until you get to
30°C. Stir slightly with your thermometer but do not let it touch the bottom. Make a data table on another piece
of paper.
2. Put about 120 g of crushed ice into a 250 mL beaker. Use a thermometer to get the temperature of the ice. It
should be very close to 0°C. Then put the beaker on an iron ring with wire gauze and heat with a “cool” Bunsen
burner flame underneath. Take the temperature every 30 seconds until you get to 30°C. Tap the ice and stir
slightly with your thermometer but do not let the thermometer touch the bottom. Note when all the ice appears
to have changed into liquid water. Make a data table on another piece of paper.
3. Graph temperature versus time for both runs. Use graph paper or a graphing program such as
Graphical Analysis. What is the difference in the two graphs?
What is happening to the heat energy added to the ice for the first few minutes of heating? What type of energy
is being changed?

Specific Heat Capacity

The amount of heat that it takes to raise the temperature of 1 g of a substance by 1C° is called the specific heat
capacity. This value is different for every material and has a great influence on the thermal properties of matter.
1. Weigh the bundle of iron nails and measure out a equal mass of water into a styrofoam cup. Take the
temperature of the water in the cup. Mass of nails _______________ Mass of water _____________
Temp of water ______________
2. Put the bundle of iron nails into a beaker of boiling water and leave for 5 minutes. Use a “hot” Bunsen
burner flame. Make sure the tip of the inner blue cone touches the bottom of the wire gauze. Take the
temperature of the boiling water. Temp of boiling water ________________
3. Place the styrofoam cup with water into another styrofoam cup. This helps to insulate the first cup. A device
such as this is called a calorimeter.
4. Quickly move the bundle of iron nails from the boiling water into the calorimeter. Move the bundle up and
down a few times to help the heat transfer. Insert the thermometer and read the maximum temperature of the
water after it rises. Max temp of water and nails _______________________
Questions - What is the temperature of the iron after it has been in the boiling water? ________________
We used equal masses of water and iron. Is the final temperature halfway between the temperature of the nails
and the water? ________________________
What does this answer mean about the specific heat capacities of water and iron?
Determine mathematically what the specific heat capacity of iron is assuming that liquid water is 1
calorie/g C°.

35
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat (Foundational)
http://74.125.93.132/search?q=cache:MlXamUOQKU8J:terra.chemeketa.edu/faculty/ejensen/docs
/mechheat.doc+potential+energy+to+heat+lab+lead+shot&cd=6&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us&client=fire
fox-a

Introduction
When an object is near the surface of the earth at a height, h, the earth and object system has a potential energy of
the following:

[1] U = mgh

According to the law of conservation of energy, this potential energy is converted into kinetic energy when the
object falls. If this object comes to rest through collisions that are not perfectly elastic, this kinetic energy, a form of
mechanical energy, is converted to thermal energy of the object (and its surroundings). This change from
mechanical energy to thermal energy is equivalent to the thermal energy gained from heat.

Experimental Procedures

1) Measure the inside length of the tube.

2) Measure the mass of a Styrofoam cup
3) Pour some shot (about 500 grams or so) into a styrofoam cup and measure the total mass.
4) Measure the initial temperature of the shot.
5) Place the lead shot in the tube and screw the cap on. MAKE SURE that the cap is screwed securely on or
you will have to clean up a lot of lead shot when it spills on the floor!
6) Quickly invert the tube and let the shot fall to the bottom. Repeat this procedure so that the lead shot fall a
total of 100 times. Quickly measure the Temperature every ten drops.
7) Pour the shot back into the cup and quickly measure its final temperature before it cools down.
Graph Temperature v. Number of Drops.
8) Repeat the experiment a few times using a different quantity of metal, a different number of turns, or a
different substance.

What does your graph tell you?

What happened to the potential energy that was give to the shot?

What can you tell about the different metals?

36
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat (Capstone)
http://74.125.93.132/search?q=cache:MlXamUOQKU8J:terra.chemeketa.edu/faculty/ejensen/docs
/mechheat.doc+potential+energy+to+heat+lab+lead+shot&cd=6&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us&client=fire
fox-a

Introduction
When an object is near the surface of the earth at a height, h, the earth and object system has a potential energy of
the following:

[1] U = mgh

According to the law of conservation of energy, this potential energy is converted into kinetic energy when the
object falls. If this object comes to rest through collisions that are not perfectly elastic, this kinetic energy, a form of
mechanical energy, is converted to thermal energy of the object (and its surroundings). This change from
mechanical energy to thermal energy is equivalent to the thermal energy gained from heat. The purpose of this lab is
to test this equivalence.

The relationship between temperature and thermal energy is given by the calorimeter equation:

[2] ΔEth = mcΔT

ΔEth = change in thermal energy
m = mass of the substance in kg
c = specific heat capacity in J/(C° kg)
ΔT = change in temperature in C°

Note that this formula assumes that the energy input does not lead to a phase change.

Experimental Procedures

9) Measure the inside length of the tube.

10) Measure the mass of a Styrofoam cup
11) Pour some shot (about 500 grams or so) into a styrofoam cup and measure the total mass.
12) Measure the initial temperature of the shot.
13) Place the lead shot in the tube and screw the cap on. MAKE SURE that the cap is screwed securely on or
you will have to clean up a lot of lead shot when it spills on the floor!
14) Quickly invert the tube and let the shot fall to the bottom. Repeat this procedure so that the lead shot fall a
total of 100 times.
15) Pour the shot back into the cup and quickly measure its final temperature before it cools down.
16) The specific heat of lead is 130 ± 1 J/(C° kg). The specific heat of steel is 452 ± 1 J/(C° kg). Use equation
[2] to compute the gain in thermal energy for the metal. Use equation [1] to compute the mechanical energy
expended by you. Note that you will need to multiply by the number of turns you did. Compare your
results. Is this what you expected? If this is not what you expected, then either the theory is false, you
underestimated the error, or the experiment is flawed and energy entered or left the system. Do not blame
friction since it is one of the mechanisms for turning mechanical energy into thermal energy.
17) Repeat the experiment a few times using a different quantity of metal, a different number of turns, or a
different substance.

37
Performance Assessment –
You are on a class trip to Niagara Falls. As you walk down the steps leading from the top of the Falls to the bottom, you read a sign
that says, “The temperature of the water at the bottom of Niagara Falls is 1/8 °C warmer than the water at the top of the falls.” You
ask your teacher why this is true. She replies that you may investigate this phenomenon when you return to class.

Part I (Foundational)
In this part, you will design a method for increasing the temperature of a material using only mechanical methods (e.g. you may not
use a heating device of any type). Your teacher will give you a water bottle that contains black-eyed peas. With your partners, design
a method to increase the temperature of the peas. You may not damage the bottle, remove anything from the bottle nor add anything
to the contents. You may only open the bottle to measure the temperature of the peas to determine if your method was successful. All
groups will share their proposed method with the class. The class will determine which method is best. Write a paragraph explaining
why the temperature of the water at Niagara Falls is greater at the bottom than at the top of the Falls.

Part II (Capstone)
In this part, you will use the method that the class determined was best for increasing the temperature of the peas in Part I in order to
determine the specific heat of lead. You will have an unknown amount of lead shot, a heavy cardboard tube that comes with 2 corks
for the ends, a thermometer or temperature sensor, a triple-beam balance and a meter stick. Write a brief report that completely
describes the procedure you used to determine the specific heat of the lead shot. Your report should include the following
components:
1. A statement of the problem.
2. A discussion of the following physical principles:
a. What is the relationship of the work done against gravity to the potential energy of the lead shot at the top of the cardboard
tube?
b. What is the relationship of this potential energy to the kinetic energy of the shot when it is at the bottom of the cardboard
tube?
c. What is the source of the thermal energy that is generated?
3. A written description of the design of the experiment you used to solve the problem.
4. A data table that contains all relevant data recorded in the experiment.
5. The steps/equations for calculating the following quantities:
a. work done against gravity,
b. potential energy of the lead shot at the top of the cardboard tube,
c. kinetic energy of the lead shot at the bottom of the cardboard tube,
d. specific heat of the lead shot.
6. A comparison of the calculated value of the specific heat of lead to the known (accepted) value of the specific heat of lead (i.e.
calculate the percent error).
7. A conclusion that attempts to explain what happened. Remember to comment on potential sources of error.

BACKGROUND INFO. FOR TEACHERS:

1. Measure out the desired mass of lead shot. Cool the lead shot several degrees below room temperature by placing it in a freezer of
container of ice. Do not get the shot wet!
2. Allow the thermometer to remain in contact with the shot for 2-3 minutes before taking the initial temperature reading.
3. After thermal equilibrium has been established, record the temperature of the shot. It should be about 3-4 degrees below room
temperature.
4. Proceed to invert the tube N times (approximately 300) in rapid succession. When inverting the tube, place the lower end on the
table so that the falling shot does not force out the ends. Try to keep your hands away from the ends of the tube since it is
desirable that the ends should not be influenced by the heat of your hands.
5. When you have completed the last inversion, repeat the procedure for recording the final temperature of the shot.
6. Measure the total height h through which the center of mass of the shot has fallen. (Use the marks on the outside of the tube,
which indicate the location of the shot at each end of the tube.)
7. Using the relationship that PE = KE = Q (mgh = mcΔT), determine the specific heat of the lead.
Adapted from Columbia University Department of Physics Lab Manual for Undergraduate Students.
http://columbia-physics.net/
s

38
Final Unit Assessment Ideas:

Fundamentals:
Students design and build a toy or game which demonstrates a specific physics principle or principles. This toy
or game must be suitable for use by elementary school age children and must not presently exist.

Capstone:
Students will design and build a roller coaster and perform energy calculations. Note this project could be
scaled up from the one provided to involve more planning and construction. An analysis of an actual roller
coaster could also be performed using data collected online or in the field.

39
 The Physics of Toys or the Toys of Physics*

Copyright © 1996 Dartmouth College. This module was revised by Trina Cannon, Mike Dirks, Marty
Peters, and Darnall Stone during the 1996 Engineering Concepts for the High School Classroom
workshop from a module originally developed during the 1990 workshop by Jon Davie, Bruce Chappelle,
Anthony Nicholson, H. William Davis, and Robert Wolff. This module has not been classroom tested.
A Link Between High School and Elementary School Classrooms (with extensions possible for math and
the other sciences)

http://thayer.dartmouth.edu/teps/images/TOYDESIGN.pdf

PROBLEM STATEMENT

Design and build a toy or game which demonstrates a specific physics principle or principles. This toy or game
must be suitable for use by elementary school age children and must not presently exist.

PROJECT GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

The goals of this project are twofold: (1) increase the learning of your physics students and (2) create
enthusiasm on the part of elementary school students for science in general and physics in particular. Your
students will deepen their understanding of physics by analyzing what is needed in their toy or game to
effectively convey the concept they have selected as well as through the actual construction process. The
implementation with elementary students will both test the validity of their strategy as well as give them
practice in communication skills. An added bonus should be stronger links between you and your elementary
school colleagues and possibly with other community members.

OTHER CONTEXTS

Just as there is a strong and obvious relationship between the principles of physics and many children’s toys,
there is a natural connection between many games and basic ideas of mathematics. For that reason this project is
easily adapted to a mathematics classroom. Materials needed for implementation might be similar but could be
simpler than within the physics context. High school students of biology, chemistry or other areas could
likewise create activities to introduce concepts of these disciplines to younger students.

40
TIME SCHEDULE

You will need to decide how many days of class time are required in your particular situation and how much of
the actual design and construction can be done by students outside of class. Observe and offer feedback on their
use of the method for this project. Also, allocate more time between the design and construction of the toy or
game and the final presentation if your students are contacting the elementary school teacher themselves. You
may need to provide several weeks or more of implementation time in this case. One possible time frame is
provided below:

Day 1: Teach the Thayer problem solving process. This includes the motivation needed to prepare the students,
a description of the process and the techniques needed for the process. Include a sample problem so that
students can practice problem redefinition, brainstorming alternatives and developing specifications.
Day 2: Finish up your introduction to the process. Assign members to groups and state the problem. Let
students begin the problem solving cycle.
Day 3: Today you can observe and offer feedback to ensure that students are actually following the Thayer
model.
Day 4: Regular class period. Allow some time to answer questions from the groups. You may want to wait until
today to distribute the actual proposal sheet(s) which students will be completing and submitting.
Day 5: Proposals are due. Whatever form your paperwork takes, be sure that students address product design,
budget, and where and when their elementary school implementation will take place.
Day 6: Return proposals to students with any appropriate feedback. Contracts can also be used if you are
supplying money for project expenses.
Day 8: A written interim report as well as the toy or game is due from each group.
Day X: You may want to allow class time for students to try out their games. Alternatively, you might suggest
that they do this outside of class.
Day Y: Project presentations and debriefing with the review committee. Schedule this for the earliest time
possible after students have implemented their toy or game with elementary school students.

BUDGET

Unless students are able to rely totally on materials they have available at home or which you supply, some out
of-pocket expenses will be required. Several options for dealing with this are outlined below. Whatever option
is selected it is vital that students be properly informed in advance. If funds are made available to students, each
group should select a treasurer to handle reimbursement and receipts retained. It is also a good idea to put a
limit on the value of salvaged or scrounged materials so that no project appears significantly costlier than the
others.

OPTION 1: School funds with a suggested limit of $1O.OO/group

OPTION 2: Grant money with a reimbursement as requested by the student group understanding that all groups
will not need the same amount of money -
OPTION 3: Grant money with a suggested limit per group as set by the grant guidelines.
OPTION 4: Students fund the project from their own pockets with a suggested limit of not over $5.00 per
student.
OPTION 5: Locate an anonymous benefactor to fund the project.
OPTION 6: Students fund the project from their own pockets with a suggested limit of not over $5.00 per
student and with some monetary limit for scrounged materials.
OPTION 7: Other!!

41
PRELIMINARY WORK TO BE DONE BY THE TEACHER

Before the teacher starts a project, many things should be done by that teacher. Things, places, and people not
left to the discretion of student groups should be decided upon in advance and clearly specified.

1. Obtain permissions for this project from appropriate school administrators. There is nothing worse than a
principal blindsided by an angry parent or a disgruntled teacher. Most administrators are eager to support
the kind of cooperative learning and community involvement required by this project and need to understand
both your process and your goals.

2. Identify the class that will do this project. Because of the resources and space available, a real bottle-neck
may occur if you assign this project to several classes at once. Therefore, assigning the project to each class
within a different time frame may be desirable.

3. Determine the method of funding and the amount as indicated above. This will be dictated by the school
policy and teacher ingenuity.

4. Talk to potential resource people and alert them to the project and its guidelines. A short meeting to show
them the plans and to encourage them to be part of a team may ensure their eager participation. You may
want to contact potential elementary school teacher participants, but there is value in making that one of the
responsibilities of each group. Personal contact is important even if these key people cannot attend a meeting.

a. Toy expert
b. Shop teacher
c. AV person— for video use
d. Librarian —School, Community and local college, if available
e. Other teachers that might be useful (speech, math, etc.)

5. Find a site with chalkboard for student work. If such a site is not available, furnish each group with a
newsprint pad and marker. Portable chalkboards will help to give some group space by serving as temporary
walls. A substitute for the portable chalkboard can be made by using an 8’x12’ sheet of white Masonite
paneling mounted on a support easel. Your classroom and student homes may provide adequate sites.

6. Put relevant books on reserve in the library. Ask the community librarian about book loans from regional
libraries if you think this might be helpful.

7. Determine grading procedure for the project and the weight it will carry in the semester grade. All of this
should be made clear to the students at the onset of the project to avoid surprises. Having it posted in a
visible place in the classroom during the course of the project makes it readily available to the students.

8. Select the deadlines. A consultation with the person who plans the school calendar should be helpful. By
notifying fellow faculty members one can avoid picking the same due days as the big English papers or Social
Studies project. Kids in stress can cause a major mess!

9. Determine how the groups will be designated and choose them.

42
10. Line up the review committee for final presentations. Phone calls can be followed by an official letter. Be
sure to mention the dates of the project reviews.

a. Science Teacher
b. Elementary School Teacher
c. Administrator
d. Toy Expert

Curriculum supervisors and parents also make a good audience for the project presentations.

11. Schedule the auditorium for project presentations. Other teachers may want to bring their classes to see the
student work.

12. Prepare the handouts that the students receive sometime during the project.

a. Background articles (if available)

b. Sample proposal (posted in your room)
c. Proposal form (including budget)
d. Contract form (if used)
e. Presentation guidelines
e. Evaluation form
f. Sample interim and final reports (posted in your room)

Examples of some of these follow but you may have much better ideas.

13. Prepare a “Thank You Reception” for all review panel members and volunteers that help the students. The
extent of the refreshments and the time will be dictated by the money available. Should the student work be
funded by a grant, do not forget to put this in the proposal. “Thank you’s” are the easiest to give and the
easiest to forget to give! Some schools have a fund for receptions.

14. Consider involving the elementary school students in a written feedback exercise. Either you or a member of
each group can suggest this to the elementary school teachers involved. You can then display the letters you
receive in your classroom.

15. Some of the suggestions provided may seem too elaborate and time consuming. Keep in mind that this whole
process needs to be fun for you as well as your students, so modify things to suit your philosophy and your
comfort zone. A hands-on, safe experience for your students using the Thayer problem solving method is the
one essential element.

43
Date ______________________________

PROPOSAL FORM

Company Name __________________________________________

Company structure: (Group members and their titles)

Physics principles(s) to be the focus of your project:

Specifications of you toy or game:

Materials and estimated budget: (Purchased and salvaged materials)

44
Preliminary description of your project: A labeled diagram can be included.

Specifications for your elementary school activity:

45
 PRESENTATION
Each group will be provided with 15 minutes in which to present their toy or game to the class
and visiting committee. Their presentation should accomplish several objectives:

1. They need to demonstrate that they have produced a functional toy or game.

2. The design and construction of their product is to be described with details on materials used
and the method of fabrication.

3. They must be able to use their device to demonstrate a specific principle or principles of
physics.

4. They must also show that this is suitable for use by an elementary school child.
Each member of the group is expected to contribute to the formal presentation. It is advisable to
limit the prepared talk to a total of ten minutes which will leave five minutes to respond to
questions and comments from the audience. A group is expected to be prepared to make their
oral report at their assigned time. This means that their product would be in its final form with
no adjustments needed. Any audio-visual equipment required for a group’s presentation should
be arranged for in advance of the presentation day. They need to have rehearsed their
presentation keeping in mind that the quality of the presentation will be a part of their project’s
overall evaluation.

46
 EVALUATION FORM/RUBRIC

ASSIGNMENT: Design and build a toy or game which demonstrates a specific physics
principle or principles. This toy or game must be suitable for use by elementary school age
children and must not presently exist.
Evaluator’s Name ______________________________________________________

Name of Company _____________________________________________________

Student’s Names ______________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

Score the group’s performance in each of the following four areas. Use a score from 0 to 5
with 0 representing very poor and 5 being excellent.

1. Clear demonstration of a specific physics principle or principles

-the principle(s) is evident.
-the toy works according to the principle(s).
-the toy really works.
___________________________________________________________
2. Quality of the toy or game
-the toy is suitable for the intended age.
-the toy follows the safety standards.
-the toy is appealing to the intended age.
___________________________________________________________
3. Quality of the presentation
-does not exceed the time limit (15 minutes).
-describes the design and construction of their product with details on the materials and method
of fabrication.
-demonstrates their device.
-demonstrates that it is suitable for an elementary student.
-each member of the group contributes to the formal presentation.
___________________________________________________________

TOTAL: ______

Please add any additional comments, thoughts, or observations about this group’s project on the
back.

47
 Participation Contract
We hereby agree to exert our best efforts to develop and build a toy or game which
demonstrates a specific physics principle or principles. This toy or game must be suitable for
use by elementary school age children and must not presently exist. We further agree to arrange
and carry out an implementation activity with an elementary school class.

Requirement Date of Completion

Proposal _______________________________________________________

Interim Report __________________________________________________

Elementary School Implementation ________________________________

Final Written Report _____________________________________________

Review Committee Presentation __________________________________

Elementary School and Teacher_____________________________________

Group Members ______________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

Signatures:

48
PHYSICS OF ROLLER COASTERS:
http://www.learner.org/interactives/parkphysics/coaster

Educational Outcomes:
1) Students will design a roller coaster and determine the average velocity a given marble travels,
2) Students will demonstrate their knowledge of Potential and Kinetic Energy.

Estimated Time: 1.0 hour

Materials
• One small glass marble
• One small steel ball·
• 5-6 pieces of foam pipe insulation
• Masking tape or Duct Tape
• Tape measure or meter stick

Part 1, using a small marble

Introduction
This Lab is about the thrill of velocity and unbalanced forces… we’re talking about Roller
Coasters! In this Lab we are going to create a roller coaster that is the fastest and most exciting ride you can
build! Your Challenge: Great America has enlisted your help to create an old fashioned roller coaster that relies
solely on the force of gravity and momentum to move the cars. Your first challenge is to create a roller coaster
for a marble to travel (without falling off), which has at least one complete vertical loop.
Constraints:
• Your marble ball must complete the course.
• You may not use human force to get your marble started.
• You need to have at least one complete vertical loop.
• Each group member must participate in the design, construction, and operation of
the roller coaster.

Questions/Experimental Procedure
1. Plan! Your team should sketch out a design of your roller coaster before you build it.
2. Build! Once your team has finalized on a sketch then build your roller coaster. Note you
may need to tape your roller coaster to the ground or to a nearby wall.

Questions to answer prior to testing!

1. Describe the science behind your design. Sketch your final design below. Label the
heights of the initial hill and any other hills and the height of each loop.
2. Describe the science behind your design (1) Which is your highest hill? Why? (2)
Where is your marble traveling the fastest? Slowest? (you may need to label your coaster
points to help us understand your design) (3) Do you think your marble will make it all
the way to the end of your coaster? Where do you think the marble will most likely get
stuck?

Test it!!!!!!!!!!!!!
1. Ok, now you should test your roller coaster!!!

49
a. Did your marble make it? If not, why not?
Procedure: Part 2, using a steel ball or heavy marble
Challenge: Great America was very pleased with the performance of your previous design, so
much so that they are asking for more! They would like you to continue to work with your roller
coaster, but they’ve decided that they would like you to work with more mass. This time you’ll
be using a metal marble (which is substantially heavier), but Great America wants you to keep
your average velocity similar to your first design (so make sure to compare the velocity of the
glass marble to the velocity of the metal marble!). They are also very interested in knowing
what changes you’ve made to your design and how these changes have affected the performance
of your roller coaster.
1. Will you have to redesign your roller coaster with the heavier mass? If yes, what changes
do you need to make (please describe)? If not, why not?
2. Test your design! Was your design for the heavier mass effective? If not where did the
ball get stuck? Why did it get stuck in that location? If so, what changes made your redesigned
roller coaster successful?

Reflection and What if Questions!

1. Given the balls of different mass which ball do you think was traveling the fastest (the
lighter one or the heavier one). Remember the relationship between energy, velocity and
mass for potential and kinetic energy.

2. Imagine that you could double the initial height of the first hill of your roller coaster.
What would happen to the speed of the ball?

3. Is your roller coaster and ideal conservation of energy system? If not where are some
possible energy losses? What is the impact of those energy losses on your roller coaster
ball?

4. Using your first roller coaster design (draw it below), estimate and label how much
kinetic and potential energy the ball had as it traveled through your roller coaster?

6. Construct energy bar charts for at least four of the positions which you have shown in the data table. See
sample bar charts below.

50
 7. Roller Coaster Design

Scoring Rubric - 15 Total Points

1. Energy Analysis 0-2 3-4 5

Used information about May not have Work is clearly and Accurate calculations of
mass and height to shown work for neatly shown for the PE, KE, and TME; work
determine the potential, the PE, KE, and PE, KE, and TME is clearly, neatly and
kinetic, and total TME calc'ns; may calc'ns; may have one completely shown; no
mechanical energy for have significant or two errors and/or errors/omissions; bar
at least four locations errors and/or omissions; bar charts charts accurately depict
along the track; work is omissions; bar may be inaccurate or energy transformations
neat and complete ; bar charts may be incomplete
charts are accurately inaccurate or
and completely drawn. incomplete

2. Calc'ns of Velocity 0-2 3-4 5

Used information to May not have Work is clearly and Accurately calculations
calculate the velocity shown work for neatly shown for the of velocity; work is
for at least four velocity calc'ns; velocity calc'ns; may clearly, neatly and
locations along the may have have one or two completely shown; no
track; the work is neatly significant errors errors and/or errors/omissions
shown and complete. and/or omissions omissions
3. Design of Coaster 0-2 3-4 5
Has a working Model illustrates a Model illustrates a high
model; yet limited moderate level of level of sophistication in
in design and sophistication in design and operation.
operation. design and operation. Marble stays on track
Marble stays on track. and has consistent times.

51
Oakland Schools Physics Resource Unit

Gravitation & Circular

Motion

John Hillman
Lahser/Andover
Bloomfield Hills
 Gravitation & Circular Motion
Content Statements
P3.1 Basic Forces in Nature
Objects can interact with each other by “direct contact” (pushes or pulls, friction) or at a distance
(gravity, electromagnetism, nuclear).
P3.6 Gravitational Interactions
Gravitation is an attractive force that a mass exerts on every other mass. The strength of the
gravitational force between two masses is proportional to the masses and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them.

Content Expectations
P1.1D Identify patterns in data and relate them to theoretical models.
P1.1h Design and conduct a systematic scientific investigation that tests a hypothesis. Draw conclusions from
data presented in charts or tables.
P1.2i Explain the progression of ideas and explanations that lead to science theories that are part of the
current scientific consensus or core knowledge.
P1.2j Apply science principles or scientific data to anticipate effects of technological design decisions.
P1.2k Analyze how science and society interact from a historical, political, economic, or social perspective.
P2.1E Describe and classify various motions in a plane as one dimensional, two dimensional, circular, or
periodic.
P2.1F Distinguish between rotation and revolution and describe and contrast the two speeds of an object like
the Earth.
P2.1h Identify the changes in speed and direction in everyday examples of circular (rotation and revolution),
periodic, and projectile motions.
P2.2D State that uniform circular motion involves acceleration without a change in speed.
P2.2f Describe the relationship between changes in position, velocity, and acceleration during periodic
motion.
P3.1A Identify the force(s) acting between objects in “direct contact” or at a distance.
P3.4D Identify the force(s) acting on objects moving with uniform circular motion (e.g., a car on a circular
track, satellites in orbit).
P3.6A Explain earth-moon interactions (orbital motion) in terms of forces.
P3.6B Predict how the gravitational force between objects changes when the distance between them changes.
P3.6C Explain how your weight on Earth could be different from your weight on another planet.
P3.6d Calculate force, masses, or distance, given any three of these quantities, by applying the Law of
Universal Gravitation, given the value of G.
P3.6e Draw arrows (vectors) to represent how the direction and magnitude of a force changes on an object in
an elliptical orbit.
Instructional Background Information:
When a body moves with constant speed in a circle, it is said to have uniform circular
motion. The body moves at a constant speed v but with a continually changing direction
that is tangent to the circle. Since the direction of the speed is changing, the body is
accelerating. This acceleration is perpendicular to the direction of the velocity and is
toward the center of the circle. If it were not perpendicular, there would be a component
of the force along the line of the motion, therefore causing the speed to change. This is
called centripetal (toward the center) acceleration.

The constant speed of the body is given by the circumference of the circle divided by the
period (time for one revolution) of the motion. v = 2πR / T The magnitude of the
acceleration is related to the speed by a = v 2 /R.

The centripetal acceleration, like any other acceleration, requires a net unbalanced force
to cause the acceleration. This is called the centripetal force. Centripetal force is not a
kind of force like gravity, tension, friction or the normal force. Any of those forces can
be acting centripetally. On a force diagram, a force should not be labeled solely as
centripetal, it should also be identified by the type of force or forces that are acting
centripetally.

Example 1. A satellite orbiting the earth is being held in its orbit by the force of gravity.

Example 2. An object is held on a rotating turntable by friction.

Example 3. An object swung in a horizontal circle on a string is held in the circle by the
tension in the string.

GRAVITY
The gravitational force between two objects of masses m 1 and m 2 separated by a
distance R was determined by Newton to be F = (Gm 1 m 2 )/R 2 . The value of the
constant G was determined by Cavendish as G = 6.67 x 10 −11 Nm 2 /kg 2 . It is called the
universal law of gravitation because it was the first idea to say things on earth and things
in the heavens could have the same cause.

Gravitational force provides the centripetal force required for satellites orbiting parent
bodies which includes the planets orbiting the sun. So F g = F c . This can be written
Gm p m s /R 2 = m s v 2 /R = m s 4 π 2 R/T 2 . This leads to expressions for the orbital speed
of a satellite in a circular orbit and an explanation of why the constant in Kepler’s third
law is truly a constant. Solving for v you get v = (Gm p /R) 1 / 2 which is the orbital
velocity. Notice that the mass of the satellite does not affect the required speed. A large
satellite or a small satellite both require the same speed. If you solve for the Kepler
constant you get
R 3 /T 2 = Gm p /4 π 2 . In other words, the Kepler constant is the product of other
constants and only depends on the mass of the parent body.

If the speed of a satellite in a circular orbit is increased, the satellite will move into an
elliptical orbit with the point at which the speed changed becoming the lowest point in
the orbit. If you had decreased the speed, that point would become the highest point in
the orbit. If the satellite is orbiting the earth, those points are the perigee and apogee
points.

You can also solve that equation for the mass of the parent body. If you know the orbital
radius and period of a satellite, you can calculate the mass of the parent body. After
Cavendish measured the value of G, the mass of the earth became known because the
orbital radius and period of the moon were known.
Terms and Concepts
Tangential speed Period Frequency

Centripetal acceleration Centripetal force Law of universal

gravitation
Orbit Inverse square law ellipse
Instructional Resources

http://physics.hippocampus.org
http://www.physicsclassroom.com
http://www.glencoe.com
http://techtv.mit.edu/genres/32-science/videos/3112-orbital-motion
http://homepage.mac.com/cbakken/physlab
GRAVITATION & CIRCULAR MOTION
Activity # 1: Relationship between force and speed
Questions to be investigated
How is the centripetal force related to the speed of an object undergoing uniform circular
motion?

Objectives
Students will find the relationship between force, mass, speed and radius for an object in
circular motion.

Materials
A glass or PVC tube about 15 cm long and about 1 cm in outside diameter, 1.5 m of
braided nylon fish line, a 2-hole rubber stopper, 24 metal washers of about 6-10 g each, a
paper clip and an alligator clip or piece of tape.
Safety Concerns
If a glass tube is used, it should be fire polished at both ends and covered with rubber
tubing or masking tape. Work stations need to be at least 3 m apart.
Real-World Connections
This is the same relationship that applies to a car traveling around a curve.
Teacher Notes

Procedure/Description of Lesson
Tie one end of the line to the stopper. Thread the line through the tube and tie the other
end of the line to a bent paper clip. Attach the alligator clip or piece of tape to the line so
that it limits the radius of the circular path of the stopper to 75-100 cm. Hang 6 of the
washers on the paper clip.

Make a table with 5 columns and 6 rows. The first column is the weight of the washers
hanging from the paper clip. The second column is the time for 20 revolutions of the
stopper in its circular path. Column three is the period of the motion or the time for 1
revolution which is determined by dividing the value in column two by twenty. The
fourth column is the speed of the stopper which is found by using v = 2πR / T . The final
column is the speed squared.

Whirl the stopper over your head so that the stopper makes a horizontal circle and spin it
fast enough so that the alligator clip comes up to the bottom of the glass tube but just
does not quite touch the tube. The weight of the washers is now providing the centripetal
force needed to keep the stopper moving in the circular path. Once you are able to keep
the stopper moving steadily, have your partner measure the time for 20 revolutions of the
stopper. Repeat the process, each time adding 3 washers to the paper clip.

Plot two graphs. The first will be the weight of the washers horizontally vs the speed of
the stopper vertically. The second will be weight vs the square of the speed. What
relationship do the graphs reveal between the centripetal force (weight) and the speed of
the object?
Assessment Ideas:

These can be added as questions to the activity or could be used as an assessment by

having the students design and run the experiment.

You have discovered how centripetal force and speed are related when the radius and
mass of the revolving object remain constant. How could you modify the experiment to
find the relationship between speed and radius when the centripetal force and mass
remain constant? How could you modify the experiment to find the relationship between
mass and speed when the radius and centripetal force are held constant?
Activity # 2: Force and Speed in Elliptical Orbits
Main development by Zitzewitz and Neff in Physics: Principles and Problems

Questions to be investigated
How does the force and speed vary in an elliptical orbit?

Objectives
Students will relate gravitational force to centripetal force.
Students will predict the magnitude and direction of velocity and force for an object in
elliptical orbit.

Materials
Thick cardboard or corkboard
Sheet of paper
2 thumbtacks
Pencil
30 cm of string

Real-World Connections

Teacher Notes
You can give the students the perihelion and aphelion distances of the earth from the sun
and the masses of the earth and sun and allow the m to calculate the actual force at
aphelion or perihelion on the orbit.
Mass of the sun = 1.991 x 10 30 kg
Mass of the earth = 5.979 x 10 24 kg
Orbital radius at perihelion = 1.475 x 10 11 m
Orbital radius at aphelion = 1.526 x 10 11 m
Procedure/Description of Lesson
1. Push the thumbtacks into the paper and cardboard so that they are 8-10 cm apart.
2. Make a loop with the string. Place the loop over the two thumbtacks. Use your
pencil to draw the ellipse while keeping the string taut.
3. Remove the string and the thumbtacks and designate one of the tack holes as the
sun by drawing a star centered on the hole.
4. Draw the position of a planet in the orbit where it is farthest from the sun (the
aphelion point). Label it A.
5. Measure the distance from the planet to the sun at that position.
6. Draw a 2 cm long gravitational force vector from the planet towards the sun from
the aphelion point. Label this vector 1.0 F.
7. Draw the position of the planet when it is nearest the sun (the perihelion point).
Label it P.
 8. Measure the distance from the perihelion point to the sun’s center.
9. Calculate the force on the planet at the perihelion point in terms of F. Gravity is
an inverse square force. If the planet is .45 as far away at perihelion as it is at
aphelion the force is 1/(.45) 2 as much or 4.9F. Hint: The force will be greater
than F.
10. Draw the force vector with the correct direction and length for the perihelion
position. Use the scale that F : 2cm as in step 6.
11. Draw the planet at two other positions on the orbit (not close to either aphelion or
perihelion) and label them B and C.
12. Calculate and draw the correct force vectors for positions B and C as in steps 9
and 10.
13. Assume the planet moves in a clockwise manner around the ellipse. Draw the
velocity vector at each of the four positions to show the direction of motion.
Remember that the planet moves faster when it is closer in an inverse relationship
(twice as far away = half as fast). Designate the speed at A as 1v.
14. Look at the direction of the velocity vectors and the force vectors. Identify the
position(s) where the planet is gaining speed and also where it is losing speed.

Assessment Ideas:
Given an elliptical orbit, the student should be able to identify positions of greatest and
least speed, positions of greatest and least gravitational force, positions where the planet
is speeding up and slowing down and be able to draw vectors representing the directions
and relative sizes of the speed and force.
Activity # 3: Understanding Inverse Square Laws
Questions to be investigated
How does light intensity depend on the distance from the source?

Objectives
To show light obeys the inverse square law and apply the result to gravity.

Materials
Light meter
Light bulb
Meter stick

Real-World Connections
Applies to light, sound, electrostatic forces and gravity.

Teacher Notes
This activity can be used as a teacher demonstration or as a lab activity. If it is used as a
lab activity, better results are obtained if only one bulb is used for all groups.

Procedure/Description of Lesson

In a darkened room, place a 40 w or 60 w light bulb on the end of a table. Measure

distances from the light bulb in one meter intervals. At each of the measured distances,
measure the illumination using the light meter. The measurements should be put into a
table with columns for illumination, distance and 1/distance 2 .
Make graphs of illumination on the vertical axis vs distance and illumination vs
1/distance 2 .
How does the illumination change with the increase of distance?
What would the illumination be if the light meter were 100 m away?

Since light is emanating from the bulb like gravitational pull emanates from a mass, how
much would you weigh (gravitational force on you due to the earth) if you were 2 earth
radii from its center instead of the one earth radius at your current position?
Activity # 4: Friction as a Centripetal Force
Questions to be investigated
Relationship between force of friction, radius, and frequency on a turntable.

Objectives
Students will relate the unbalanced force to static friction.
Students will calculate the maximum force of static friction.
Students will apply centripetal force equations to the situation on the turntable.

Materials
Turntable
Masonite disk to fit on turntable
Spring scale
200-400 g mass

Real-World Connections
Car turning. You can make the connection that snow and ice reduces the coefficient of
friction and therefore requires a slower speed for the same radius turn.

Teacher Notes
You could also have them calculate the coefficient of friction required to keep the mass
on the spinning turntable at a given distance ( μmg = F ).
Procedure/Description of Lesson
Centripetal force is given by the equation F = mv 2 /R. Since we are using a turntable
marked in frequency units, it will be preferable to substitute 2 π Rf for v in the equation
to get F = m4 π 2 Rf 2 . For objects on the rotating disk, friction provides the centripetal
force. For an object placed on the turntable, the frequency will be the same at any
distance so the centripetal force is directly proportional to the radius of the path of the
object.

Measure the maximum friction force available by using the spring scale to find the
minimum force needed to make the object move on the masonite disk. Calculate the
radius at which the mass will slide off the moving turntable for turntable frequencies of
33 rpm, 45 rpm and 78 rpm. Then place the object on the turntable and find the actual
distance at which the mass will begin to slide on the spinning turntable.

1. How great is the percentage difference between your calculated value and the
actual value for each frequency?
2. What effect would decreasing the mass have on the value for R?
3. What is the smallest radius in which you can turn a car moving at 100 km/hr if the
friction force is one-third the weight of the car?
Activity # 5: Experimental determination of g
Questions to be investigated
What is the value of the acceleration of gravity at the earth’s surface?
What is the mass of the earth?

Objectives
Students will collect data and calculate an experimental value of g.
Students will relate simple harmonic motion concepts to the acceleration of gravity.
Using the value of g, students will calculate the mass of the earth.
Students will understand applications of the law of universal gravitation.

Materials
Ringstand
String
Hanger and weight
Timer

Real-World Connections

Teacher Notes
Instead of using the value of 9.8 m/sec 2 , you could find the actual value for g at your
location.

Procedure/Description of Lesson
Tie the string to the weight hanger and to the ring stand to give a length of about .5 m
from the point of suspension to the center of the weight on the hanger. Displace the
pendulum by a small angle (no more than 30 o ). Use the timer to find the time for 20
complete oscillations of the pendulum. Divide this time by 20 to get the time for one
oscillation (period). Calculate the acceleration of gravity at your location using the
equation for a pendulum g = 4 π 2 L/T 2 . Change the length of the pendulum and repeat
the process four more times. Use the accepted value of 9.8 m/sec 2 and find how much
your answers vary from the accepted value.

Farther:

1. Use the average of your values for g to find the mass of the earth. Since you are
at the surface of the earth, use the value 6.4 x 10 6 m for the radius of the earth.
The equation for g is g = Gm e /R 2 .

2. What would the acceleration of gravity be at a distance of two earth radii from the
center of the earth? 3.6 earth radii?
3. If you found yourself on Mars, what would be your acceleration of gravity? The
mass of Mars is 6.37 x 10 23 kg and its radius is 3.43 x 10 6 m.
Activity # 6: Finding Black Holes
Developed by Pete Parlett Project PHYSLab

Questions to be investigated
How the orbital parameters (radius and speed) are determined by the mass of the central
body and the gravitational force it provides.

Objectives
Students will apply the law of universal gravitation to find the mass of an object.
Students will understand what is meant by a black hole.
Students will define a Schwarzchild Radius.
Students will apply the concepts of mass, volume and density.

Real-World Connections
This is the same force that makes the planets orbit the sun.
Teacher Notes
The gravitational force between the black hole and the gas F = Gm b m g /R 2 is the
centripetal force holding the gas in orbit F c = m g v 2 /R. By setting the two equations
equal to each other an expression for the mass of the black hole can be obtained
m b = v 2 R/G. You could also provide the students with the average radius of the earth’s
orbit and ask them to use the same process to find the mass of the sun. You could also
provide the sun’s mass and ask them to go backwards and find the average radius of the
earth’s orbit. Either process requires them to understand that the period of the earth’s
orbit is one year and that v = 2 π R/T. This leads to an alternate expression for the mass
of m = 4 π 2 R 3 /(GT 2 ). It can also be done with information about the moon’s orbit.

Procedure/Description of Lesson
NAME: ________________________________

DATA
speed of light, c = 3.00 x 108 m/s The article that accompanies this worksheet is
from Discovery Magazine, January 1995. It is
mass of the sun, Msun = 1.98 x 1030 an announcement of what may be the first real
kg. proof of the existence of a black hole.

G = 6.67 x 10-11 N.m2/kg2 We will make some calculations to confirm this

conclusion. We will base our calculations on
.447 m/s = 1 mile/hr what we know from our study of physics and
gravity.
3.15 x 107 s = 1 year
The article states at the beginning of the third
paragraph that gas was seen to be swirling at
Vsphere = (4/3)π R3
1.2 million miles per hour at a distance of 60
light years from the center of the distant galaxy,
M87. Let us confirm the conclusion that the
mass around which the gas was orbiting was what the article claims.

Convert the speed of the gas from miles per hour to meters/second using the conversion
factor in the data box.

SPEED OF THE GAS (m/s): ____________

Calculate the distance light travels in one year using the information in the data box.
This distance is called a light year.

LIGHT YEAR (m): ___________

Calculate the radius of the orbit of this gas (given as 60 light years).

RADIUS OF ORBIT (m): _____________

Show the formula that relates the Velocity of something in orbit to its Orbital Radius.

Rearrange this formula to solve for the Mass of the central object. Use the information
we have from the article to calculate the Mass of the object in the center of galaxy M87.

MASS OF CENTRAL OBJECT (kg): ___________

Given this value of Mass, how many of our suns would be necessary to have this same
amount of mass?

NUMBER OF SUNS EQUIVALENT: ___________

The article refers to the Schwarzchild Radius of the black hole. This is the limit beyond
which nothing, not even a beam of light, can escape. This is not necessarily the physical
size of the black hole. The actual black hole is smaller, inside this limit. But nobody can
really say what is inside this Schwarzchild Radius, or exactly how a black hole would fill
this space. Let us assume that all of the mass you calculated above is inside this limit and
is evenly spread out inside this volume (a very unlikely scenario).

The Schwarzchild Radius is given as 0.0005 light years. Calculate this radius in meters.

Schwarzchild Radius (m): ___________

Calculate the volume of the sphere enclosed by this radius.

VOLUME (m3): ____________

Calculate the average density of the black hole inside the Schwarzchild Radius.

DENSITY (kg/m3): ___________

Assessment 1
Uniform Circular Motion

A car moves at a steady speed in a circular path on a flat road. What basic measurements
would be required to find the centripetal force acting on the car? What calculations are
required to find the force? Draw the path of the car and show appropriate vectors on the
diagram. What units would your measurements be in?

1 point each for a velocity vector drawn tangent to the circle and a force vector drawn
towards the center.

2 points each for identifying mass, radius and period as required measurements one point
would be awarded if speed replaces period.

2 points for showing how to calculate the speed from radius and period.

3 points for showing how to calculate the force using F = mv 2 /R.

The last 5 points could also be earned by showing that F = m4 π 2 R/T 2 .

2 points awarded for correct units.

Total 15 points.
Assessment 2
Gravity

Two light paper plates each have two apples of equal mass on them and are separated by
a distance. The apples and plates exert a force on each other. How could you double the
force between the plates? You have more apples available. If each apple has a mass of
.400 kg and they are originally 2 m apart, what is the original force between the apples?
G = 6.67 x 10 −11 Nm 2 /kg 2

3 points for adding two apples to either plate.

3 points for moving the plates to 1.41m or root 2 m apart.
3 points for the calculation of the gravitational force of 1.07 x 10 −11 .
1 point for correct unit of N for the answer.

10 points total
Oakland Schools Physics Resource Unit

Electromagnetic Waves
Particle Model

Terese Grant
Stephen C. Tighe

Lake Orion High School

Lake Orion Community Schools

1
 Electromagnetic Waves - (Particle Model)
Reflection & Refraction
Content Statements
P4.2 Energy Transformation
Energy is often transformed from one form to another. The amount of energy before a transformation is
equal to the amount of energy after the transformation. In most energy transformations, some energy is
converted to thermal energy.
P4.6 Electromagnetic Waves
Electromagnetic waves (e.g., radio, microwave, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, x-ray) are produced
by changing the motion (acceleration) of charges or by changing magnetic fields. Electromagnetic
waves can travel through matter, but they do not require a material medium. (That is, they also travel
through empty space.) All electromagnetic waves move in a vacuum at the speed of light. Types of
electromagnetic radiation are distinguished from each other by their wavelength and energy.
P4.8 Wave Behavior — Reflection and Refraction
The laws of reflection and refraction describe the relationships between incident and reflected/refracted
waves.
P4.1 Energy Transfer
Moving objects and waves transfer energy from one location to another. They also transfer energy to
objects during interactions (e.g., sunlight transfers energy to the ground when it warms the ground;
sunlight also transfers energy from the sun to the Earth).
P4.9 Nature of Light
Light interacts with matter by reflection, absorption, or transmission.

2
Content Expectations

P1.1D Identify patterns in data and relate them to theoretical models.

P1.1E Describe a reason for a given conclusion using evidence from an investigation.

P1.1h Design and conduct a systematic scientific investigation that tests a hypothesis. Draw conclusions from
data presented in charts or tables.
P4.2A Account for and represent energy transfer and transformation in complex processes (interactions).

P4.6A Identify the different regions on the electromagnetic spectrum and compare them in terms of
wavelength, frequency, and energy.
P4.6B Explain why radio waves can travel through space, but sound waves cannot.

P4.6C Explain why there is a time delay between the time we send a radio message to astronauts on the moon
and when they receive it.
P4.6D Explain why we see a distant event before we hear it (e.g., lightning before thunder, exploding
fireworks before the boom).
P4.8A Draw ray diagrams to indicate how light reflects off objects or refracts into transparent media.

P4.8B Predict the path of reflected light from flat, curved, or rough surfaces (e.g., flat and curved mirrors,
painted walls, paper).
P4.9A Identify the principle involved when you see a transparent object (e.g., straw, a piece of glass) in a
clear liquid.
P4.9B Explain how various materials reflect, absorb, or transmit light in different ways.

P4.1A Account for and represent energy into and out of systems using energy transfer diagrams.

P4.8e Given an angle of incidence and indices of refraction of two materials, calculate the path of a light ray
incident on the boundary (Snell’s Law).
P4.8f Explain how Snell’s Law is used to design lenses (e.g., eye glasses, microscopes, telescopes,
binoculars).

3
Instructional Background Information:

Big Idea (Core Concept):

The Particle Model of Light

Features of the particle model.
1. Light particles travel in straight lines until they strike a surface.

2. Light particles must be invisibly small because they don’t scatter when beams of
light intersect.

3. Light particles must travel at very high speed; light doesn’t bend appreciably as
would a stream of water exiting a fire hose.

4. Light particles are created by luminous objects and reflected or absorbed by non-
luminous objects.

5. From any single point of an object, countless streams of particles radiate in all
directions.

6. There are several particle-boundary interactions

a. Particles bounce elastically
Specular reflection occurs when light particles bounce off a smooth surface
(i.e., a BB striking a table top) whereas diffuse reflection occurs when light
particles bounce off a rough surface (i.e., a BB striking a brick wall).
b. Particles can be absorbed
c. Particles can pass through the surface and enter the new medium. When they
do so, they change speed, and thus direction.

7. The intensity of light is related to the number of particles that strike a given area.
For point sources, light intensity varies as the inverse square of distance (i.e.,
pattern of shrapnel from an explosion).

Reflection of Light Waves

All waves are known to undergo reflection or the bouncing off of an obstacle. Most
people are very accustomed to the fact that light waves also undergo reflection. The
reflection of light waves off of a mirrored surface results in the formation of an image.
One characteristic of wave reflection is that the angle at which the wave approaches a flat
reflecting surface is equal to the angle at which the wave leaves the surface. This
characteristic is observed for water waves and sound waves. It is also observed for light
waves. Light, like any wave, follows the law of reflection when bouncing off surfaces.

4
Refraction of Light Waves

All waves are known to undergo refraction when they pass from one medium to another
medium. That is, when a wavefront crosses the boundary between two media, the
direction that the wavefront is moving undergoes a sudden change; the path is "bent."
This behavior of wave refraction can be described by both conceptual and mathematical
principles. First, the direction of "bending" is dependent upon the relative speed of the
two media. A wave will bend one way when it passes from a medium in which it travels
slowly into a medium in which it travels fast; and if moving from a fast medium to a slow
medium, the wavefront will bend in the opposite direction. Second, the amount of
bending is dependent upon the actual speeds of the two media on each side of the
boundary. The amount of bending is a measurable behavior which follows distinct
mathematical equations. These equations are based upon the speeds of the wave in the
two media and the angles at which the wave approaches and departs from the boundary.
Light, like any wave, is known to refract as it passes from one medium into another
medium. In fact, a study of the refraction of light reveals that its refractive behavior
follows the same conceptual and mathematical rules which govern the refractive behavior
of other waves such as water waves and sound waves.
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/light/u12l1a.cfm

5
Ray Model of Light

Scientists agree that light has a dual nature, part particle and part wave. Since light travels
in a straight line, the ray model of light is used to study and represent how light interacts
with matter regardless of whether it is a particle or a wave.
This study of visible light is called ray optics or geometric optics.
Sources of light – Our major source of light is the sun.
Other natural sources: stars, flames, sparks, fireflies
Manmade sources use electricity to produce light: incandescent bulbs, fluorescent
lamps, TV screens, computer monitors, lasers and LED’s (light emitting diodes)
• Luminous source – an object that emits light
o (ex: Sun, incandescent bulb)
• Illuminated source – an object that becomes visible as a result of light
reflecting off of it
o (ex: moon, bicycle reflector)
Light interacts with different materials or ‘media’ in different ways.
• Opaque media – media that do not transmit any light, but reflect some light
(examples: brick, wood, metal, heavy cloth)
• Transparent media – media that transmit light
(ex. air, glass, plastic wrap)
• Translucent media – media that transmit light but do not allow objects to be seen
clearly through them
(ex: lamp shades, frosted light bulbs, sheer curtains)
• Transparent and translucent media can reflect a fraction of the light.
(ex: you can often see your reflection in a glass window)

The Speed of Light

• The speed of light in a vacuum is a very important and universal value that has its
own special symbol (c ).

c = 299,792,458 m/s (3 x 108 m/s used for most calculations)

• Light can have wavelengths between 400 and 700 nm.

• White light is a combination of the spectrum of colors, each color having a

different wavelength.

6
 • Light waves traveling through a vacuum can be characterized in terms of
frequency, wavelength, and the speed of light.

c
λ=
f

Reflection of Light

• How light reflects off a surface determines the reflection that you see. When light
encountering a barrier is reflected it follows a simple law.
• The angle that a reflected ray makes as measured from the normal to a reflective
surface equals the angle that the incident ray makes as measured from the same
normal.

θ r=θ i

Smooth and rough surfaces

• A smooth surface such as a mirror causes specular reflection in which parallel
light rays are reflected in parallel.

Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• Reflected rays from light striking a relatively rough surface are not reflected in
parallel. This is a diffuse reflection, which results in a scattering of light.

7
Plane-Mirror Images

• A plane mirror is a flat smooth surface from which light is reflected by specular
reflection.
• Object – source of light rays to be reflected by a mirror.
An object can be a luminous source or an illuminated source.
• Our brain processes light information as if the light had traveled in a straight path;
so the light seems to have come from a point behind the mirror (image point).
• The combination of image points produced by the reflected rays forms the image
of the bird. This is known as a virtual image: a type of image formed by diverging
light rays.

Properties of Plane-Mirror Images

• Image position, height and orientation

• Specular reflection results in the formation of images that appear to be behind
plane mirrors.
• An image produced by a plane mirror is always virtual, is the same size as the
object, has the same orientation, and is the same distance from the mirror as the
object.
d i = –d o hi=h o

8
 Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Properties of Curved Mirror Images

• Spherical mirrors are shaped like sections of a sphere, and may be reflective on
either the inside (concave) or outside (convex).
• Law of reflection still applies

• If the curvature is small, the focus is much more precise; the focal point is where
the rays converge.
r
• the focal length is half the radius of curvature: f =
2

• For a convex mirror, the image is always virtual, upright, and smaller.

9
Spherical Mirror Images
• We use ray diagrams to determine where an image will be. For mirrors, we use
three key rays, all of which begin on the object:
1. A ray parallel to the axis; after reflection it passes through the focal point
2. A ray through the focal point; after reflection it is parallel to the axis
3. A ray perpendicular to the mirror; it reflects back on itself

• Geometrically, we can derive an equation that relates the object distance, image
distance, and focal length of the mirror:

10
 • We can also find the magnification (ratio of image height to object height).

• The negative sign indicates that the image is inverted. This object is between the
center of curvature and the focal point, and its image is larger, inverted, and real.

Refraction of Light
• Bending of light; or refraction occurs when light changes direction as it passes
from one media to another. The change in direction is due to the fact that the
speed of light varies with different media.
• The amount of refraction depends on the properties of the two media and on the
angle at which the light strikes the boundary.

Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Snell’s Law of Refraction

• Angle of incidence (θ 1 ) – angle at which the light ray strikes the surface
measured from the normal to the surface

• Angle of refraction (θ 2 ) – angle at which the transmitted light leaves the surface

n 1 sin θ 1 = n 2 sin θ 2

11
 Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• Index of refraction (n) – a constant that depends on the substance, not the angles
c
For a specific medium, n = ; where v is the speed of light in the medium
v

• A higher index of refraction for a media indicates a slower speed of light in that
media.

• When light travels from a media with a lower index of refraction to one with a
higher index of refraction the light beam bends toward the normal to the surface.

• When light travels from a media with a high index of refraction to one with a lower
index of refraction, it bends away from the normal.

12
Total Internal Reflection

• When light strikes a transparent boundary, even though much of the light is
transmitted, some is reflected.

• Light speeds up and bends away from the normal when it enters a region of lower
index of refraction. At a certain angle of incidence known as the critical angle, θ c ,
the refracted light ray lies along the boundary of the two media.

• Total internal reflection occurs when light traveling from a region of a higher
index of refraction to a region of a lower index of refraction strikes the boundary
at an angle greater than the critical angle.

n2
• Critical angle for total internal reflection: sin θ c =
n1

• The sine of the critical angle for total internal reflection is equal to the index of
refraction of the refracting medium divided by the index of refraction of the
incident medium.

13
 Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Lenses

• Lenses transmit light

• Parallel rays are brought to a focus by a converging lens (one that is thicker in the
center than it is at the edge).

• A diverging lens (thicker at the edge than in the center) make parallel light diverge;
the focal point is that point where the diverging rays would converge if projected
back.

Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc. Inc.
Converging Lens Diverging Lens

• Ray tracing for thin lenses is similar to that for mirrors. We have three key rays:

1. This ray comes in parallel to the axis and exits through the focal point.

2. This ray comes in through the focal point and exits parallel to the axis.

14
 3. This ray goes through the center of the lens and is undeflected.

• The thin lens equation is the same as the mirror equation:

• The sign conventions are slightly different:

1. The focal length is positive for converging lenses and negative for
diverging.

2. The object distance is positive when the object is on the same side as the
light entering the lens (not an issue except in compound systems); otherwise
it is negative.

3. The image distance is positive if the image is on the opposite side from the
light entering the lens; otherwise it is negative.

4. The height of the image is positive if the image is upright and negative
otherwise.

• The magnification formula is also the same as that for a mirror:

Applications

15
 • Lenses are used to correct vision problems (focus light onto retina)

Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• Used in cameras, binoculars, telescopes, video cameras, etc.

Magnify the image on film, CCD, retina

Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

16
 Wave Model of Refraction

• When light crosses a boundary between media, its frequency does not change. In
looking at the wave equation λ = v/f , we see that if the speed changes, then the
wavelength must change too.
• The figure below shows a beam of light as made up of a series of parallel straight
wave fronts. Each wave front represents the crest of a wave and is perpendicular
n1)
to the direction of the beam.
• Light slows down and bends toward the normal when it enters a region of higher
index of refraction

Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Dispersion of Light

• White light is made up of colors, and each color of light is associated with its own
wavelength and frequency. When light passes through a glass prism, the different
colors of light are refracted at slightly different angles and the light is separated
into a spectrum of colors.
• This phenomenon is called dispersion.

Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Transmission of Light
• Light strikes a surface and causes the electrons to vibrate

17
 • If the object is transparent, then the vibrations of the electrons are passed on to
neighboring atoms through the bulk of the material and reemitted on the opposite
side of the object.
• Frequencies that make it through are said to be transmitted
• Color is in the light which shines upon an object and is ultimately reflected or
transmitted to our eyes
Absorption of Light
• Opaque objects absorb light without reemission
• Vibrations of the light are transferred to the atoms and molecules and turned into
random kinetic energy (increasing the internal energy and temperature)
Photoelectric Effect (light as a particle)
• Suggests that light interacts with matter as a stream of particle-like photons
• Photons are massless bundles of concentrated electromagnetic energy
• Photons can eject electrons from certain metals when light is incident upon it
(Photelectric Effect)
• 1 photon is absorbed by each electron
• Only high frequency photons have the energy needed to eject an electron
• Light behaves like a wave when it travels in empty space and like a particle when
it interacts with solid matter
Students should have an understanding of the two kinds of waves that exist in nature:
longitudinal (compression) and transverse waves. They should be able to identify the
characteristics of each wave and how they differ,
Wavelength (λ) – The distance between successive identical parts of a periodic wave,
measured in meters (m)
Frequency (f ) – The number of cycles per second, measured in Hertz (Hz)
Amplitude (A) – The maximum displacement from equilibrium, measured in meters
Students should be familiar with the relationship between the speed of a wave and its
wavelength and frequency.
v=λ⋅ f
Students should also know that all waves transport energy, and that mechanical waves
(like sound waves) require a medium in order to transmit their energy.
Electromagnetic waves (also called electromagnetic radiation) are special in the fact that
they can transmit energy and information through a medium or in a vacuum.
Electromagnetic waves (EM) are transverse waves produced by the vibration of charged
particles. Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves because amplitude is
perpendicular to the direction of travel. However, EM waves are waves of fields, not of
matter. Because they are fields, EM waves can propagate in empty space.

Like all waves, EM waves have wavelength, frequency, amplitude and speed.

18
All EM waves travel at the same speed which is commonly referred to as the speed of
light. The speed of light in a vacuum is a very important and universal value that has its
own special symbol (c).
c = 299,792,458 m/s (c = 3 x 108 m/s for most calculations)

Because the speed of all EM waves is the same, an increase in frequency produces a
proportional decrease in the wavelength of light. Thus, the relationship between the
wavelength of light and its frequency in inversely proportional and can be illustrated by a
simple equation:
c=λ⋅ f -or - f =c/λ
EM waves exist with an enormous range of frequencies. This continuous range of
frequencies is known as the electromagnetic spectrum.

The electromagnetic spectrum includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared light,

ultraviolet light, x-rays and gamma rays. Take a tour of the spectrum here!

• Visible light makes up a very small portion of the spectrum which is located
between infrared and ultraviolet light.
• Visible light is made up of a continuous range of colors
• Each color of light is associated with its own wavelength and frequency.
• The lowest frequency (longest wavelength) of light that we can see appears red (f
= 4 x 1014 Hz).
• The highest visible frequencies of light (shortest wavelength) are about twice the
frequency of red, and appear violet ( f = 7.5 x 1014 Hz).

19
 The visible spectrum

FYI: What happened to Roy’s I?

The sequence of colors red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet may be remembered
by memorizing the name of that fine fellow "ROY G. BV". This was originally "ROY G.
BIV", because it used to be common to call the region between blue and violet "indigo".
In modern usage, indigo is not usually distinguished as a separate color in the visible
spectrum; thus Roy no longer has any vowels in his last name.
Taken from http://www.fhsu.edu/biology/ranpers/ert/spectrum.htm

• Energy is stored in EM waves.

• The energy is directly proportional to its frequency.
• High-frequency EM waves have a short wavelength and high energy.
• Low-frequency waves have a long wavelength and low energy.

20
Terms and Concepts
Visible light Reflection Snell’s Law

Luminous source Diffuse Reflection Angle of refraction

Illuminated source Specular Reflection Index of Refraction

Opaque Law of Reflection Refraction

Transparent Angle of incidence Refracted wave

Translucent Angle of reflection Lens

Transmission Normal Object

Absorption Incident wave Image

Ray diagram Reflected wave Virtual

Critical Angle Plane mirror Real

Total Internal Reflection Speed of light Magnification

Wavelength Focal point

Frequency

Electromagnetic wave Infrared Electromagnetic spectrum

Frequency Visible light Electromagnetic radiation

Wavelength Ultraviolet
Energy Gamma rays

Speed of light X-rays

Radio waves Speed of light

Microwaves Sound waves

Back to contents

21
Instructional Resources
http://coolcosmos.ipac.caltech.edu/

Websites
http://coolcosmos.ipac.caltech.edu/
cool cosmos all things electromagnetic Herschel, Ritter

http://sol.sci.uop.edu/~jfalward/refraction/refraction.html
cool applets and images for refraction

http://www.lbl.gov/MicroWorlds/ALSTool/
more advanced info on EM radiation research (ALS facility)

http://science.hq.nasa.gov/kids/imagers/ems/index.html
take a self guided tour of EM Spectrum

http://www.lbl.gov/MicroWorlds/ALSTool/EMSpec/EMSpec2.html
em spectrum with questions and some def links

http://science.hq.nasa.gov/kids/imagers/ems/index.html
Interactive worksheet

http://science.hq.nasa.gov/kids/imagers/ems/infrared.html
infrared and other pics

http://xrtpub.harvard.edu/edu/
Chandra stuff

http://www.ipac.caltech.edu/Outreach/Edu/Herschel/backyard.html
Herschel backyard w/ pics

http://solar.physics.montana.edu/angela/herschel.pdf
http://www.sciencenetlinks.com/lessons.php?DocID=421
higher level herscher exp write-up

http://coolcosmos.ipac.caltech.edu/cosmic_classroom/classroom_activities/herschel_expe
riment.html
Herschel, ritter and lots of resources

http://physci.kennesaw.edu/javamirror/ipmj/java/totintrefl/index.html
interactive internal reflection

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/gamma/spec_flash.html

22
self guided tour of EM spectrum

http://science.hq.nasa.gov/kids/imagers/ems/ems.html
EM spectrum graphic and explanation

http://www.sciencenetlinks.com/lessons.php?DocID=421
Herschel exp. home sheet w/lots of background!!!

http://www.sciencenetlinks.com/messenger/lessons/herschel/herschel-act1.pdf
Herschel exp. worksheet
http://school.discoveryeducation.com/lessonplans/programs/colorspectrum/

with good follow up questions

http://nanosense.org/activities/cleanenergy/solarcellanimation.html
http://nanosense.org/activities/cleanenergy/index.html#copy

solar cell animations

http://www.infinitepower.org/lessonplans.htm

http://school.discoveryeducation.com/lessonplans/programs/savagesun/

http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/education/lessonplans/topic.cfm/topic_id=9
solar energy activities

http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/education/lessonplans/pdfs/solar_renewenergyphotovoltaics.
pdf

http://www.exo.net/~pauld/activities/physics/solarcellf/solarcell.html
solar cell activities

http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/12961080/

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/08/080811092450.htm

http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/05/060525-invisibile.html
invisibility cloak articles

23
Activity # 1 – Intro to Particle Model of Light (Teacher Demo)
(Foundational & Capstone)
Questions to be investigated
• What is light?

Objectives
• Get students to think about their observations and experiences with light
Materials
• Mini Maglite (if available)
• Flashlight
• pen laser
• Mask w/slit for flashlight
• Paper (different colors)
• Filters or sections of colored plastic report folders
• Chalkboard eraser/spray bottle/humidifier (or for the really creative, the Drama
fog machine)

Safety Concerns
• Use caution when direction laser beam

Real-World Connections
• Special effects
• Fusion research
• Optical instruments

Teacher Notes
• Follow the guided instructions

Procedure/Description of Lesson
• Teacher guided demonstration to get students thinking about light.
• See instructions below.
Assessment Ideas:
• Worksheet 1a – see below
• Reading assignment – Students read for homework and summarize the next day in
class
• Investigation/Writing Activity
o Have students go home and observe/investigate various examples of light
at home. Have the students draw their observations and summarize them
in writing.

24
Properties of Light (teacher-directed demo)

Pre-demo discussion

Begin the unit by asking the question, "WHAT IS LIGHT?" (If students have
already studied electricity and magnetism, they should be reminded that light, along with
microwaves, x-rays, and other electromagnetic radiation, is produced by the acceleration
of charges. Nevertheless, they should still participate in the sequence prescribed here.)
In order to help students focus on the question, have the students imagine that they are
answering this question to a blind person 1, someone who has never experienced sight.
Some responses may include:
• Light has color
• Light is the opposite of dark
• Light helps you to see
• Light is like a wave or sound
• Light can be detected
• Light can bounce off objects
• Light travels (in straight lines)
• Light heats up objects; it is warm on your face.

Soon though, students begin to see that they are addressing not what light is as
much as what are some characteristics or properties of light. Ask the students, what can
we imagine that light is that will lead to the characteristics of light that you have
observed? To assist them, shine a laser on a mirror, pointing out the reflection. Toss a
ball against the wall and ask them if this suggests a model that might explain the behavior
of light. This should lead to the proposal of light as a particle. Suggest that they are
going to examine light behaviors and evaluate the success of the particle model.

Demo Notes

Start with the question, “How do we see?" In a darkened room, aim a laser (or
flashlight) to the side so that it is absorbed into a box. Ask them if they can see the laser
light. Ask them who collectively can see the light. Aim the laser at a side wall and ask
how they are able to see the laser light. Finally, pat chalk dust (or use the mist from an
ultrasonic vaporizer) into the beam and ask why they can now see the beam. Draw
attention to the straight line travel of the beam. Additionally, or as an alternative, if you
can make the room light tight, discuss whether students should be able to identify objects
in the room without the lights on. Finish with a demonstration showing that non-
luminous objects can’t be seen unless light reflects off of them.

1 J Nelson, Phys. Teach., Vol. 24, No. 6, September 1986 Pages 346 - 346

25
Post-Demo discussion

Having demonstrated several behaviors of light using the laser, ask the question:
"How can we model these behaviors?" The selection of a particle model – even though
the particle itself is not observable – is not arbitrary. Students who have completed
mechanics will have a wealth of knowledge about particle behavior to build upon. The
choice of a particle model is thus justified as a reasonable extension of a familiar model
to new behaviors. An analogy can be drawn to show how light can be a stream of
particles--much like many water droplets become indistinguishable if they travel fast
enough to produce a stream, many light particles are traveling fast enough to produce a
stream of light.

Based on these discussions, students should note that

1. light travels in straight lines,
2. light acts as a continuous stream of particles, and
3. multiple rays of light come off of each point on a source in many directions,
whether that source is luminous or non-luminous.

Worksheet 1a: Light Sources should be assigned following the demo to reinforce
ideas introduced in the Properties of light demonstration.

26
Name Date Pd

Particle Model of Light - Worksheet 1a: Light Sources

1. a. What is the shape of the path that light takes? What evidence do you have for your
answer?

b. How can you accurately draw the path of light in your diagrams?

2. a. Does light move? What evidence do you have for your answer?

b. How can you show the direction of light in your diagrams?

3. In a darkened room, a lit light bulb is enclosed in a box that has a hole in one side.
a. Can any of the eyes not see the light coming from the portion of the bulb
marked with a dot? Explain.

b. Accurately draw the path of the light to each eye that would be able to see light
coming from the dot on the bulb.

A
B C

c. Considering all the other locations for eyes that could see the light from the dot
on the bulb, what can you conclude about the number of rays of light coming from the
dot?

d. If the light bulb were turned off, would any of the eyes be able to see the dot on
the bulb? Explain.

27
4. The three eye locations pictured can see a bug.
a. Use the given light rays to locate the position of the bug.
b. Add several light rays from the source that would be needed in order to see the bug.

5. At a concert, a performer is lit with spotlights in the ceiling.

ceiling

audience stage

a. Draw light rays to indicate how an audience member can see all of the performer’s
body.

b. What can you conclude about the number of rays of light coming from the source?

c. Can the audience member see the light source? Why or why not?

d. Can the performer on the stage see the light source? Why or why not?

e. Unless there is fog in the air, it is not possible to see the beam of light from the source
to the performer. Explain why.

28
29
30
 Particle Model of Light Reading 1:
The Nature of Light and Seeing

In order to see something, light must enter your eye. A laser battle in a dark room
would be completely black unless the laser light hit you in the eye. A laser beam is only
seen when the light bounces from particles in the air to your eye. You can show this with
a laser or flashlight by placing smoke or dust in the beam so that the light can scatter off
the particles and back to your eye. In the vacuum of space there are no scattering
particles, so how do you see laser blasts in movies like Star Wars? These are special
effects, not reality. In the original Star Wars movies, they actually painted the red marks
directly on the film after the scenes had been shot. A real laser battle in space would be
much less exciting.

In order to see an object, light from every point on that object must enter your
eye, and there must be enough light to cause an electrochemical reaction on the retina in
back of your eye. As you look at the night sky, there are countless distant galaxies
sending light to your eye, yet you cannot see them because not enough light enters your
eye for your retina to respond.

In general, an object is seen at the point from which light

rays diverge. (fig. 1) Our brains have been trained by
experience to believe that the light has traveled from the
object to the eye in a straight line. In order to grab the
light bulb, we reach in the direction that the light came
from. Viewing the object from two slightly different
directions allows us to determine the distance to the
object, because the intersection of the light rays occurs only at their source.

In the second case, (fig. 2) an unknown

something such as a mirror, a lens, or a bottle of water,
bent the diverging rays from the object and redirected
them to the observer. The brain does not perceive the
fact that the light changed direction while traveling
from the object to the eye. The eye “sees” the object
directly ahead. The apparent lamp is called an image,
and because there is actually no light actually coming from that place, it is called a
virtual image.

In the third case, (fig. 3) an unknown

something bends the rays so that they converge and
then diverge from a point in space between your eye
and the bending object. The observer, using the
same rules to locate things as before, will see an
image of the lamp much closer. There is no actual

31
lamp at that location, so this is again an image. Since light actually does diverge from the
image point, the observer sees a real image.

In the previous example, the observer has

to be in the cone of rays diverging from the
image point in order to see the real image. If a
screen is placed at the image point, (fig. 4) rays
will be scattered in all directions so that many
observers can see the same image. An example
of a device that creates a real image is the movie
projector in a theater.

If something is placed in front of the object that scatters the light, such as a frosted
glass, your eye will detect the light, but it will not see an image. The light from one
point on the object reaches
your eye from many directions,
and in order to form an image,
the light from one point on the
object would have to appear to
come from one place. In
addition, light from all other
points on the object will also
reach your eye in a random
fashion.

When we see most objects, we see them by reflected light. Light originates from
the sun or a light bulb and then bounces off the object and into our eye. A more complete
picture of what is happening would include the original source of light.

Back to contents

32
Activity #2 – Shadow Lab (Foundational)
Questions to be investigated
• Why does a shadow form?
• How is the shadow different from the object?

Objectives
• Define a shadow in terms of the particle model of light.
• Use a ray diagram to explain shadow formation.

Materials
• Point light source
• Object
• Screen

Safety Concerns
• Depending on the point light source it may become very hot

Real-World Connections
• Animation
• Movie projection
• Design (architectural, material, etc.)

Teacher Notes
• Students should summarize their results in a table to refer back to after the activity

Procedure/Description of Lesson
• Students will investigate shadow formation changing factors such as distance,
angle, etc.

Using a bright point source and any opaque object cast a shadow on an
overhead screen. Ask students to briefly explain why a shadow forms and to
describe how the shadow differs from the actual object. Ask students to articulate
a definition of a shadow in terms of a particle model of light.

Since ray diagrams will be employed as representational tools throughout

the Models of Light unit, it will be important to develop a clear understanding of
the components used these diagrams. A "ray" is defined as a representation of the
path traveled by a portion of light from a source. The "spray paint nozzle"
analogy might be useful in describing shadows cast by a point source and includes
the notion of particles in it.

33
 Ray diagrams are two dimensional representations of three dimensional
phenomena, so in this respect they only communicate part of what is happening in
any given situation. There are other shortcomings of ray diagrams as
representational tools (they are not capable of including an infinite number of
rays, for example), and it is beneficial for students to spend time identifying and
articulating these shortcomings as new light phenomena are encountered. Despite
these shortcomings, thinking carefully about when and how ray diagrams are used
can vastly improve their usefulness to students as tools for understanding the
nature of light.

Arrows should be included on all rays indicating the direction of travel of

the light. In the diagram below, use of arrows reinforces the idea that light begins
at a source and travels in straight lines until interacting with materials it
encounters along these straight line paths.

fig 2

Lab Performance Notes

The students should focus on two tasks: exploring shadow behavior and
representing shadows with ray diagrams. With the materials at their lab table,
students should explore how to change the size and shape of the shadow and
record each observation with a ray diagram and an explanation. Remind students
that their ray diagrams should include as many rays as is practical for each
situation. Developing this habit early in the use of ray diagrams can help students
to adequately address common misconceptions encountered later in geometric
optics. Simulation software from Constructing Physics for Understanding (CPU)
may be used to check what is seen in the lab. For information on CPU see
http://www.learningteam.org.

Students should extend their study of shadows by looking at shadows produced by

multiple point sources or by extended light sources. A ray diagram should be
drawn and described for each new situation. Bridging from a few point sources to
a large number of point sources placed in a closely spaced line allows students to
more clearly predict and see the effect of using an extended source.

Post-Lab Discussion

It is important that students use point sources while working through this
lab in order to start to develop the idea that shadows (and later images) become

34
 fuzzy when extended sources are used. The concept of the fuzzy shadows
produced by extended sources or fuzzy reproductions produced by large aperture
pinholes can be explained as follows:

In the case of shadows, a single point source will produce a sharp shadow.
Two point sources will produce two shadows; usually the two shadows will
partially overlap to produce two different shadow "intensities." As the number of
point sources increases, more shadows are produced and varying degrees of
shadow overlapping occurs. These shadows overlap in a manner dependent on
the distribution of the point sources. An extended light source acts as a collection
of an infinite number of point sources of light and will therefore produce an
infinite number of partially overlapping shadows--the overlapping pattern might
be called the "circle of confusion"--it destroys the clarity of the shadow produced.
This leads into the definition of umbra and penumbra. The class might well enjoy
an examination of lunar and solar eclipses at this point. Those who attempt this
should be prepared for students to initially have surprising misconceptions about
eclipses.

The shadows cast in each situation are the result of several characteristics
of light. First, and most obvious, is the fact that light does not travel through all
materials. Secondly, light must travel in straight lines if the source, object, and
shadow are to align the way they do. This can be emphasized through the use of
ray diagrams.

Students apply their observations to Worksheet 1b: Shadows. Note that

one question asks students to use ray diagrams to represent the shadows observed
when light passes through two slits. Later, when students are asked to predict the
pattern of light produced by passing a laser through two narrow, closely spaced
slits in the interference lab, recalling this question will help to create the desired
dissonance to motivate further study of the cause of the interference pattern.

Assessment Ideas:
• Worksheet 1B (attached)
• Writing Prompts
o Explain why your shadow is the shortest in the afternoon. Draw a diagram
to support your explanation.
o Draw what you think happens during a lunar and solar eclipse.

35
 Shadow Lab
Prelab Questions
1. Why does a shadow form?
2. How is the shadow different from the object?
3. Define a shadow in terms of the particle model of light.
4. Use a ray diagram to explain shadow formation. Top views are best.

Purpose: Explore how the size, shape, clarity and degree of darkness of the shadow
changes and record observations with a ray diagram. Explore how shadows change with 2
point sources or multiple point sources.

1. Object moves further from source

2. Source moves closer to object.
3. Screen moves further from object.
4. Source moves from the table to a higher location.
5. Source changes from one point to two points.
6. 2 point sources move further apart.
7. Object moves to the right.
8. Source changes to a light bulb.

36
Name Date Pd

Particle Model of Light Worksheet 1b:

Shadows & Illumination
1. All of the diagrams in this section show light bulbs and cards seen from above. For
each arrangement, draw a number of rays from the source and shade in the shadow
cast by the card onto the tabletop.

2. Draw a number of rays from the source and shade in the shadow region that results
when the light bulb is moved to the right. How does the shadow move when the
source is moved to the side?

3. Draw a number of rays from the source and shade in the shadow region that results
when the card is moved closer to the light bulb. What happens to the size of the
shadow? What happens to the number of light rays striking the card?

37
4. Draw a number of rays from the source and shade in the shadow region that results
when multiple cards are used.

5. Draw a number of rays from each source and shade in the shadow region that results
when two bulbs are turned on. Indicate the total and partial shadow regions. (Umbra
and penumbra.)

A B
6. Draw a number of rays from each source and shade in the shadow region that results
when the two bulbs are more widely separated. Indicate the total and partial shadow
regions.

A B

7. An extended light source, like a fluorescent bulb, can be thought of as a series of point
sources. Draw a number of rays from each source and determine the appearance of the
shadow region.

A B C D E F

38
39
40
Activity # 3 – Reflection in a Plane Mirror (Foundational)

Questions to be investigated
• How does light bounce off surfaces?
• Why do we see images where we do?

Objectives
Student will be able to:
• explain the law of reflection
• draw ray diagrams for plane mirrors
• describe the properties of the image formed by a flat mirror
Materials
• Flat mirror
• Paper
• MIRA™ Math Geometry Tool
• Laser pointer
• Protractor/Ruler

Safety Concerns
• Do not allow students to look into laser pointer
• Mirrors will break easily if dropped

Real-World Connections
• Animation/movies (blue screen)
• Safety (automobiles, etc)
• Security

Teacher Notes
• Mirrors of various size will allow more things for students to observe/note
• Consider using a full length mirror as an extension for post lab activity
• If the MIRA™ Math Geometry Tools are not available consider using CD cases
covered with reflective film (available from hardware stores)
• Consider using graph paper for the activity if wanting students to make more
accurate ray diagrams

Procedure/Description of Lesson
Pre-lab Discussion

A possible introduction for this activity would be to give students small

mirrors, and have them “pass” several laser beams around a darkened room, being

41
 careful not to shine the beams into eyes. No conclusions are required at this time,
but the experience provides familiarity with reflection.
The teacher should reflect a laser beam off a small mirror lying flat on a
table. Point out the reflected spot on a wall and ask what you could do to raise or
lower the spot. Students should realize that changing the angle of incidence
would move the spot.

Image extension: Hold up a mirror to the class and ask them to describe what they
see. Ask to identify the object (the class) and the image (what they see in the
mirror.) Ask them how they could locate the position of an object. If they do not
refer to divergent light rays, they should re-read the paper on the nature of light
and seeing. Next, ask how they might locate an image position. The idea of
diverging rays should be drawn from the students. This lab will require some
individual monitoring by the instructor.

Lab performance notes

There are labs available using mirrors and pins to explore reflection;
however, with the availability of inexpensive laser pointers, a more direct
approach is advised. Students may measure the angles with respect to the surface.
The conventional measurement with respect to the normal can be introduced
during the post lab and justified as convention.

Give each group a laser pointer, mirror, and protractor have them find a
relationship between the incident and reflected angle. Even at this preliminary
stage one should insist that solid lines should be used to represent real light:
dashed lines should be used to represent projected (or virtual) rays.

The image portion of this lab, while important, is not critical to the development
of the model and may be omitted without harm to the concept flow. A major
misconception, which should be addressed through the lab, is that images reside
on the surface of the mirror.

On a sheet of paper, use a marking pen to draw a simple, 2 cm high character

(such as the letter “R”) which can be readily interpreted for “up and down”
reversal and “left/right” reversal. Position the character several centimeters from
the mirror; place the paper in such a way that the image of the character can be
seen to fall on the paper on the far
side of the mirror. The location of
the mirror should be marked on the
paper for reference. If the student
has located the image on the surface
of the mirror, ask him to cover the
“image” with a small piece of
masking tape, then move his head to
a new position, and see if the tape

42
 still covers the “image”. Remind the student that images have unique positions
and ask if the “image” on the mirror surface behaves like it has a unique position.
The students should then carefully trace the virtual image of the character.
Students should be encouraged to make quantitative measurements of the distance
from the object to the mirror and the image to the mirror.

It is critical that the "mirror" be partially transparent so that the student

can clearly see their pen mark the image position. While it may seem awkward to
label the angles of incidence and reflection with respect to the normal rather than
the surface, the reason will become clear when curved mirrors are considered.
The whiteboard discussion should emphasize the fact that the image is not on the
mirror, but appears to form behind the mirror. We perceive a virtual image
because rays of light diverge as if they were coming from the image position
behind the mirror.

A laser can be aimed through the mirror toward the image, resulting in a
reflected beam on the corresponding point of the object. This provides
convincing evidence of why we see the image of the object where we do. The
teacher must highlight that although the light from the laser penetrates the mirror
surface, it follows the same path that a virtual light beam would. This will
facilitate later discussion of why the image is seen where it is by the observer.

With the laser in the angled

position, it is simple to collect
measurements of the angle of
incidence and the angle of reflection.
The path of the light beam can be
traced right on the paper and
measurements made with a protractor.

Post-lab discussion

Key points to emphasize include:

• The angle of incidence always equals the angle of reflection. This is true
for rough as well as smooth surfaces (this leads to a useful discussion of why
mirrors must be relatively smooth.)
• The angle of incidence and angle of reflection are measured from the normal,
not the surface.
• For every point on the source, there is a corresponding point on the image,
and these corresponding points are exactly as far from the mirror as the source.

If the laser is thought of as the eye of the observer, it can be shown why
the image is seen where it is. The essence of seeing (as underscored in the
reading on “The Nature of Light and Seeing”) is that we have learned to locate an

43
 object by finding where light rays converge to a point. If those rays appear to
converge “behind the mirror”, as is the case here, then we will “locate” the image
behind the mirror. Since the rays that reach our eye really do not come from a
spot behind the mirror, this image is called virtual.

fig 11

Post-lab extension

1. Outline your face on a vertical mirror attached to the wall (dry-erase

marker works well) when your face is two hand lengths away from the mirror.
Then step back away from the mirror as far as you can. Notice how much of your
face is now visible in the outlined area - can you see more, less, or the same
amount of face? Draw a ray diagram that explains your results.

Assessment Ideas:
• See following pages for worksheets
• Writing prompts
o What are some real world uses of reflection?
o Research the historical uses of plane mirrors.

Extensions (advanced)
o What do you think would happen if the mirror was curved instead of flat?
Have you seen these types of mirrors in the “real world”?
o What do you think is happening when you look at yourself in a
“funhouse” mirror? Draw a diagram to support your explanation.

44
Name: Date: Period:

Mirror Investigation
Assume that you are standing 2 meters from and directly in front of a mirror and see a
reflection of yourself (an image). Answer the following questions.
1. Exactly where is the image? Please don’t say in your eye!

2. If you want to see more of yourself in the mirror, what should you do?

3. If you move toward the mirror, does the image change size or position or both?

4. Someone is standing near you and looking toward the mirror and also sees your
image. Will they see your image in the same place as you see it or in a different
place?

5. Are the images from the mirror 2 or 3 dimensional?

• Use a plane sheet of paper and place the red or grey transparent screen in
the center.
• Draw a line on the paper to keep track of its position.
• Use a marking pen to draw a 2 cm. letter “R” several centimeters on the
observer’s side of the screen.
• Look into the screen until you find an image.
• On your paper record the specific location of the entire image.
• Make measurements of the distance from the object to the mirror and the
image to the mirror. Compare the size of the image to the size of the
object.
• Draw a second letter in a different location with respect to the screen and
repeat your observations.
• Finally place a letter in a location to the left or right of the screen and find
its image.

State in words the location of an image with respect to the

plane of a mirror. Your statement should force a person to
place the image in its exact location.

Use the results of your observations to describe the

properties of the image formed by a flat mirror,
R

45
 • Point a laser through the screen toward the image.
• On your paper draw the light rays you observe.
• The ray from the laser to the screen is called the reflected
ray. The laser is in the position of an observer who could
receive that ray. Draw an eye on your paper in the
position of the laser.
• The ray from the object to the screen is called the incident
ray.
• A line perpendicular to the screen at the point of R
intersection between the incident and reflected rays is
called the normal. Draw it on your diagram.
• Two angles are now formed with the light rays and the
normal. These are called the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection.
Identify these angles and use a protractor to measure them.
• What is the relationship between the angle of incidence and the angle of
reflection?

Outline your face on a vertical mirror attached to the wall (dry-erase marker works well)
when your face is two hand lengths away from the mirror. Then step back away from the
mirror as far as you can. Notice how much of your face is now visible in the outlined
area - can you see more, less, or the same amount of face? Draw a ray diagram that
explains your results.

• On the diagram below an object is placed in a position in front of a mirror to

the left of its surface. Draw the location of its image.
• Draw a ray from the object incident to the mirror near the left edge.
• Use the law of reflection to accurately draw its reflected ray.
• Repeat with an incident ray near the right edge.
• Use your results to decide where observers need to be to see this image.

mirror

46
Name Date Pd

Particle Model of Light

Worksheet 4: Reflection & Plane Mirrors

1. a. Draw the reflected light ray(s) and position the observer’s eye where it can see the
reflected ray.
laser po inter laser po inter

plane mirror paper

b. Explain why many observers can see the rays reflected from the paper.

c. Why should you not try this with a laser, a mirror and your eye?

2. A bulb is placed in front of a plane mirror.

a. Use a protractor to sketch six rays that travel from the bulb to the mirror and reflect.
Include eyes at positions that could see the reflected rays.
b. Extend the reflected rays with dotted lines behind the mirror to locate the virtual
image.
c. Measure and compare the image distance to the object distance.

47
 reflective side
of mirror
3. The ray diagram below shows where
observer #1 sees the virtual image of the bulb.
Show where, if at all, observer #2 sees the
virtual image.

4. The ray diagram below shows where

observer #1 sees the virtual image of the bulb.
Show where, if at all, observer #2 sees
the virtual image.

48
5. The diagram below shows where observer #1 sees the virtual image of the bulb.
Show where, if at all, observer #2 sees the virtual image.

6. A top view of a mirror and bulb is shown below. This time, an opaque screen is placed between the bulb
and the mirror. Does an image still form? If yes, show the location of the observer and the image. If no, explain
why not. In either case, use a ray diagram to support your argument.

Back to contents

49
7. A top view of a mirror and an arrow is shown below.
a. Locate and sketch the image of the arrow.
b. Position an observer’s eye where the whole image could be seen.
c. Draw a ray diagram that shows how light from both ends of the arrow reach the observer.

plane mi rror

8. How does the size of the smallest mirror you would need to see your entire body at one time compare to
your height? Make a ray diagram to prove it. Mr. Eye-foot represents a simplified body.

9. Would the length of the mirror needed to see your entire body change if you moved farther away from
the mirror? Draw a ray diagram to support your answer.

50
51
52
53
Activity #4 – Refraction Lab (Foundational & Capstone)
Questions to be investigated
• What happens when light particles penetrate the surface and enter into a new medium?
• What factors affect the way light behaves when entering a new material?
Objectives
Student will be able to:
• Explain optical effects caused by refraction
• Use the Particle Model and ray diagrams to explain the shift in the path of a light ray as it passes from
one medium to another.
• Explain the relationship between velocity, wavelength, and frequency of light in different media
Materials
• Pencil
• Clear cup/glass
• Water
• Bowl
• Light box and accessories
• Light box power supply
• Protractor, ruler,
Safety Concerns
• When using a light box they can become very hot
• Only have light on when students are taking measurement
• Make sure students connect light boxes to power supplies correctly
Real-World Connections
• Rainbows
• Mirages
• Optical instruments (glasses, telescopes, microscopes, cameras, etc)
Teacher Notes
• Have backup bulbs available for light boxes
• Tell students to not touch the bulbs since they can be very hot and oils from fingers can damage the bulb
• Use blocks/lenses of different materials (different indices of refraction) to get different results
• Consider using graph paper for more precise measurements
Procedure/Description of Lesson
Apparatus (pre-lab demo)
Light interaction demo apparatus (tank & laser pointer)
Clear and opaque cups, coin, pencil and water

Demo performance notes

54
 fig 16
Remind students that light can bounce off a boundary (reflect) or penetrate the second medium
(refract). We have already looked at the reflected light in great detail. Now we are ready to analyze the
bent light that has entered the new medium. Emphasize the fact that the laser beam bends only at the
boundary between the water and air.

Put the coin in the empty opaque cup. Have the students stand such that the coin is just out of
view below the rim of the cup. Pour water into the cup. The students, without moving, will now be able
to see the coin. Ask the students to explain why the coin became visible when the water was added to
the cup. Steer the explanations towards the bending of light at the boundary.

Now place the pencil at an angle in the clear cup. Slowly pour the water back into this cup. The
students will see the pencil appear to bend at the boundary between the water and air. Ask the students
to explain the apparent bending of the pencil at the water line. You may also wish to change the angle
the pencil makes with the water, even to the point of making the pencil vertical. At the end, remove the
pencil and demonstrate it is still perfectly straight and quite rigid.

Stress from the outset that refraction describes what happens when particles change media.
Some attempt should be made to associate the change of media with the change of speed. The particle
model can be used to predict speed changes. The prediction that results is in fact inaccurate – a simple
particle model predicts an increase rather than a decrease in speed when light moves from a vacuum to
another medium. Still, refraction should be linked with speed change and NOT – as students will want
to do – with the “bending of light.” If students link refraction with light bending, they will incorrectly
predict what happens when a ray of light enters a new medium along the normal.

Apparatus (for lab)

Low Tech
transparent semi-circular dish
different liquids for dish (optional)
laser pointer or light box

55
 radial graph paper
protractor

Pre-lab discussion

The students should now have a pretty good idea that light bends only at the boundary between
two different media. The demonstrations qualitatively show the bending and even the direction (toward
or away from the normal) of the bend. The paradigm lab will lead the students to quantitatively analyze
the bending and to a development of Snell’s Law

Performance notes

Some discussion of the shape of the dish used in this lab is important. Any incoming ray strikes
the flat side will be refracted in the new medium. If the incoming ray strikes the center of the flat side,
the light will travel radially through the material and exit normal to the curved boundary. Therefore, the
ray does not bend when it refracts at the 2nd interface. Thus by comparing the original direction of the
light to the direction it is traveling after exiting the material, we can see how much the light is bent at
one boundary between the material and the air.

La ser or
Light box

inciden t semi-cord

refracted semi-co rd

fig 17

Instruct the students to find a pattern for the refraction of light and ask what sort of data should
be taken. You may need to remind them to measure angles from the normal. Careful data collection is
essential in order to get Snell’s Law for this laboratory investigation. Make sure the students use a wide
range of incident angles, especially large angles.

If students plot incident angle vs. refracted angle, then the linearized graph will have a slope
equal to the index of refraction of the medium. For small angles, angle (i) will be approximately
proportional to the angle (r). This is due to the fact that for small angles. For larger incident angles it
will become obvious that a graph of θr vs. θi is not linear. Therefore students must collect data for large
angles to get the proper relationship.

56
 The students may also be led to measure and graph the length of the incident semi cord vs. the
length of the refracted semi cord. Although the measurement may seem artificial at first, the result is a
linear graph. Students can then relate the semi cords to their angles via sine, and Snell’s law follows
naturally. Having students to linearize their θr vs. θi graph as described in the post-lab discussion might
be less intuitive.

The use of various liquids will help show that the slope depends on the material and thus is a
property of the material. Liquids that work well include water, vegetable oil, Karo corn syrup, and
glycerin.

Post-lab discussion

Snell's law should be introduced as a generalization of the results obtained from the lab. Remind the
students that the angles are measured with respect to the normal, not the surface. By graphing the angle
of refraction vs the angle of incidence, the students come up with a nearly straight line that starts to bend
at about 50 degrees. You can suggest graphing the semi cord or you can ask them what kind of graph
starts out nearly straight and then bends over. Drawing a sine curve on the board and marking off the
range from 0 to 80 degrees produces a very similar curve to that found in lab. This "bending over" will
not be seen unless the student’s experiment includes angles larger than 55 degrees. A plot of sines gives
a better straight line. Ask the students to give the math model for this line. They should conclude that
the ratio of the sines is a constant. That constant is defined as the index of refraction. (n). By
convention, the index of refraction of a vacuum is 1, and that of air is nearly 1. Clearing fractions and
treating the index of refraction as the index of refraction over 1, (air's index of refraction) will lead to
Snell's law:

n1 sine angle1 = n2 sin angle2

How does our particle model account for refraction? As part of the post-lab discussion for the refraction
lab, a teacher can roll a ball across an elevated surface, down a short ramp, and across a table. When the
ball speeds up going down the ramp, its path bends toward the normal. The upper surface corresponds
to one media, the ramp to the interface between them, and the lower surface corresponds to the second
media. This demonstration indicates that Snell's law holds for particles and that the speed of light must
be larger in the material with the larger index of refraction. The teacher may wish to keep this
conclusion general or to derive Snell's law from the geometry of the ball’s path. Since the ramp faces
downward, the only force speeding up the ball is downward and the only change of speed will be
downward. Sketch the path of the ball along with velocity vectors for the upper and lower surface. The
component perpendicular to the interface is larger on the bottom surface, since the ball was going faster,
but the components of the velocities parallel to the interface are equal, since with low friction, there are
no forces along this direction and therefore no changes in velocity along these directions.

57
 upper surfac e
|
θi
_|_ Vu
interface
|
θR
lowe r surfac e
_|_
VL
fig 18

The ratio of the sines of the angles of incidence and reflection can be shown to equal the ratio of the
speeds. The launch speed is always the same, and the bottom speed is always the same so the ratio of
the sines is constant, the same result we found for light. This indicates that Snell's law also holds for
particles, and suggests a connection between the speed of a particle and the index of refraction.

Of course, light actually slows down when passing from air to glass, indicating a problem with
the particle model. Rather than addressing this issue now with the students, wait until the beginning of
the next unit where problems with the particle model for refraction will be a motivating factor for
establishing a new model of light.

Assessment Ideas:
• See following pages for worksheets
• Writing prompts
o Discuss the historical development of vision correction lenses
o Explain how the process of refraction can be used to benefit society
o Research the idea of a “cloaking device”. How do these devices work?

Name: Date: Period:

Introduction to Refraction

For all observations include diagrams that show what you observe.

Partially place a pencil at an angle in a glass of water. Describe the appearance of the pencil. For example,
does the pencil look straight? Does the submerged portion of the pencil appear magnified or smaller? How
does the pencil look when it is placed in the water perpendicular to the surface?

Place a coin in the bottom of an evaporating dish or bowl. Now move your head to the side until you reach a
position where the coin disappears behind the side of the dish. Have your lab partner slowly add water from a

58
beaker to the dish. What do you observe? Why does this happen? Draw a diagram that shows the light ray
coming to your eye from the coin both before and after the water is poured in.

Using one of the ray boxes, send a single ray of light through a rectangular block of plastic. With the use of a
sketch, describe the path of the ray as it (1) enters the block, (2) travels inside the block, and (3) as it leaves the
block.

Describe the path of the ray as it strikes the surface of the block along the normal to the surface.

Now send in three or five rays of light through the block at some angle with respect to the normal., Does the
block converge the rays? Diverge the rays? How does the block affect the rays?

Send three to five rays of light through the double convex plastic lens. Describe what happens to the light rays
as they pass through the block of plastic.

Send three to five rays of light through the double convex plastic lens with a different thickness. Describe what
happens to the light rays as they pass through the block of plastic. How is what happened with a different
thickness of plastic different?

59
Send three to five rays of light through the double concave plastic lens. Describe what happens to the light rays
as they pass through the block of plastic.

Define refraction and index of refraction.

60
 Name Date Pd

Particle Model of Light

Worksheet: Refraction

1. Accurately draw the path of the rays as they pass from the air into the water. Draw observer’s eyes in the
water that could see each ray. Water has an index of refraction of 1.33
light source

air

water

2. The light source is now under water. Accurately draw the path of the rays as they pass from the water
into the air. Draw observer’s eyes in the air that could see each ray.

air

light source
water

61
Qualitatively sketch the path of the light rays below as they enter and exit the glass blocks. It may be helpful to
draw the normal at each interface.
3. 4.

5. Quantitatively determine the direction of the 6. Find and draw the angle at which light will
refracted ray. leave the 45-45-90 triangular glass block in
water.
n water = 1.3 nglass = 1.5

36o air n=1.0

glass n=1.5

7. Quantitatively determine the direction of the 8. In a lab experiment where light passes from
refracted ray. air into a plastic block, the incident angle is
measured to be 25o and the refracted angle
40o is 21o. Find the index of refraction for the
block.
water n=1.3
glass n=1.5

62
9. a. Locate the position of the image of the underwater light source as seen by the eye.

b. If one of the light rays in the tank of water hits the surface at 35o as measured from the normal, at what
angle will it enter the air? (n water = 1.33)

c. Now suppose the incident angle in the water is 80o as measured from the normal. What is the refracted
angle? What problem arises?

d. Find the critical angle for the water-air interface (this is the incident angle that corresponds to the largest
possible refracted angle, 90˚).

63
64
65
66
Activity # 5 – Snell’s Law (Capstone)
Questions to be investigated
• What happens to light when it moves from one medium to another?
• What is the relationship between speed, wavelength, and frequency when light moves from one medium
to another?

Objectives
• Student will be able to:
o Explain Snell’s Law
o Calculate the angle of incidence, angle of refraction, or indices of refraction
o Draw ray diagrams involving refraction of light
Materials
• Push pins
• Semi-circular clear container
• Water
• Protractor/Ruler

Safety Concerns
• Make sure students don’t poke each other with the push pins!

Real-World Connections
• Optical instruments
o Glasses
o Cameras
o Telescopes, microscopes
Teacher Notes
• A video of the lab being done by a teacher can be found at the following web site:
http://www.bowlesphysics.com/plabs.htm
• Try using different materials in the container to measure various indices of refraction
• Similar lab can be done with a light box and accessories

Snell's law should be introduced as a generalization of the results obtained from the lab. Remind the
students that the angles are measured with respect to the normal, not the surface. By graphing the angle of
refraction vs. the angle of incidence, the students come up with a nearly straight line that starts to bend at
about 50 degrees. You can suggest graphing the semi cord or you can ask them what kind of graph starts
out nearly straight and then bends over. Drawing a sine curve on the board and marking off the range from
0 to 80 degrees produces a very similar curve to that found in lab. This "bending over" will not be seen
unless the student’s experiment includes angles larger than 55 degrees. A plot of sines gives a better
straight line. Ask the students to give the math model for this line. They should conclude that the ratio of
the sines is a constant. That constant is defined as the index of refraction. (n). By convention, the index of
refraction of a vacuum is 1, and that of air is nearly 1. Clearing fractions and treating the index of refraction
as the index of refraction over 1, (air's index of refraction) will lead to Snell's law:

67
 n1 sine angle1 = n2 sin angle2

How does our particle model account for refraction? As part of the post-lab discussion for the refraction
lab, a teacher can roll a ball across an elevated surface, down a short ramp, and across a table. When the
ball speeds up going down the ramp, its path bends toward the normal. The upper surface corresponds to
one media, the ramp to the interface between them, and the lower surface corresponds to the second media.
This demonstration indicates that Snell's law holds for particles and that the speed of light must be larger in
the material with the larger index of refraction. The teacher may wish to keep this conclusion general or to
derive Snell's law from the geometry of the ball’s path. Since the ramp faces downward, the only force
speeding up the ball is downward and the only change of speed will be downward. Sketch the path of the
ball along with velocity vectors for the upper and lower surface. The component perpendicular to the
interface is larger on the bottom surface, since the ball was going faster, but the components of the velocities
parallel to the interface are equal, since with low friction, there are no forces along this direction and
therefore no changes in velocity along these directions.

upper surfac e
|
θi
_|_ Vu
interface
|
θR
lowe r surfac e
_|_
VL
fig 18

The ratio of the sines of the angles of incidence and reflection can be shown to equal the ratio of the speeds.
The launch speed is always the same, and the bottom speed is always the same so the ratio of the sines is
constant, the same result we found for light. This indicates that Snell's law also holds for particles, and
suggests a connection between the speed of a particle and the index of refraction.

Of course, light actually slows down when passing from air to glass, indicating a problem with the
particle model. Rather than addressing this issue now with the students, wait until the beginning of the next
unit where problems with the particle model for refraction will be a motivating factor for establishing a new
model of light.
Procedure/Description of Lesson
Student will use a semi-circular container filled with water to compare the light waves. Using this data they can
discover Snell’s Law.

Assessment Ideas:
• See following pages for worksheets
• Give students an unknown substance and have them find the index of refraction.

• A rubric designed to grade a Snell’s Law lab activity

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 http://pals.sri.com/tasks/9-12/SnelLaw/rubric.html

• An investigation in which students use an inquiry approach to calculate the index of refraction. (College
level but could be modified - includes rubric)
http://sharepoint.islephysics.net/Shared%20Documents/ISLE%20Labs/Electromagnetism-Waves-
Light/LAB%2009%20REFRACTION.pdf

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Name _____________________Date____________Period_____

Snell’s Law Lab

Directions:

1. Place a base paper on a foam or cardboard base.

2. Fill the semicircular container with water. Use the base paper to place the container in a location to view
the pin from the curved side of the container through the water.
3. Place more pins so that they line up with the original pin as you view them through the water. Make
sure you get a pin next to the container on both sides of it.
4. Draw in the lines formed by the pins (the path that light takes to your eye) and measure the angle formed
with a line perpendicular (normal) to the container as it travels to the container and through the
container.
5. Repeat sighting the lights path from 4 other angles.

These angles are called the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction. Record these angles in the table
below. Calculate the sines of these angles and the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the
angle of refraction.

• What conclusions can you make about the path of light as it passes from air into water?

70
• What patterns do you see in your data?

• What is true about the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction?

• Use your conclusion to predict the refracted angle if the incident angle is 20 degrees.

• Research the index of refraction and explain how it relates to this lab.

• Use your index of refraction to find the speed of light in water.

• Try to explain why the path of light remains in a straight line as it exits the container on the curved side.
(Hint: draw a line normal to the surface at the point a light ray exits the container.)

• Look up Snell’s Law and explain how you must modify your lab results for a complete equation.

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 Name Date Pd

Quiz: Refraction
1. Qualitatively but carefully draw how the light ray would behave inside the block and how it would emerge
from the opposite side of the block.

air,
n = 1.0

glass,
n = 1.5

2. For the block above, if the incident angle is 35 degrees from the normal, calculate the refracted angle inside
the block.

3. Two light rays begin from within a glass block.

a. Qualitatively draw the path the ray on the left would take.
b. For the ray on the left, qualitatively draw and label two different paths assuming
(i) an incident angle greater than the critical angle
(ii) an incident angle less than the critical angle.

air

glass

72
73
Activity #6 – Geometric Optics (Capstone)
Questions to be investigated
• What happens to light when it strikes a lens?
• What are the properties of the image produced by a lens?

Objectives
• Student will be able to:
• Draw ray diagrams for lenses
• Calculate the following using the thin lens equation:
Object height, object distance
Image height, object distance
Focal point, radius of curvature
Magnification

Materials
• Internet access
• Student worksheet

Safety Concerns
• None

Real-World Connections
• Optical instruments

Teacher Notes
The study of lenses is a not essential to the development of the particle model of light, but it is a
robust application of the particle model that richly revisits image formation. Exploration of lens
behavior can follow the same steps and procedures outlined in the sections pertaining to curved mirrors.
Once the students begin seeing the similarities between curved mirrors and lenses, they can generally
progress quickly through the study of lenses. Also, it is possible to study lenses and skip curved mirrors,
or vice versa.

Students should be given a thin lens and a small light source. Discuss how to find the focal
length of a lens. Any parallel light source will do, demonstration “light boxes” are excellent, but the sun
will also work (if you use the sun, be sure to supervise the students to prevent burns). Having
determined the focal length, have the students move the light source next to the lens and locate and
describe the image. They should include remarks about type, position, orientation, and size of the
images. Make sure students are observing on the side of the lens opposite the light. Have them move
the light away from the lens and describe what happens to the image. When the light reaches the focus,
no image forms, so students often need to be encouraged to keep moving the light source. It is best to
let the students explore freely and limit detailed during the lab.

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 Developing the habit of representing multiple rays can help students to more accurately predict light
behavior with mirrors and lenses. In typical ray diagrams, only special rays from one point on an object
are used to predict characteristics of an image formed. Students tend to believe that only these rays are
important in image formation. The fact that each point on the object emits an infinite number of rays is
often lost in these exercises.

For example, research shows that students are generally unable to predict what would happen if
half of the thin lens was missing. Traditional ray diagrams (Fig. 19) are of no value in helping students
predict the behavior of light through the lens in this new situation. Students' inability to accurately
predict what occurs under these circumstances is rooted in their inability to apply the idea that light is
reflected from all points on the object in all directions.

Fig 19

fig 20
On occasion, students should be required to draw multiple rays from the object though the lens to
the image point as shown above. Doing so will enable them to correctly predict the effect of covering
half of the lens as shown in figure 21.

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 fig 21

Procedure/Description of Lesson
• Students will use an online program to view an object through a lens. Using measurements collected
they can verify the thin lens equation

Assessment Ideas:
• See following pages for worksheets
• Give student a lens and have them calculate its focal length, magnification, etc.
• Have students create a telescope
• Given specific information and the thin lens equation have students solve for the unknown AND draw a
ray diagram.

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 Name: _______________________
Ray Optics PhET Lab
Introduction:
When you hold your glasses far away from your face, what do you see? If you look through a
magnifying glass and move it away from your face, something odd happens as you look through the
moving lens. The light that reflects off images and passes through a lens before it arrives at your eye
can be simulated as a series of rays. In this lab, you will investigate lens optics using the 3-ray
system (parallel-focal, focal-parallel, central). Remember, the real focal point of a lens is behind the
lens. The lens we will use in this simulation is a thin double-convex lens.

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 h − di h −q
Important Formulas: = + or = + = (n − 1) m= i = or m = i =
f do di f p q f R ho do ho p
Please note that in some texts, the object’s distance is given by “p” and the images by “q”

Procedure: PheT Simulations  Play With Sims  Light and Radiation  Geometric Optics
• Take some time and familiarize yourself with the simulation. You are able to move the object and
the lens and change the characteristics of the lens. During this lab, be sure to always anchor your
image on the principal axis. The pencil’s eraser works well for this.

• Click to draw the rays using the 3-ray system you learned in class.
• Move the object towards the lens. What happens to the image formed on the other side of the lens?
_______________________________________________________________________________
• As you move the object inside the lens’ focal point something odd happens. Rays that don’t meet diverge. Does this mean no
image will be formed? __________ Where is the image? _________________________________________
• Click on “Virtual Image.” How are a real image and a virtual image similar? _________________________________ How are
they different? ____________________________________________
• Click on the ruler. You will need to make several measurements during the lab. You may, if you wish, leave your measurements
in cm when using the formulas given above.
• Set the lens’s refractive index (n) to 1.8 and the radius of
curvature (R) to 0.7m. Use the appropriate equation above to solve
for the focal distance (f). f = _____________ (Measure the focal
distance to confirm your answer.)
• Using the focal distance you just found, complete the table below and check your work in the simulation.
focal distance (f) distance object (d o ) distance image (d i ) magnification (m)
120. cm
90. cm
60. cm

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 30. cm
15 cm

Graded ½ point each

• Repeat the previous exercise, but with a very different lens
with the following characteristics: R = 80cm, n = 1.25

WATCH YOUR SIGNS

Real images’ d i should be __+ / - __ while virtual images should be __+ / -__
focal distance (f) distance object (d o ) distance image (d i ) magnification (m)
solve for this first 120. cm
90. cm
60. cm
30. cm
15 cm

Conclusion Questions and Calculations: ½ point each

1. Images found behind a lens are real / virtual images that will be upright / inverted.
2. As the radius of curvature of the lens increases, the focal point of that lens becomes closer to / further away from that lens.
3. As the refractive index of the lens increases, the focal point of that lens becomes closer to / further away from that lens.
4. What advantage does a larger lens have over a smaller lens (all other characteristics being equal)?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
5. What was the focal distance (f) when the radius of curvature was .70 and index of refraction was 1.8? _____________
6. Calculate the radius of curvature of a lens with a focal distance of 40. cm and an index of 1.2. ____________________
7. An object placed 35cm away from a lens projects a real image .55m behind the lens. What is this lens’ focal distance?
_____________________
8. What is the lens’ magnification? ____________________
9. An object 20. cm to the left of a convex lens is 1.0 m in height. What is the height and location of its image if the lens has a
magnification of -2.0? ________________ m and ________________ cm on the left / right side of the lens
10. Imagine you are nearsighted (can only see close objects clearly and far objects are blurry). At your last eye doctor’s appointment,
your optometrist tells you that she will need to increase your prescription because as it turns out light is focusing “too soon” or in
front of your retina. You respond, “Obviously, I will need a converging / diverging lens with a higher / lower focal distance.”

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 Name Date Pd

Worksheet 8: Lens Diagrams (Qualitative)

1. From a point on the top of the bulb, draw ten rays that pass through the lens and converge to a single

point on the screen, forming part of the image of the bulb.

top of bulb

top of bulb
focused here

2. Suppose the screen is moved closer to or farther from the lens.

adjust screen position
top of bulb

top of bulb
focused here
a) What would you see on the screen? Draw rays on the diagram above to aid your explanation.

b) In this respect, how are real images different from pinhole reproductions of an object?

3. Suppose the screen in problem 2 was removed.

a) Where could you position your eye to see the image? Explain.

b) In this respect, how are real images different from pinhole reproductions of an object?

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4. Consider how the real image is formed.
a) What parts of the lens (top, middle, bottom, all) are struck by light from the top of the bulb?

b) What parts of the lens (top, middle, bottom, all) focus light from the top of the bulb to the point on the
screen?

c) Is the entire lens needed to form the image? Explain.

d) If a mask is added which blocks light to half of the lens, in what ways will the image change and/or stay
the same? Add rays to the diagram below to aid your explanation.

mask blocks top

top of bulb half of lens

5. With the object and screen in place, would anything change on the screen if the card and lens were
removed? Explain.

Lens summary:
For each of the situations below, draw a ray diagram that allows you to determine the image location and
characteristics: is the image real or virtual, upright or inverted?

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 6.
location 7. location

characteristics characteristics

8.
location 9. location

characteristics characteristics

10.
location 11. location

characteristics characteristics

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82
83
84
 Name Date Pd

Worksheet 9: Lens Problems (Quantitative)

1. a. Make a ray diagram to locate the image formed by the 0.92 m long baseball bat.
b. The bat is 5.0 m from the lens and the image formed is 0.25 m tall. Use similar triangles within your diagram or the thin lens equation to calculate the focal
length of the lens.

c. Draw an eye at a position that could see the image of the bat.

f f

2. a. Make a ray diagram to locate the image of the tree.

b. The tree is 22 meters away from the lens, forming an image 3 cm high. The lens focal length is 15.0 cm.
Use similar triangles within your diagram or the thin lens equation to find the height of the tree.
c. What kind of image (real or virtual) does the lens form?

f f

85
3. The diagram below shows a real image on the left and an object on the right.
a. Make a qualitatively correct ray diagram to determine the lens location and its focal points.
b. Show the path of a number of rays and how the entire lens contributes to the formation of the image.

4. a. Make a ray diagram to locate the image of the paramecium (or hairy ear).
b. Add several more rays to show that the entire lens contributes to the image.
c. The mutant paramecium is 1.0 cm tall and placed 3 cm from a lens that has a focal length of
5 cm. Use similar triangles within your diagram or the thin lens equation to find the image height.
d. Draw an eye at a position that could see the image of the paramecium.

f f

5. A lens and a virtual image of a person are pictured below. Draw a qualitatively correct ray diagram that

shows the size and location of the actual person.

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 f f

6. a. Make a ray diagram to locate the virtual image of the “A”. Does the extension of the “A” above the
lens affect the image? Explain.

b. Draw an eye at a position that would be able to see the image of the “A”.
c. The “A” is 40 cm tall, 1.0 meters from the lens, and its virtual image is 18 cm tall. Use similar
triangles within your diagram or the thin lens equation to find the focal length of the lens.

f f

7. A nearsighted (myopic) person can focus on nearby objects, but cannot see distant objects clearly. The ray
diagram below shows the formation of a sharp image in front of the retina.

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 image forms in
front of retina

What kind of eyeglass lens should be used so that the image will form at the retina? Draw in the lens and
corrected image location on the diagram.

88
89
90
91
ELECTROM AGN ETIC W AVES (P AR TICLE M ODEL)
Activity #7- Seeing the invisible

Questions to be investigated
Can we confirm the existence of electromagnetic waves beyond the frequencies of visible light? If we can’t see
electromagnetic waves outside the range of visible light, can we confirm their existence with some other form
of measurement?

Objectives
Students will observe the temperature differences between the different frequencies in the spectrum and confirm
the existence of electromagnetic radiation (light) beyond the range of visible light.

Materials
Intro Demos
Overhead projector
Diffraction grating
Phosphorescent panel (optional – see teacher notes)
Red, green and blue LED lights, red laser light, infrared heat lamp (w/red glass)

Lab Activity - Per group of three or four:

A glass prism (plastic prisms do not work well for this experiment,
as they absorb infrared light)
4 (alcohol) thermometers with blackened bulbs (see alternatives to thermometers below)
Scissors (or a prism stand)
A cardboard box
A stopwatch
A blank sheet of white paper
Sunlight

Safety Concerns
Remind students frequently never to look directly at the Sun! Looking for even a few seconds can cause
permanent damage to the eyes, and longer exposure can cause blindness. Note that sunglasses do not provide an
adequate safeguard against looking directly at the Sun.

Real-World Connections
• Astrophysics imaging techniques
o View examples
• Excellent video about viewing infrared radiation:
http://coolcosmos.ipac.caltech.edu/videos/more_than_your/index.html
• Medical imaging

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 • Infrared cameras
o Police/Security
o Firefighting/Military
o Detect heat loss in buildings and in testing electronic systems
o In satellites to monitor weather, study vegetation patterns, study geology and ocean temperatures

Teacher Notes
Before beginning the Rainbows demonstration and Seeing the Invisible lab activity, students should know about
the electromagnetic spectrum and the different classifications of electromagnetic radiation. They should know
how frequency, wavelength and energy vary along the spectrum, and be familiar with refraction of light.

A phosphorescent panel can be made by coating a piece of white poster board (about 20cm x 65cm) with
phosphorescent (glow in the dark) paint. Roll on three coats with a miniature roller. Store the panel in a black
tag board envelope until you are ready to use it.

Procedure/Description of Lesson

P re-Lab Activities

Discussion: Does Light Travel like Sound?

1. After students have talked about light rays, ask "What is light traveling through to reach your
eyes?" Answers will be space, a vacuum, or the air.
2. Next ask, "Does light need to travel in a material, that is, in a medium?" So far all the waves
students have encountered have been mechanical waves.
3. Demonstrate that sound needs a medium to travel in by placing a ringing bell in a vacuum jar, or
show a video of this phenomena.
4. Next ask, "How does light from the Sun reach us?" "Does it need a medium?" Students will
realize that light waves do not need a medium to travel in.
5. What about speed? Which do you suppose travels faster? Check out this video demonstration

Activity: Speed of light vs. speed of sound

Locate a video of thunder and lightning, or fireworks, or a nuclear blast.

Students can use stopwatches to find the time elapsed between what they see and the associated sound.
(Optional: record different values for time found by students and agree as a class on a common time to use).
Ask them to calculate out how far from the event the camera was. (Students can assume that the light reached
their eyes instantaneously)

You may want to use the following worksheet.

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SOUND WAVES VS. RADIO WAVES Name:_____________________
1.)

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
____________________________

2.)

SHOW YOUR CALCULATIONS!

Answers:
1. Yes, because any radio wave travels at the speed of light. A radio wave is an electromagnetic wave. So any radio wave is simply a low
frequency light wave. A sound wave is a mechanical disturbance propagated through a material medium by material particles that vibrate
against one another.
2. If you sit 42.5 meters away from the singer, both the sound from the radio that is broadcast all the way around the world and that which
travels through the air will reach you in the same 1/8 of a second.

Distance in air = speed of sound x time in air

Distance in air = 340 m/s x 1/8 s = 42.5 m

If you sit farther back, you will hear the radio signal before you hear the sound signal!

For higher level kids you can give them this same problem but have them calculate the distance around the world, and then find the time that it would
take for the radio wave to travel that far before solving for the distance from the stage.

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 Activity: From radio waves to gamma rays
The link below will take you to a hands-on-activity in which the students create a ‘scaled model’ of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
http://www.eece.maine.edu/research/gk12/The%20Electromagnetic%20Spectrum.doc

Demonstration: Light energy (needs phosphorescent panel, see Teacher Notes to construct your own)

1. Utilize the set-up to see a spectrum detailed in the ‘Rainbows, Rainbows’ demonstration to see the effects of
different energy levels of visible light. Move the projector so that the spectrum is about the size of the panel.
Remove the phosphorescent panel from its protective envelope. Hold the panel so that the spectrum shines
on it for about 30 seconds (you will need to experiment to find the optimal time). Turn the projector off and
observe the panel.
The section where the violet and blue light was shining will glow brightly, while the portion illuminated by
the red does not.

2. (use with or instead of #1) In a darkened room (barely enough light to see) remove the phosphorescent panel
from its protective envelope and mount it on a wall or an easel. Move each of the lights across the panel in
the following order: Red LED, Red laser, infrared lamp, green LED, blue LED.
Only the blue light left a brightly glowing streak across the panel. The rest had no apparent effect even
though the laser and the infrared lamp were much brighter!

Explanation: In each of the demos, only the higher frequency photons had enough energy to excite the atoms of
the panel surface so that their electrons emitted photons of light. The energy from the lower frequency light
increased the kinetic energy of the molecules, raising the temperature slightly. As Paul Hewitt so aptly stated,
“Heat is the graveyard of kinetic energy.”

Demonstration: Rainbows, Rainbows

1. Tape a diffraction grating over the lens at the top of the projector. Be sure to place grating where the
light will exit from the projector.
2. Place two books or similar opaque materials on the projector platform to make a slit.
3. Turn on the projector. (The room should be dark with barely enough light to see). It will produce a large
enough spectrum for students to walk through.
o You may want to set this up ahead of time and have it located so students have to walk through it
to get into class.
o You should be able to detect the UV region if you use some phosphorescent or fluorescent
material
o Plugging the projector into a Variac would allow you to vary the voltage and watch the peak
output shift as the filament of the bulb increases in temperature.

If desired, you can pass out prisms and light sources and student groups can play with those to create spectrums
at their desks.

Follow up with a discussion to lead you to concepts explored in the next Lab activity.
Ask students what they see and record any observations.

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Ask for previous knowledge…Where do the different colors come from? Why are they separated now? What
causes this phenomenon? What if this were sunlight, would it be any different? If so why? (try to elicit the rest
of the spectrum) How would we know?
Ask: Is there anything here that we can measure? Can we measure light that we cannot see?
(Try to get them to talk about energy/temperature).

Lab - Seeing the Invisible

William Herschel: Discovery of infrared radiation (a brief history)

William Herschel (1738 - 1822) was one of the most important astronomers that ever lived. In 1800 he
performed a famous experiment where he tried to measure the temperature of different colors of the spectrum
by placing a thermometer on each color.
On February 11, 1800, Herschel was testing filters for the sun so he could observe sun spots. When using a red
filter he found there was a lot of heat produced. Herschel discovered infrared radiation by passing sunlight
through a prism and holding a thermometer just beyond the red end of the visible spectrum. This thermometer
was meant to be a control to measure the ambient air temperature in the room. He was shocked when it showed
a higher temperature than the visible spectrum. Further experimentation led to Herschel's conclusion that there
must be an invisible form of light beyond the visible spectrum. For the first time it was possible to talk about
invisible light. This hot light became known as infrared (below the red) because it was shown to have longer
wavelength than visible light. Apart from its wavelength, infrared has all the other properties of light.
From: http://www.bing.com/reference/semhtml/William_Herschel?fwd=1&qpvt=William+Herschel&q=William+Herschel Accessed June 26, 2009

This procedure is similar to Herschel’s original experiment. The students will create a setup that will allow
sunlight to pass through a prism and produce a spectrum of light on the bottom of a cardboard box (see Figure
S1 in Student Worksheet). Using prepared thermometers, (see below) students can measure the change in
temperature at various locations, both inside and outside of the spectrum. Students should obtain similar results
to Herschel and confirm the existence of radiation beyond the spectrum of visible light (infrared).
Watch this Powerpoint for more information and answers to some follow up questions on this experiment.

Prepare thermometers - In order to get proper results you will need to blacken the thermometer bulbs, as they
absorb light better than red bulbs. This could be done either before the lesson or with the students.
• Before – (flat black paint) If you use spray paint you can cover the tops of the thermometers with
masking tape leaving just the bulbs bare and remove the masking tape when dry.
• With Students - use a permanent black marker to blacken the bulbs.

Alternatives to using thermometers

• Temperature probes could be substituted for thermometers when available and if setup and usage is
realistic in order to access sunlight.
• Use thermal strips to illustrate the rise in temperature along the spectrum. However, when using this
method, the quantitative aspect of the lesson is lost.

Student worksheet for the lab can be found at this link or is replicated at the end of this section.

Have students complete lab activity using directions on student worksheet.

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Considerations
• Thin thermometers work best. If you need to use wide thermometers, you can use three (one in blue, one
in infrared and one control). You can even alternate the direction of the thermometers if necessary to fit
them in the spectrum.
• Make sure that the students do not remove the thermometers or block the spectrum when taking
temperature readings.
• The position of the sun changes slightly during the experiment. If the colors move away from the bulbs,
you can note how much the sun moved and repeat the experiment making sure that last bulb does not
enter into the red or move too far away from it. (The experiment works best in the middle of the day!)
• If the box is placed so that the prism is far from the projected spectrum, the spectrum will spread out
wider and the different temperatures may be easier to measure but the thermometers will receive less
solar energy and temperature readings will be lower.
• The differences between temperatures depend on the width of the spectrum, which then depends on
several variables; i.e. time of the day, size of the box. But the general trend should be that the
temperatures go up from the blue end of the spectrum to the infrared.
• If you do not have access to the number of thermometers needed in this lesson, you can use thermal
strips to illustrate the rise in temperature along the spectrum. However, by using this method, the
quantitative aspect of the lesson is lost.

Potential follow-up (general)

Students may question why the infrared has the highest temperature, when energy generally increases as
frequency increases.
Explanation: Because of the way that light refracts through the prism, the blue light spreads out more than the
red. Infrared radiation occupies a narrower strip after refracting so the intensity of this portion is greater. See
the following links: Powerpoint, Reconciling Herschel

Why didn’t Herschel also discover ultraviolet light using this experimental set-up?
Explanation: ultraviolet radiation does not travel through glass

You may wish to show this interesting video about infrared radiation .

You can further extend the concept of ‘seeing’ frequencies of non-visible light other than the infrared at the
following links: Astrophysics imaging techniques , View examples of images

Potential follow-up for Capstone courses - This activity can be followed up by replicating another experiment
by J. Ritter who discovered ultraviolet light soon after Herschel discovered infrared radiation.

An alternative way to replicate Herschel’s experiment is to use the Explore Learning “Gizmo” called Herschel.
This is not a free site, but you can sign up for a 30-day free trial for classroom use. (See screen shots below.)

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Assessment Ideas:
• This activity has potential to be used at both foundational and capstone levels. Teacher should use
digression based upon student ability levels.
• This activity could be introduced at the beginning of the entire unit and used in parts throughout the unit.
• Follow-up research of Ritter’s UV discovery could be used as a comparison/contrast activity
• Students could be asked to summarize the experiment in its entirety or in parts.
• Students could be asked to break down the activity in parts with different groups preparing and
presenting portions of the experiment.

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Refraction Ranking problems

Hewitt, P.G. (2009). Conceptual Physics (9th ed.). Boston: Pearson Education.

99
Student worksheet

100
101
102
103
Oakland Schools Physics Resource Unit

Electromagnetic Waves
Wave Nature

Lisa Mayne
Adams High School
Rochester Community Schools
 Electromagnetic Waves
Wave Nature
Content Statements
Statement Wave Behavior — Diffraction, Interference, and Refraction
4.8x Waves can bend around objects (diffraction). They also superimpose on each other and continue their
propagation without a change in their original properties (interference). When refracted, light follows a
defined path.
Statement Electromagnetic Propagation
P4.6x Modulated electromagnetic waves can transfer information from one place to another (e.g., televisions,
radios, telephones, computers and other information technology devices). Digital communication
makes more efficient use of the limited electromagnetic spectrum, is more accurate than analog
transmission, and can be encrypted to provide privacy and security.

Content Expectations
P4.8c Describe how two wave pulses propagated from opposite ends of a demonstration spring interact as
they meet.
P4.8d List and analyze everyday examples that demonstrate the interference characteristics of waves (e.g.,
dead spots in an auditorium, whispering galleries, colors in a CD, beetle wings).
P4.6e Explain why antennas are needed for radio, television, and cell phone transmission and reception.

P4.6f Explain how radio waves are modified to send information in radio and television programs, radio-
control cars, cell phone conversations, and GPS systems.
P4.6g Explain how different electromagnetic signals (e.g., radio station broadcasts or cell phone
conversations) can take place without interfering with each other.
P4.6h Explain the relationship between the frequency of an electromagnetic wave and its technological uses.

P4.9C Explain why the image of the Sun appears reddish at sunrise and sunset.

P1.2f Critique solutions to problems, given criteria and scientific constraints.

Instructional Background Information:

Categories of Waves

One way to categorize waves is on the basis of the direction of movement of the
individual particles of the medium relative to the direction which the waves travel.
Categorizing waves on this basis leads to three notable categories: transverse waves,
longitudinal waves, and surface waves.

A transverse wave is a wave in which particles of the medium move in a direction

perpendicular to the direction which the wave moves.

A longitudinal wave is a wave in which particles of the medium move in a direction

parallel to the direction which the wave moves.

http://www.physicsclassroom.com

Wave Properties

Reflection is the bouncing of a wave off a surface. The amount of reflection is dependent
upon the dissimilarity of the two medium. An echo is the reflection of sound waves off of
a rigid surface. The edge of the medium may be fixed, that is, the edge may not be free
to move. Or the edge of the medium may be free to move, in which case it is often called
an open end.

Diffraction is a change in direction of waves as they pass through an opening or around a

barrier in their path. The amount of diffraction (amount of the bending) increases with
increasing wavelength and decreases with decreasing wavelength. When the wavelengths
of the waves are smaller than the obstacle or opening, no noticeable diffraction occurs.
Huygens' Principle and Diffraction
This principle of wave analysis, proposed by the physicist Christiaan Huygens (1629-
1695), basically states that:

Every point of a wave front may be considered the source of secondary wavelets that
spread out in all directions with a speed equal to the speed of propagation of the waves.

What this means is that when you have a wave, you can view the "edge" of the wave as
actually creating a series of circular waves. These waves combine together in most cases
to just continue the propagation, but in some cases there are significant observable
effects. The wave front can be viewed as the line tangent to all of these circular waves.

Refraction of waves involves a change in the direction of waves as they pass from one
medium to another. Refraction, or bending of the path of the waves, is accompanied by a
change in speed and wavelength of the waves. So if the medium (and its properties) are
changed, the speeds of the waves are changed. Waves passing from one medium to
another will undergo refraction.

Wave Interference occurs when two waves meet while traveling along the same
medium. The interference of waves causes the medium to take on a shape which results
from the net effect of the two individual waves upon the particles of the medium. There
are two types of interference are constructive and destructive. If two upward displaced
pulses having the same shape meet up with one another while traveling in opposite
directions along a medium, the medium will take on the shape of an upward displaced
pulse with twice the amplitude of the two interfering pulses. This type of interference is
known as constructive interference. If an upward displaced pulse and a downward
displaced pulse having the same shape meet up with one another while traveling in
opposite directions along a medium, the two pulses will cancel each other's effect upon
the displacement of the medium and the medium will assume the equilibrium position.
This type of interference is known as destructive interference.
 http://www.physicsclassroom.com

Polarization

The electric and magnetic vibrations of an electromagnetic wave occur in numerous

planes. A light wave which is vibrating in more than one plane is referred to as
unpolarized light. Light emitted by the sun, by a lamp in the classroom, or by a candle
flame is unpolarized light. These light waves are created by electric charges which
vibrate in a variety of directions creating an electromagnetic wave which vibrates in a
variety of directions. It is possible to transform unpolarized light into polarized light.
Polarized light waves are light waves in which the vibrations occur in a single plane. The
process of transforming unpolarized light into polarized light is known as polarization.

Unpolarized light can be transformed into polarized light by transmition, reflection,

refraction, and scattering.

The most common method of polarization involves the use of a Polaroid filter. Polaroid
filters are made of a special material which is capable of blocking one of the two planes
of vibration of an electromagnetic wave. A Polaroid serves as a device which filters out
one-half of the vibrations upon transmission of the light through the filter. When
unpolarized light is transmitted through a Polaroid filter, it emerges with one-half the
intensity and with vibrations in a single plane; it emerges as polarized light.

http://www.physicsclassroom.com

A Polaroid filter is able to polarize light because of the chemical composition of the filter
material.

Polarization is used in the entertainment industry to produce and show 3-D movies.
Three-dimensional movies are actually two movies being shown at the same time through
two projectors. The two movies are filmed from two slightly different camera locations.
Each individual movie is then projected from different sides of the audience onto a metal
screen. The movies are projected through a polarizing filter. The polarizing filter used for
the projector on the left may have its polarization axis aligned horizontally while the
polarizing filter used for the projector on the right would have its polarization axis
aligned vertically. Consequently, there are two slightly different movies being projected
onto a screen.

The Electromagnetic and Visible Spectra

Electromagnetic waves are waves which are capable of traveling through a vacuum.
Electromagnetic waves exist with an enormous range of frequencies. This continuous
range of frequencies is known as the electromagnetic spectrum. The entire range of the
spectrum is often broken into specific regions. The subdividing of the entire spectrum
into smaller spectra is done mostly on the basis of how each region of electromagnetic
waves interacts with matter. The diagram below depicts the electromagnetic spectrum
and its various regions. The longer wavelength, lower frequency regions are located on
the far left of the spectrum and the shorter wavelength, higher frequency regions are on
the far right. Two very narrow regions within the spectrum are the visible light region and
the X-ray region. You are undoubtedly familiar with some of the other regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum. The higher the frequency, the shorter the wavelength and the
more penetrating the wave. Waves transfer energy. They do not transfer matter. The
energy transported by a wave is directly proportional to the square of the amplitude of the
wave. This energy-amplitude relationship is sometimes expressed in the following
manner.

This means that a doubling of the amplitude of a wave is indicative of a quadrupling of

the energy transported by the wave.

The speed of light is 3 x 108 m/s.

http://www.physicsclassroom.com

Calculating wavelength, frequency, and speed (or velocity)

The general equation for calculating these is v = fλ where:

ν = velocity, measured in meters per second (m/s)

f = frequency, measured in hertz (hz). A hertz is equal to a: cycle per second, s-1, 1/s, or
per second.

λ = wavelength, measured in meters (m)

Visible Light Spectrum

The visible light region is the very narrow band of wavelengths located to the right of the
infrared region and to the left of the ultraviolet region. Electromagnetic waves exist in a
vast range of wavelengths but our eyes are sensitive to only a very narrow band. This
visible light region consists of a spectrum of wavelengths which range from 7 x 10-7
meter to 4 x 10-7 meter. This narrow band of visible light is abbreviated as ROYGBIV.

Color Addition

White is not a color at all, but rather the presence of all the frequencies of visible light.
White light can also be produced by combining only three distinct frequencies of light,
Any three colors (or frequencies) of light which produce white light when combined with
the correct intensity are called primary colors of light. There are a variety of sets of
primary colors. The most common set of primary colors is red (R), green (G) and blue
(B). When red, green and blue light are mixed or added together with the proper intensity,
white (W) light is obtained. This is represented by the equation below:

R+G+B=W

The mixing together (or addition) of two or three of these three primary colors of light
with varying degrees of intensity can produce a wide range of other colors. For this
reason, many television sets and computer monitors produce the range of colors on the
monitor by the use of of red, green and blue light-emitting phosphors.
The result of adding two primary colors of light is easily seen by viewing the overlap of
the two or more circles of primary light. The different combinations of colors produced
by red, green and blue are shown in the graphic below:

http://www.physicsclassroom.com

Yellow (Y), magenta (M) and cyan (C) are sometimes referred to as secondary colors of
light since they are produced by the addition of equal intensities of two primary colors of
light.

Complementary Colors of Light

Any two colors of light which when mixed together in equal intensities produce white are
said to be complementary colors of each other. The complementary color of red light is
cyan light. This is reasonable since cyan light is the combination of blue and green light;
and blue and green light when added to red light will produce white light. Thus, red light
and cyan light (blue + green) represent a pair of complementary colors; they add together
to produce white light. This is depicted in the equation below:

R + C = R + (B + G) = White

Complementary Colors of Light:

Red and Cyan

Green and Magenta

Blue and Yellow

Color Subtraction

Materials contain atoms which are capable of selectively absorbing one or more
frequencies of light. If white light is shining on a shirt, then red, green and blue light are
shining on the shirt. If the shirt absorbs blue light, then only red and green light will be
reflected from the shirt. So while red, green and blue light shine upon the shirt, only red
and green light will reflect from it. Red and green light striking your eye always give the
appearance of yellow; for this reason, the shirt will appear yellow. This is color
subtraction. In this process, the ultimate color appearance of an object is determined by
beginning with a single color or mixture of colors and identifying which color or colors
of light are subtracted from the original set. Some processes of color subtraction are
depicted in terms of these equations:

W - B = (R + G + B) - B = R + G = Y

C - B = (G + B) - B = G

M - B = (R + B) - B = R

Primary Colors of Paint

Paints and dyes are impregnated with a chemical capable of absorbing one or more of the
colors of white light. Such chemicals which are capable of selectively absorbing one or
more frequency of white light are known as pigments. Pigments absorb light. Pure
pigments absorb a single frequency or color of light. The three primary colors of paint are
cyan (C), magenta (M), and yellow (Y). Each primary color of paint absorbs one primary
color of light. The color absorbed by a primary color of paint is the complementary color
of that paint. Each of the three primary colors of paint (magenta, cyan, and yellow)
subtract red, green, and blue individually from an otherwise white sheet of paper.

Therefore:

Magenta paints absorb green light.

Cyan paints absorb red light.

Yellow paints absorb blue light.

Blue Skies and Red Sunsets

Why are the skies blue and sunsets red? The interaction of sunlight with matter can
result in one of three wave behaviors: absorption, transmission, and reflection. The
atmosphere contains a variety of gases; the two most common types are gaseous nitrogen
and oxygen. These particles are most effective in scattering the higher frequency and
shorter wavelength portions of the visible light spectrum. This scattering process involves
the absorption of a light wave by an atom followed by reemission of a light wave in a
variety of directions. The amount of scattering which occurs is dependent upon the
frequency of the light. Atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen scatter violet light most easily,
followed by blue light, green light, etc. So as white light (ROYGBIV) from the sun
passes through our atmosphere, the high frequencies (BIV) become scattered by
atmospheric particles while the lower frequencies (ROY) are most likely to pass through
the atmosphere without a significant alteration in their direction. This scattering of the
higher frequencies of light illuminates the skies with light on the BIV end of the visible
spectrum. Compared to blue light, violet light is most easily scattered by atmospheric
particles. However, our eyes are more sensitive to light with blue frequencies. Thus, we
view the skies as being blue in color.

The appearance of the sun changes with the time of day. While it may be yellow during
midday, it is often found to gradually turn color as it approaches sunset. This can be
explained by light scattering. As the sun approaches the horizon line, sunlight must
traverse a greater distance through our atmosphere. As the path which sunlight takes
through our atmosphere increases in length, ROYGBIV encounters more and more
atmospheric particles. This results in the scattering of greater and greater amounts of
yellow light. During sunset hours, the light passing through our atmosphere to our eyes
tends to be most concentrated with red and orange frequencies of light. For this reason,
the sunsets have a reddish-orange hue. The affect of a red sunset becomes more
pronounced if the atmosphere contains more and more particles. The presence of sulfur
aerosols (emitted as an industrial pollutant and by volcanic activity) in our atmosphere
contributes to some magnificent sunsets (and some very serious environmental
problems).

Spectroscope

A spectrograph is an instrument used to obtain and record a spectrum. It works by taking

light and splitting it up into its component colors. Different elements make different
colors when they glow. We can make objects and gasses glow by heating them up in a
flame, or by passing electricity through them. The spectroscope spreads out the colors of
the light, and we can identify the elements by the bright lines we see in the spectroscope.
Light can be split or dispersed into a spectrum by one of two means: using a prism or a
diffraction grating. Different wavelengths of light also have different frequencies. As
they pass through a prism, they undergo refraction, a change in velocity due to the change
in medium. If the light falls incident to to the prism at an angle other than 90° it will also
change direction. Red light has a longer wavelength than blue light so its angle of
refraction is lower, both at entry to and exit from the prism. This means it gets bent less.
The light emerging from the prism is dispersed as shown schematically in the diagram
below.

http://sci-toys.com/scitoys/scitoys/light/cd_spectroscope/spectroscope.html

Most spectrographs use diffraction gratings rather than prisms. Diffraction gratings are
more efficient than prisms which can absorb some of the light passing through them. A
diffraction grating has thousands of narrow lines ruled onto a glass or plastic surface. It
reflects rather than refracts light so no photons are "lost". The response from a grating is
also linear whereas a prism disperses blue light much more than in the red part of the
spectrum. Gratings can also reflect light in the UV wavebands unlike a glass prism which
is opaque to UV.

A common example of a diffraction grating is a CD where the pits encoding the digital
information act as a grating and disperse light into a colorful spectrum.

http://sci-toys.com/scitoys/scitoys/light/cd_spectroscope/spectroscope.html
Technological Applications of Electromagnetic Waves

How Interactive Voice Response (IVR) Works

IVR systems are an example of computer-telephone integration (CTI). The most common
way for a phone to communicate with a computer is through the tones generated by each
key on the telephone keypad. These are known as dual-tone multi-frequency (DTMF)
signals. Each number key on a telephone emits two simultaneous tones: one low-
frequency and one high-frequency. The number one, for example, produces both a 697-
Hz and a 1209-Hz tone that's universally interpreted by the public switched telephone
network as a "1." A computer needs special hardware called a telephony board or
telephony card to understand the DTMF signals produced by a phone. A simple IVR
system only requires a computer hooked up to a phone line through a telephony board
and some inexpensive IVR software. The IVR software allows you to pre-record
greetings and menu options that a caller can select using his telephone keypad. More
advanced IVR systems include speech-recognition software that allows a caller to
communicate with a computer using simple voice commands. Speech recognition
software has become sophisticated enough to understand names and long strings of
numbers -- perhaps a credit card or flight number.

On the other end of the phone call, an organization can employ text-to-speech (TTS)
software to fully automate its outgoing messages. Instead of recording all of the possible
responses to a customer query, the computer can generate customized text-like account
balances or flight times and read it back to the customer using an automated voice.

How UPC Bar Codes Work

"UPC" stands for Universal Product Code. UPC bar codes were originally created to help
grocery stores speed up the checkout process and keep better track of inventory, but the
system quickly spread to all other retail products because it was so successful.

UPCs originate with a company called the Uniform Code Council (UCC). A
manufacturer applies to the UCC for permission to enter the UPC system. The
manufacturer pays an annual fee for the privilege. In return, the UCC issues the
manufacturer a six-digit manufacturer identification number and provides guidelines on
how to use it. You can see the manufacturer identification number in any standard 12-
digit UPC code.

The UPC symbol has two parts:

The machine-readable bar code

The human-readable 12-digit UPC number

The manufacturer identification number is the first six digits of the UPC number --
639382 in the image above. The next five digits -- 00039 -- are the item number. A
person employed by the manufacturer, called the UPC coordinator, is responsible for
assigning item numbers to products, making sure the same code is not used on more than
one product, retiring codes as products are removed from the product line, etc.

In general, every item the manufacturer sells, as well as every size package and every
repackaging of the item, needs a different item code. So a 12-ounce can of Coke needs a
different item number than a 16-ounce bottle of Coke, as does a 6-pack of 12-ounce cans,
a 12-pack, a 24-can case, and so on. It is the job of the UPC coordinator to keep all of
these numbers straight.

The last digit of the UPC code is called a check digit. This digit lets the scanner
determine if it scanned the number correctly or not.

Here is how the check digit is calculated for the other 11 digits, using the code
63938200039 from "The Teenager's Guide to the Real World":

Add together the value of all of the digits in odd positions (digits 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 and 11).
6 + 9 + 8 + 0 + 0 + 9 = 32

Multiply that number by 3.

32 * 3 = 96

Add together the value of all of the digits in even positions (digits 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10).
3 + 3 + 2 + 0 + 3 = 11

Add this sum to the value in step 2.

96 + 11 = 107

Take the number in Step 4. To create the check digit, determine the number that, when
added to the number in step 4, is a multiple of 10.
107 + 3 = 110
The check digit is therefore 3.

Each time the scanner scans an item, it performs this calculation. If the check digit it
calculates is different from the check digit it reads, the scanner knows that something
went wrong and the item needs to be rescanned.

How DVDs Work

A DVD is very similar to a CD, but it has a much larger data capacity. A standard DVD
holds about seven times more data than a CD does. This huge capacity means that a DVD
has enough room to store a full-length, MPEG-2-encoded movie, as well as a lot of other
information. A DVD is composed of several layers of plastic, totaling about 1.2
millimeters thick. Each layer is created by injection molding polycarbonate plastic. This
process forms a disc that has microscopic bumps arranged as a single, continuous and
extremely long spiral track of data. The bumps appear as pits on the aluminum side, but
on the side that the laser reads from, they are bumps.

A DVD player is very similar to a CD player. It has a laser assembly that shines the laser
beam onto the surface of the disc to read the pattern of bumps. The DVD player decodes
the MPEG-2 encoded movie, turning it into a standard composite video signal. The
player also decodes the audio stream and sends it to a Dolby decoder, where it is
amplified and sent to the speakers. The DVD player has the job of finding and reading
the data stored as bumps on the DVD.

How Blu-ray Discs Work

The Blu-ray disc overcomes DVD-reading issues by placing the data on top of a 1.1-mm-
thick polycarbonate layer. Having the data on top prevents birefringence and therefore
prevents readability problems. And, with the recording layer sitting closer to the objective
lens of the reading mechanism, the problem of disc tilt is virtually eliminated. Because
the data is closer to the surface, a hard coating is placed on the outside of the disc to
protect it from scratches and fingerprints.

How the Radio Spectrum Works

A radio wave is an electromagnetic wave propagated by an antenna. Radio waves have

different frequencies, and by tuning a radio receiver to a specific frequency you can pick
up a specific signal.
 http://www.howstuffworks.com/

In the United States, the FCC (Federal Communications Commission) decides who is
able to use which frequencies for which purposes, and it issues licenses to stations for
specific frequencies.

When you listen to a radio station and the announcer says, "You are listening to 91.5 FM
WRKX The Rock!," what the announcer means is that you are listening to a radio station
broadcasting an FM radio signal at a frequency of 91.5 megahertz, with FCC-assigned
call letters of WRKX. Megahertz means "millions of cycles per second," so "91.5
megahertz" means that the transmitter at the radio station is oscillating at a frequency of
91,500,000 cycles per second. Your FM (frequency modulated) radio can tune in to that
specific frequency and give you clear reception of that station. All FM radio stations
transmit in a band of frequencies between 88 megahertz and 108 megahertz. This band of
the radio spectrum is used for no other purpose but FM radio broadcasts.

In the same way, AM radio is confined to a band from 535 kilohertz to 1,700 kilohertz
(kilo meaning "thousands," so 535,000 to 1,700,000 cycles per second). So an AM
(amplitude modulated) radio station that says, "This is AM 680 WPTF" means that the
radio station is broadcasting an AM radio signal at 680 kilohertz and its FCC-assigned
call letters are WPTF.

How Microwave Ovens Work

Microwaves are extend from wavelengths of 1 m to 1mm on the electromagnetic

spectrum. In microwave ovens, the microwaves are used to twist the food’s water
molecules. As these molecules bump into each other, they heat up. The water absorbs the
microwaves and turns their energy into thermal energy, heating the food uniformly.

How Laser Lights Work

"Laser" is an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation, which

describes very succinctly how a laser works. Laser light is composed of particles that are
identical and form a single electromagnetic wave. This type of light is called coherent
light.
Laser light is very different from normal light. Laser light has the following properties:

The light released is monochromatic. It contains one specific wavelength of light (one
specific color). The wavelength of light is determined by the amount of energy released
when the electron drops to a lower orbit.

The light released is coherent. It is “organized” -- each photon moves in step with the
others. This means that all of the photons have wave fronts that launch in unison.

The light is very directional. A laser light has a very tight beam and is very strong and
concentrated. A flashlight, on the other hand, releases light in many directions, and the
light is very weak and diffuse.

A laser consists of a pair of mirrors, one at each end of the lasing medium. Photons, with
a very specific wavelength and phase, reflect off the mirrors to travel back and forth
through the lasing medium. In the process, they stimulate other electrons to make the
downward energy jump and can cause the emission of more photons of the same
wavelength and phase. A cascade effect occurs, and soon we have propagated many,
many photons of the same wavelength and phase. The mirror at one end of the laser is
"half-silvered," meaning it reflects some light and lets some light through. The light that
makes it through is the laser light.

How Cell Phones Work

A cell phone is that it is actually a radio -- an extremely sophisticated radio. The genius
of the cellular system is the division of a city into small cells. This allows extensive
frequency reuse across a city, so that millions of people can use cell phones
simultaneously. In a typical analog cell-phone system in the United States, the cell-phone
carrier receives about 800 frequencies to use across the city. The carrier chops up the city
into cells. Each cell is typically sized at about 10 square miles (26 square kilometers).
Each cell has a base station that consists of a tower and a small building containing the
radio equipment. Each cell has about 56 voice channels available. In other words, in any
cell, 56 people can be talking on their cell phone at one time. Cell phones have low-
power transmitters in them. Many cell phones have two signal strengths: 0.6 watts and 3
watts (for comparison, most CB radios transmit at 4 watts). The base station is also
transmitting at low power. The cellular approach requires a large number of base stations
in a city of any size. A typical large city can have hundreds of towers. But because so
many people are using cell phones, costs remain low per user. Each carrier in each city
also runs one central office called the Mobile Telephone Switching Office (MTSO). This
office handles all of the phone connections to the normal land-based phone system, and
controls all of the base stations in the region.
All cell phones have special codes associated with them. These codes are used to identify
the phone, the phone's owner and the service provider.

What happens when you turn you cell phone on and someone tries to call you on your
cell phone? Here is what happens to the call:

When you first power up the phone, it listens for an SID(system identification code) on
the control channel. The control channel is a special frequency that the phone and base
station use to talk to one another about things like call set-up and channel changing. If the
phone cannot find any control channels to listen to, it knows it is out of range and
displays a "no service" message.

When it receives the SID, the phone compares it to the SID programmed into the phone.
If the SIDs match, the phone knows that the cell it is communicating with is part of its
home system.

Along with the SID, the phone also transmits a registration request, and the MTSO keeps
track of your phone's location in a database -- this way, the MTSO knows which cell you
are in when it wants to ring your phone.

The MTSO gets the call, and it tries to find you. It looks in its database to see which cell
you are in.

The MTSO picks a frequency pair that your phone will use in that cell to take the call.

The MTSO communicates with your phone over the control channel to tell it which
frequencies to use, and once your phone and the tower switch on those frequencies, the
call is connected. Now, you are talking by two-way radio to a friend.

As you move toward the edge of your cell, your cell's base station notes that your signal
strength is diminishing. Meanwhile, the base station in the cell you are moving toward
(which is listening and measuring signal strength on all frequencies, not just its own one-
seventh) sees your phone's signal strength increasing. The two base stations coordinate
with each other through the MTSO, and at some point, your phone gets a signal on a
control channel telling it to change frequencies. This hand off switches your phone to the
new cell.
Terms and Concepts
Absorption Hertz Reflection

Amplitude Interference Refraction

Compression LASER Transverse Wave

Crest Longitudinal Wave Trough

Cycle Medium Wavelength

Diffraction Period Wave Propagation

Electromagnetic Spectrum Phase

Electromagnetic Waves Polarization

Equilibrium Pulse

Frequency Rarefaction
Instructional Resources

http://www.physicsclassroom.com

http://id.mind.net/~zona/index.html

http://sci-toys.com/scitoys/scitoys/light/cd_spectroscope/spectroscope.html

http://www.howstuffworks.com/

http://outreach.atnf.csiro.au/education/senior/astrophysics/spectrographs.html

Bloomfield, Louis. How things work: the physics of everyday life. 2nd ed. 2001. John
Wiley and Sons. pp 370-3372; 401-402.

http://spot.pcc.edu/~azable/ch100/labs/Ch100-Lab05_Spectroscopy.pdf

http://www.physicscurriculum.com/Explore%20I%20Lab%20Guide/

http://physics.about.com/od/mathematicsofwaves/a/huygensprincipl.htmOptics.pdf

http://www.nsrconline.org/pdf/Light_SG_sample_10.pdf

http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Color_Vision

http://www.ontariosciencecentre.ca/scizone/games/subtracting/default.asp

http://www.visionlearning.com/library/flash_viewer.php?oid=1347&mid=51

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/gamma/spectrum.html

http://www.phy.syr.edu/courses/K12/workshop_pictures_files/Diffraction%20Grating%2
0Sets.pdf

http://physci.kennesaw.edu/javamirror/interf/interference.html

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/gamma/spectrum.html
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Activity #1 Slinky Lab (Foundational)

Questions to be investigated
How are waves propagated?
What happens when two waves cross each other?
What factors effect wave propagation?
What factors effect wave velocity?

Objectives
Students will make predictions about the way that waves move and then test hypotheses
with slinky.
Student will be able to compare and contrast longitudinal and transverse wave.
Students will be able to identify factors effecting wave propagation.
Students will be able to identify factors effecting wave velocity.

Materials
9 slinkys

Lab sheet (attached)

Textbook

Safety Concerns
Avoid releasing an end of the stretched slinky. This could injure your hand and the slinky
could become tangled beyond use.

Real-World Connections
Tsunamis
Sound transmission
Light transmission

Assessment Ideas: See Rubric

Teacher Notes

Rationale:
Students will need to know how waves are propagated and the factors effecting
wave velocity and the difference between longitudinal and transverse waves.

Objectives:
• Students will make predictions about the way that waves move and then
test hypotheses with slinky.
• Student will be able to compare and contrast longitudinal and transverse
wave.
• Students will be able to identify factors effecting wave propagation.
• Students will be able to identify factors effecting wave velocity.

Materials:
9 slinkys
Stopwatch
Lab sheet
Assessment Rubric
Textbook

Introduction:
You will investigate types of waves, factors effecting wave propagation, and wave
velocity.

Procedure:
• Describe the picture on top of the lab sheet and show them how to get the
waves to travel.
• Instruct the students to make their predictions in Experiment 1 and 2 before
conducting the lab.
• (Students will) Perform the lab investigation.

Closure:
The students will analyze their results.
The students will be assessed mastery of objectives via the rubric.
Procedure/Description of Lesson

WAVES

Introduction:

In this lab, you will investigate some of the characteristics of waves. Any general insights
about slinky waves apply to other kinds of waves, including sound waves, water waves,
light waves, seismic waves, and so on. We’re using slinky waves only because slinky’s
are easy to manipulate, not because slinky waves are “special” in any way.

Experiment 1: Some general wave characteristics

You and your lab partner hold opposite ends of a slinky, and stretch it out on the floor.

TOP-DOWN VIEW from the ceiling

Slinky

↑Transverse

→ Longitudinal

Give your end of the slinky a few vigorous sideways (transverse) shakes. Also try giving
it a few back and- forth (longitudinal) shakes. But before doing so, consider these
questions...

(a) After a wave is created, is its velocity constant, increasing, or decreasing?

(b) How would you describe the motion of an individual coil of the slinky, as the waves

propagate past that coil? Be detailed

Prediction about (a)

Prediction about (b)

Result and explanation for (a)

Result and explanation for (b)

Experiment 2: How to make faster waves?

What could you do to produce waves that move down the slinky faster than the waves
you generated in experiment 1? Would shaking the slinky harder work? How about
shaking it faster? Working in groups of 3 or 4, make a list of everything you could do to
produce faster waves, along with justification for why it should work. If you disagree
with your lab partner about a prediction, record both predictions.

Write your predictions about how to make waves move faster.

Test all your predictions, one at a time. You’ll probably be able to tell “just by looking”
whether you’ve produced faster waves. If not, use a stopwatch to time how long a wave
takes to travel up and down the slinky, both in experiment 1 and with your “new” way of
making waves. If a prediction was wrong, what happened instead of the wave’s getting
faster?

Results and explanations

Evaluation

Compare and contrast longitudinal and transverse waves.

Give an example of each type of wave and how they affect your life.

What factors effect the speed of wave propagation?

ASSESSMENT RUBRIC

Lab Report : Investigating Waves

Student Name: ________________________________________

CATEGORY 4 3 2 1

Safety Lab is carried out Lab is generally Lab is carried out Safety procedures
with full attention carried out with with some were ignored
to relevant safety attention to attention to and/or some
procedures. The relevant safety relevant safety aspect of the
set-up, procedures. The procedures. The experiment posed
experiment, and set-up, set-up, a threat to the
tear-down posed experiment, and experiment, and safety of the
no safety threat to tear-down posed tear-down posed student or others.
any individual. no safety threat to no safety threat to
any individual, any individual,
but one safety but several safety
procedure needs procedures need
to be reviewed. to be reviewed.

Participation Used time well in Used time pretty Did the lab but Participation was
lab and focused well. Stayed did not appear minimal OR
attention on the focused on the very interested. student was
experiment. experiment most Focus was lost on hostile about
of the time. several occasions. participating.

Scientific Report illustrates Report illustrates Report illustrates Report illustrates

Concepts an accurate and an accurate a limited inaccurate
thorough understanding of understanding of understanding of
understanding of most scientific scientific scientific
scientific concepts concepts concepts
concepts underlying the underlying the underlying the
underlying the lab. lab. lab.
lab.
Question/Purpose The purpose of The purpose of The purpose of The purpose of
the lab or the the lab or the the lab or the the lab or the
question to be question to be question to be question to be
answered during answered during answered during answered during
the lab is clearly the lab is the lab is partially the lab is
identified and identified, but is identified, and is erroneous or
stated. stated in a stated in a irrelevant.
somewhat unclear somewhat unclear
manner. manner.

Experimental Hypothesized Hypothesized Hypothesized No hypothesis

Hypothesis relationship relationship relationship has been stated.
between the between the between the
variables and the variables and the variables and the
predicted results predicted results predicted results
is clear and is reasonable has been stated,
reasonable based based on general but appears to be
on what has been knowledge and based on flawed
studied. observations. logic.

Calculations All calculations Some Some No calculations

are shown and the calculations are calculations are are shown OR
results are correct shown and the shown and the results are
and labeled results are correct results labeled inaccurate or
appropriately. and labeled appropriately. mislabeled.
appropriately.
Analysis The relationship The relationship The relationship The relationship
between the between the between the between the
variables is variables is variables is variables is not
discussed and discussed and discussed but no discussed.
trends/patterns trends/patterns patterns, trends or
logically logically predictions are
analyzed. analyzed. made based on
Predictions are the data.
made about what
might happen if
part of the lab
were changed or
how the
experimental
design could be
changed.

Conclusion Conclusion Conclusion Conclusion No conclusion

includes whether includes whether includes what was included in
the findings the findings was learned from the report OR
supported the supported the the experiment. shows little effort
hypothesis, hypothesis and and reflection.
possible sources what was learned
of error, and what from the
was learned from experiment.
the experiment.

Error Analysis Experimental Experimental Experimental There is no

errors, their errors and their errors are discussion of
possible effects, possible effects mentioned. errors.
and ways to are discussed.
reduce errors are
discussed.
Summary Summary Summary Summary No summary is
describes the describes the describes the written.
skills learned, the information information
information learned and a learned.
learned and some possible
future application to a
applications to real life situation.
real life
situations.
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Activity #1 Slinky Lab (Capstone)

Questions to be investigated
How are waves propagated?
What happens when two waves cross each other?
What factors effect wave propagation?
What factors effect wave velocity?
Objectives
Students will make predictions about the way that waves move and then test hypotheses
with slinky.
Student will be able to compare and contrast longitudinal and transverse wave.
Students will be able to identify factors effecting wave propagation.
Students will be able to identify factors effecting wave velocity.
Materials
Slinkys
Wave Spring
String
Meter stick
Safety Concerns
Avoid releasing an end of the stretched slinky. This could injure your hand and the slinky
could become tangled beyond use.
Real-World Connections
Tsunamis
Sound transmission
Light transmission

Teacher Notes
Rationale:
Students will need to know the effects free-end and fixed end termination on
propagation and differentiate between longitudinal and transverse waves.

Procedure/Description of Lesson
See Lab Sheet

Assessment Ideas:
See Rubric
ASSESSMENT RUBRIC

Lab Report : Investigating Waves

Student Name: ________________________________________

CATEGORY 4 3 2 1

Safety Lab is carried out Lab is generally Lab is carried out Safety procedures
with full attention carried out with with some were ignored
to relevant safety attention to attention to and/or some
procedures. The relevant safety relevant safety aspect of the
set-up, procedures. The procedures. The experiment posed
experiment, and set-up, set-up, a threat to the
tear-down posed experiment, and experiment, and safety of the
no safety threat to tear-down posed tear-down posed student or others.
any individual. no safety threat to no safety threat to
any individual, any individual,
but one safety but several safety
procedure needs procedures need
to be reviewed. to be reviewed.

Participation Used time well in Used time pretty Did the lab but Participation was
lab and focused well. Stayed did not appear minimal OR
attention on the focused on the very interested. student was
experiment. experiment most Focus was lost on hostile about
of the time. several occasions. participating.

Scientific Report illustrates Report illustrates Report illustrates Report illustrates

Concepts an accurate and an accurate a limited inaccurate
thorough understanding of understanding of understanding of
understanding of most scientific scientific scientific
scientific concepts concepts concepts
concepts underlying the underlying the underlying the
underlying the lab. lab. lab.
lab.
Question/Purpose The purpose of The purpose of The purpose of The purpose of
the lab or the the lab or the the lab or the the lab or the
question to be question to be question to be question to be
answered during answered during answered during answered during
the lab is clearly the lab is the lab is partially the lab is
identified and identified, but is identified, and is erroneous or
stated. stated in a stated in a irrelevant.
somewhat unclear somewhat unclear
manner. manner.

Experimental Hypothesized Hypothesized Hypothesized No hypothesis

Hypothesis relationship relationship relationship has been stated.
between the between the between the
variables and the variables and the variables and the
predicted results predicted results predicted results
is clear and is reasonable has been stated,
reasonable based based on general but appears to be
on what has been knowledge and based on flawed
studied. observations. logic.

Calculations All calculations Some Some No calculations

are shown and the calculations are calculations are are shown OR
results are correct shown and the shown and the results are
and labeled results are correct results labeled inaccurate or
appropriately. and labeled appropriately. mislabeled.
appropriately.
Analysis The relationship The relationship The relationship The relationship
between the between the between the between the
variables is variables is variables is variables is not
discussed and discussed and discussed but no discussed.
trends/patterns trends/patterns patterns, trends or
logically logically predictions are
analyzed. analyzed. made based on
Predictions are the data.
made about what
might happen if
part of the lab
were changed or
how the
experimental
design could be
changed.

Conclusion Conclusion Conclusion Conclusion No conclusion

includes whether includes whether includes what was included in
the findings the findings was learned from the report OR
supported the supported the the experiment. shows little effort
hypothesis, hypothesis and and reflection.
possible sources what was learned
of error, and what from the
was learned from experiment.
the experiment.

Error Analysis Experimental Experimental Experimental There is no

errors, their errors and their errors are discussion of
possible effects, possible effects mentioned. errors.
and ways to are discussed.
reduce errors are
discussed.
Summary Summary Summary Summary No summary is
describes the describes the describes the written.
skills learned, the information information
information learned and a learned.
learned and some possible
future application to a
applications to real life situation.
real life
situations.
 Electromagnetic Waves
Activity # 2 Color Addition and Subtraction (Foundational)

Questions to be investigated
What is color addition? subtraction?
What are complementary colors?
What are primary colors? secondary colors?
What determines the colors we see?
Objectives
• Compare and contrast color addition and subtraction.
• Analyze color formed when complementary colors are mixed.
• Compare and contrast primary and secondary colors
• Identify three primary colors
• Identify the complementary color of any additive color
• Predict the color of the combination of any two additive colors
• Predict the color of mixing all three additive color
Materials
See Teacher Notes
Safety Concerns
None
Real-World Connections
Pigments
Colors
Human sight
color TV screen
Teacher Notes
Rational: Students need to know the colors of the visible spectrum, how we perceive
color and how color is produced.
Objectives: See above
Materials: Computers, Internet connection, lab sheets
Introduction: Today you will investigate properties of the visible spectrum.
Procedure:
• Explain the purpose of the lab.
• Show the students how to access the PhET simulation site.
• Demonstrate how to manipulate the simulation
Procedure/Description of Lesson
See Lab Sheet
Assessment Ideas:
See rubric
Name___________________________________DATE_______________HR_________

Physics

PhET Simulation – Color Vision

Access: Google “PhET simulations.” Click on Light & Radiation. Launch the Color Vision
Simulation.

Part I – Use the RGB Bulbs Tab

1) Each light has a color gradient. For the best results, slide the bar to the very top of each
color. Each color should be observed individually for this first part. To stop the color,
return the bar to the black location.
a) What color is seen when the red light is on?

b) What color is seen when the green light is on?

c) What color is seen when the blue light is on?

2) For the next part we will investigate the effects of mixing two colors. Before you begin
each part, be sure to make a hypothesis.
a) What color do you think the man will see when red and green are mixed
together?

b) Turn on the red and green, both to the very top of the color scale. What does the
man actually see?

c) Experiment with the degree of color. While doing this, make sure that both colors
are in equal locations on the scale. What colors are observed? Do they still fit into the same
color family as the color observed in ‘b’?

3) Keep the red light on (to the top red location), and turn off the green. We will be looking
at red and blue next.
a) What color do you think the man will see when red and blue are mixed together?

b) Turn on the red and blue, both to the very top of the color scale. What does the
man actually see?

c) Experiment with the degree of color. While doing this, make sure that both colors
are in equal locations on the scale. What colors are observed? Do they still fit into the
same color family as the color observed in ‘b’?
4) Keep the blue light on (to the top blue location), and turn off the red. We will be looking
at green and blue next.
a) What color do you think the man will see when green and blue are mixed
together?

b) Turn on the green and blue, both to the very top of the color scale. What does the
man actually see?

c) Experiment with the degree of color. While doing this, make sure that both colors
are in equal locations on the scale. What colors are observed? Do they still fit into the
same color family as the color observed in ‘b’?

5) Now we will be looking at mixing all three colors.

a. What color do you think the man will see when red, green and blue are all
mixed together?

b. Turn on all three colors, all to the very top of the color scale. What does the man
actually see?

6) Fill in the color diagram below. Provide the appropriate colors that you observed when
each was mixed. You may use colored pencils if you wish.

RED

BLUE
GREEN
Part II – Use the Single Bulb Tab
1) Set the simulation to the following: bulb type – ‘white’, beam – ‘photons’ and filter
color – ‘off’.
a) What is coming out of the bulb?

b) What color light does the man see?

2) Set the simulation to the following: bulb type – ‘white’, beam – ‘solid’, and filter color
– ‘off’.
a) What is coming out of the bulb?

b) What color light does the man see?

3) Set the simulation to the following: bulb type – ‘white’, beam – ‘photons’, and filter
color – ‘on’.
a) Choose any filter color. Record the color ____________________.
b) What is coming out of the bulb before the filter (in the area just in front of the
filter)?

c) What is coming out after the filter?

d) What color light does the man see?

e) Choose another filter color. Record the color _____________________.

f) Repeat questions b-d (above). Please record your observations as you answer the
questions.

g) What is the filter doing?

4) Set the simulation to the following: bulb type – ‘white’, beam – ‘solid, and filter color –
‘on’.
a) Choose any filter color. Record the color ____________________. Repeat
questions b-d (from question 3 on the last page). Please record your observations as you
answer the questions.
5)
b) Choose another filter color. Record the color ____________________. Repeat
questions b-d (from question 3 on the last page). Please record your observations as you
answer the questions.

c) What are the differences between question 3 (photon setting) and question 4
(solid setting)?

d) What are the similarities between question 3 (photon setting) and question 4
(solid setting)?

6) Set the simulation to the following: bulb type – ‘monochromatic, beam – ‘solid, and
filter color – ‘on’.
a) Select a bulb color and a filter color that are different. Record the colors chosen
below. What does the man see?
Bulb Color: _____________________
Filter Color: _____________________
Color seen by the man:

b) Select a bulb color and a filter color that are the same. Record the colors chosen
below. What does the man see?
Bulb Color: _____________________
Filter Color: _____________________
Color seen by the man:

c) What is the filter doing?

7) In this activity light was represented in 2 ways – as a photon or as a solid. What

explanation can you provide for the nature of light?
 Lab Report : Investigating Color Addition and Subtraction

Student Name: ________________________________________

CATEGORY 4 3 2 1
Participation Used time well in Used time pretty Did the lab but did Participation was
lab and focused well. Stayed not appear very minimal OR
attention on the focused on the interested. Focus student was hostile
experiment. experiment most of was lost on several about participating.
the time. occasions.

Scientific Concepts Report illustrates Report illustrates Report illustrates a Report illustrates
an accurate and an accurate limited inaccurate
thorough understanding of understanding of understanding of
understanding of most scientific scientific concepts scientific concepts
scientific concepts concepts underlying the lab. underlying the lab.
underlying the lab. underlying the lab.
Question/Purpose The purpose of the The purpose of the The purpose of the The purpose of the
lab or the question lab or the question lab or the question lab or the question
to be answered to be answered to be answered to be answered
during the lab is during the lab is during the lab is during the lab is
clearly identified identified, but is partially identified, erroneous or
and stated. stated in a and is stated in a irrelevant.
somewhat unclear somewhat unclear
manner. manner.
Experimental Hypothesized Hypothesized Hypothesized No hypothesis has
Hypothesis relationship relationship relationship been stated.
between the between the between the
variables and the variables and the variables and the
predicted results is predicted results is predicted results
clear and reasonable based has been stated,
reasonable based on general but appears to be
on what has been knowledge and based on flawed
studied. observations. logic.
Analysis The relationship The relationship The relationship The relationship
between the between the between the between the
variables is variables is variables is variables is not
discussed and discussed and discussed but no discussed.
trends/patterns trends/patterns patterns, trends or
logically analyzed. logically analyzed. predictions are
Predictions are made based on the
made about what data.
might happen if
part of the lab were
changed or how
the experimental
design could be
changed.
Conclusion Conclusion Conclusion Conclusion No conclusion was
includes whether includes whether includes what was included in the
the findings the findings learned from the report OR shows
supported the supported the experiment. little effort and
hypothesis, hypothesis and reflection.
possible sources of what was learned
error, and what from the
was learned from experiment.
the experiment.
Summary Summary Summary Summary No summary is
describes the skills describes the describes the written.
learned, the information learned information
information learned and a possible learned.
and some future application to a real
applications to real life situation.
life situations.
 Electromagnetic Waves
Activity # 2 Color Addition and Subtraction (Capstone)

Questions to be investigated
What is color addition? subtraction?
What are complementary colors?
What are primary colors? secondary colors?
What determines the colors we see?
Objectives
• Compare and contrast color addition and subtraction.
• Analyze color formed when complementary colors are mixed.
• Compare and contrast primary and secondary colors.
• Identify the complementary color of any additive color.
• Predict the color of the combination of any two additive colors.
• Predict the color of mixing all three additive colors.
• Identify three primary additive and subtractive colors.
• Identify the complementary color of any subtractive color.
• Predict the color of the combination of any two subtractive colors.
• Predict the color of mixing all three subtractive colors.
Materials
See Teacher Notes
Safety Concerns
None
Real-World Connections
Pigments
Colors
Human sight
color TV screen
Teacher Notes
Note: This lab was adapted from “Lab Guide Color Addition and Color Subtraction” by
Physics Curriculum & Instruction.
Rational: Students need to know the colors of the visible spectrum, how we perceive
color and how color is produced.
Objectives: See above
Materials: Computers, Internet connection, lab sheets
Introduction: Today you will investigate properties of the visible spectrum.
Procedure:
• Explain the purpose of the lab.
• Show the students how to access the Ontario Science Centre game site.
• Demonstrate how to manipulate the simulation

Procedure/Description of Lesson
See Lab Sheet
Assessment Ideas:
See rubric
 Lab Report : Investigating Color Addition and Subtraction

Student Name: ________________________________________

CATEGORY 4 3 2 1
Participation Used time well in Used time pretty Did the lab but did Participation was
lab and focused well. Stayed not appear very minimal OR
attention on the focused on the interested. Focus student was hostile
experiment. experiment most of was lost on several about participating.
the time. occasions.

Scientific Concepts Report illustrates Report illustrates Report illustrates a Report illustrates
an accurate and an accurate limited inaccurate
thorough understanding of understanding of understanding of
understanding of most scientific scientific concepts scientific concepts
scientific concepts concepts underlying the lab. underlying the lab.
underlying the lab. underlying the lab.
Question/Purpose The purpose of the The purpose of the The purpose of the The purpose of the
lab or the question lab or the question lab or the question lab or the question
to be answered to be answered to be answered to be answered
during the lab is during the lab is during the lab is during the lab is
clearly identified identified, but is partially identified, erroneous or
and stated. stated in a and is stated in a irrelevant.
somewhat unclear somewhat unclear
manner. manner.
Experimental Hypothesized Hypothesized Hypothesized No hypothesis has
Hypothesis relationship relationship relationship been stated.
between the between the between the
variables and the variables and the variables and the
predicted results is predicted results is predicted results
clear and reasonable based has been stated,
reasonable based on general but appears to be
on what has been knowledge and based on flawed
studied. observations. logic.
Analysis The relationship The relationship The relationship The relationship
between the between the between the between the
variables is variables is variables is variables is not
discussed and discussed and discussed but no discussed.
trends/patterns trends/patterns patterns, trends or
logically analyzed. logically analyzed. predictions are
Predictions are made based on the
made about what data.
might happen if
part of the lab were
changed or how
the experimental
design could be
changed.
Conclusion Conclusion Conclusion Conclusion No conclusion was
includes whether includes whether includes what was included in the
the findings the findings learned from the report OR shows
supported the supported the experiment. little effort and
hypothesis, hypothesis and reflection.
possible sources of what was learned
error, and what from the
was learned from experiment.
the experiment.
Summary Summary Summary Summary No summary is
describes the skills describes the describes the written.
learned, the information learned information
information learned and a possible learned.
and some future application to a real
applications to real life situation.
life situations.
Name_______________________________________Date_____________HR_______

Color Lab

Ontario Science Centre Simulation – Color Vision

Access: http://www.ontariosciencecentre.ca/scizone/games/ .Select Mixing Colours

Simulation.

Begin Part 1

Part 1 Color Addition

Simulation Features

Human color vision is relies on electrical signals produced by nerve cells caused by
luminous intensity and wavelength of light. This simulation allows you to add light of
three different colors of equal intensity. Each color is represented by a colors ball or
circle. The circles can be moved by clicking and dragging them. By overlapping these
circles, you can describe what is seen by the Human eye.

1. Click and drag the blue circle over the green one. What color is produced in the
overlapping area?

2. Repeat step 1 but this time combine the green and red circles. What color is
produced in the overlapping area?

3. 3. Repeat step 1 but this time combine the blue and red circles. What color is
produced in the overlapping area?

4. What is the color that is complementary to the color produced in Q1?

5. What is the color that is complementary to the color produced in Q2?

6. What is the color that is complementary to the color produced in Q3?

7. Overlap all three circles. What color is produced by mixing all three primary
additive colors?
 8. How could we replicate this simulation in the lab? What color would the
projection screen have to be in order to produced the same results?

9. Scroll down the simulation page. Read through the information given.

Part 2 Color Subtraction

Simulation Features

This simulation allows you to subtract colors of light from white light. This can be
produced by certain types of dye or inks applied to paper or fabric. We will use crayons
to investigate subtraction. The crayons will all certain colors of light to pass through it.
Click and drag on the crayons. This will produce circle of ink. Combine these circles to
see the effect of color subtraction. The overlapping two or three colored areas replicate
how the human eye perceives these combined colors.

10. Click and drag the magenta ink over the yellow one. What two additive colors
combine to produce magenta? These are the two colors that re reflected by the
magenta ink. What two additive colors produce yellow? Yellow will only reflect
these colors. Which color will both subtractive colors transmit? Which additive
color does the simulation show?

11. Repeat step 10 but this time combine the magenta and cyan ink. What primary
additive colors are reflected by the magenta ink? What primary additive colors
are transmitted by the yellow ink? Which color will both subtractive colors
transmit? Which additive color does the simulation show?

12. Repeat step 10 but this time combine the yellow and cyan ink. What primary
additive colors are reflected by the yellow ink? What primary additive colors are
transmitted by the cyan ink? Which color will both subtractive colors transmit?
Which additive color does the simulation show?
 13. Overlap all three subtractive colors. The complementary additive color appears
across from each subtractive color? What is the complementary color to
magenta?

14. What is the complementary color to cyan? Overlap all three subtractive colors to
check your prediction.

15. What is the complementary color to yellow? Overlap all three subtractive colors
to check your prediction.

16. What do you observe at the overlap area of all three colors? Why is produced?

17. What color does the background have to be in order to replicate the simulation in
the lab?

18. Scroll down the simulation page. Read through the information given.

Conclusion.

Summarize your findings. Include a comparison and contrast between color addition
and subtraction.
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Activity 3: Diffraction of Light (Foundational)

Questions to be investigated
What are the components of white light?
How is it possible to separate white light into its components?
Objectives
To make an operational spectroscope
To make observations using the spectroscope
To identify substances using the spectroscope
Materials
See Lab Sheet and supplementary materials page.
Safety Concerns
Careful handling of the utility knife
Real-World Connections
Astronomy
DVD’s
CD’s
Pharmaceutics
Medical

Teacher Notes
See supplementary material at the end of this lab for instructions on constructing a
spectroscope. Disregard references to Lesson 1.
Procedure/Description of Lesson
See lab
Assessment Ideas:
See Rubric
 Lab Report : Exploring Spectra

Student Name: ________________________________________

CATEGORY 4 3 2 1
Safety Lab is carried out Lab is generally Lab is carried out Safety procedures
with full attention to carried out with with some attention were ignored
relevant safety attention to to relevant safety and/or some
procedures. The relevant safety procedures. The aspect of the
set-up, experiment, procedures. The set-up, experiment, experiment posed
and tear-down set-up, experiment, and tear-down a threat to the
posed no safety and tear-down posed no safety safety of the
threat to any posed no safety threat to any student or others.
individual. threat to any individual, but
individual, but one several safety
safety procedure procedures need to
needs to be be reviewed.
reviewed.
Participation Used time well in Used time pretty Did the lab but did Participation was
lab and focused well. Stayed not appear very minimal OR
attention on the focused on the interested. Focus student was hostile
experiment. experiment most of was lost on several about participating.
the time. occasions.

Scientific Concepts Report illustrates Report illustrates Report illustrates a Report illustrates
an accurate and an accurate limited inaccurate
thorough understanding of understanding of understanding of
understanding of most scientific scientific concepts scientific concepts
scientific concepts concepts underlying the lab. underlying the lab.
underlying the lab. underlying the lab.
Question/Purpose The purpose of the The purpose of the The purpose of the The purpose of the
lab or the question lab or the question lab or the question lab or the question
to be answered to be answered to be answered to be answered
during the lab is during the lab is during the lab is during the lab is
clearly identified identified, but is partially identified, erroneous or
and stated. stated in a and is stated in a irrelevant.
somewhat unclear somewhat unclear
manner. manner.
Experimental Hypothesized Hypothesized Hypothesized No hypothesis has
Hypothesis relationship relationship relationship been stated.
between the between the between the
variables and the variables and the variables and the
predicted results is predicted results is predicted results
clear and reasonable based has been stated,
reasonable based on general but appears to be
on what has been knowledge and based on flawed
studied. observations. logic.
Calculations All calculations are Some calculations Some calculations No calculations are
shown and the are shown and the are shown and the shown OR results
results are correct results are correct results labeled are inaccurate or
and labeled and labeled appropriately. mislabeled.
appropriately. appropriately.

Analysis The relationship The relationship The relationship The relationship

between the between the between the between the
variables is variables is variables is variables is not
discussed and discussed and discussed but no discussed.
trends/patterns trends/patterns patterns, trends or
logically analyzed. logically analyzed. predictions are
Predictions are made based on the
made about what data.
might happen if
part of the lab were
changed or how
the experimental
design could be
changed.
Conclusion Conclusion Conclusion Conclusion No conclusion was
includes whether includes whether includes what was included in the
the findings the findings learned from the report OR shows
supported the supported the experiment. little effort and
hypothesis, hypothesis and reflection.
possible sources of what was learned
error, and what from the
was learned from experiment.
the experiment.
Error Analysis Experimental Experimental Experimental There is no
errors, their errors and their errors are discussion of
possible effects, possible effects are mentioned. errors.
and ways to reduce discussed.
errors are
discussed.
Summary Summary Summary Summary No summary is
describes the skills describes the describes the written.
learned, the information learned information
information learned and a possible learned.
and some future application to a real
applications to real life situation.
life situations.
Supplementary Material – Constructing a Spectroscope
 Electromagnetic Waves

Activity # 3 Spectroscopy (Capstone)

Questions to be investigated
What are spectral lines?
What is unique about spectral lines?
What is the function of a diffraction grating?
Objectives
Determine the wavelengths of light in the atomic spectrum of mercury
Identify spectral lines for unknowns
Calibrate diffraction gratings
Materials
Meter Stick
Diffraction Grating
Light Source
Mercury Tube
Unknown Tubes

Safety Concerns
Carefully handle samples
Be aware of the light source at all times as it will be hot

Real-World Connections
Forensics
Pharmaceutics
CD’s/DVD’s
Medical
Teacher Notes
Prior to beginning this lab, the student should have made a diffraction grating. See
supplementary material at the end of this lab for instructions on constructing a diffraction
grating. Use demo at http://physci.kennesaw.edu/javamirror/interf/interference.html for
prelab discussion.

Procedure/Description of Lesson
See Lab Sheet
Assessment Ideas:
See assessment rubric
 Lab Report : Spectral Lines of Mercury

Student Name: ________________________________________

CATEGORY 4 3 2 1
Safety Lab is carried out Lab is generally Lab is carried out Safety procedures
with full attention to carried out with with some attention were ignored
relevant safety attention to to relevant safety and/or some
procedures. The relevant safety procedures. The aspect of the
set-up, experiment, procedures. The set-up, experiment, experiment posed
and tear-down set-up, experiment, and tear-down a threat to the
posed no safety and tear-down posed no safety safety of the
threat to any posed no safety threat to any student or others.
individual. threat to any individual, but
individual, but one several safety
safety procedure procedures need to
needs to be be reviewed.
reviewed.
Participation Used time well in Used time pretty Did the lab but did Participation was
lab and focused well. Stayed not appear very minimal OR
attention on the focused on the interested. Focus student was hostile
experiment. experiment most of was lost on several about participating.
the time. occasions.

Scientific Concepts Report illustrates Report illustrates Report illustrates a Report illustrates
an accurate and an accurate limited inaccurate
thorough understanding of understanding of understanding of
understanding of most scientific scientific concepts scientific concepts
scientific concepts concepts underlying the lab. underlying the lab.
underlying the lab. underlying the lab.
Question/Purpose The purpose of the The purpose of the The purpose of the The purpose of the
lab or the question lab or the question lab or the question lab or the question
to be answered to be answered to be answered to be answered
during the lab is during the lab is during the lab is during the lab is
clearly identified identified, but is partially identified, erroneous or
and stated. stated in a and is stated in a irrelevant.
somewhat unclear somewhat unclear
manner. manner.
Experimental Hypothesized Hypothesized Hypothesized No hypothesis has
Hypothesis relationship relationship relationship been stated.
between the between the between the
variables and the variables and the variables and the
predicted results is predicted results is predicted results
clear and reasonable based has been stated,
reasonable based on general but appears to be
on what has been knowledge and based on flawed
studied. observations. logic.
Calculations All calculations are Some calculations Some calculations No calculations are
shown and the are shown and the are shown and the shown OR results
results are correct results are correct results labeled are inaccurate or
and labeled and labeled appropriately. mislabeled.
appropriately. appropriately.

Analysis The relationship The relationship The relationship The relationship

between the between the between the between the
variables is variables is variables is variables is not
discussed and discussed and discussed but no discussed.
trends/patterns trends/patterns patterns, trends or
logically analyzed. logically analyzed. predictions are
Predictions are made based on the
made about what data.
might happen if
part of the lab were
changed or how
the experimental
design could be
changed.
Conclusion Conclusion Conclusion Conclusion No conclusion was
includes whether includes whether includes what was included in the
the findings the findings learned from the report OR shows
supported the supported the experiment. little effort and
hypothesis, hypothesis and reflection.
possible sources of what was learned
error, and what from the
was learned from experiment.
the experiment.
Error Analysis Experimental Experimental Experimental There is no
errors, their errors and their errors are discussion of
possible effects, possible effects are mentioned. errors.
and ways to reduce discussed.
errors are
discussed.
Summary Summary Summary Summary No summary is
describes the skills describes the describes the written.
learned, the information learned information
information learned and a possible learned.
and some future application to a real
applications to real life situation.
life situations.
Name___________________ Hr. Partner/s______________________

In this lab your group will determine the wavelengths of light in the atomic spectra of mercury.
This lab has two purposes. One is that it will give you practice in preparing for your unknown
spectral line. The other is that it allows you to check the calibration of your unknown diffraction
grating.
Procedure:
1. Place your light source at the 50.0 cm mark at the rear meter stick. The tube should be as
close as possible to the rear meter stick. Set the diffraction grating at a convenient spot on the
front meter stick. Record this distance.
2. Record the color of the spectral line you are viewing. To measure the distance from the source
to the spectral line, a partner should move a pointer until the pointer is directly below the line.
The distance from the 50.0 cm mark to the pointer should be recorded to at least the nearest
0.1 cm.
3. Repeat for another spectral line of the element. (Third line is for whatever you want to do with
it.)
4. Partner does two spectral lines with their diffraction grating.
DATA:
Separation of lines in your diffraction grating: (“d” from work you did yesterday.)

color of the line distance from source to spectral line ( ) distance from grating to rear meter stick ( )

Processing the data:

1) Fill in the following table: (vof light = c = 2.998 x 108 m/s)
color λ (nm) frequency (Hz)

(Show the complete setup for one row.)

The yellow line in mercury is 579.0nm, the green is 546.1nm, the blue 435.8nm, and the violet is
404.7nm. Calculate the percent error of your two values.
If your percent error is less than 2%, your technique is good and your calibration is done well. If it
is more than 5% something is wrong with your work. You can use one of these known colors of
mercury to check your calibration. If the calibration is good, then something is wrong with your
data or calculations.

When you know what you are doing, come and ask for an unknown spectral line. Take it to a
station and determine its wavelength in nanometers. On the back of this sheet, turn in the
following with your lab. 1) Number of your diffraction grating. 2) Well labeled data and the
calculations needed to determine the separation of the grating lines in cm.
3) Calculation and answer for the lines/cm in your grating. 4) Number of unknown and color. 5)
Well labeled data and calculations needed to determine the wavelength of your unknown spectral
line in nanometers.
Supplementary Material – Constructing a Diffracting Grating.
Appendix

1. Diffraction and Interference Worksheets. Source: Comprehensive Conceptual

Curriculum for Physics 2000.

2. Wave Patterns-Leading Edge to Time Travel. Source: Ranking Tasks in Physics/

edited by Thomas L. O’Kuma, David P. Maloney, and Curtis J.Hieggelke.
Pearson Education, Inc. 2004

3. Wave Forms with Same Wavelength-Wave Speed. Source: Ranking Tasks in

Physics/ edited by Thomas L. O’Kuma, David P. Maloney, and Curtis
J.Hieggelke. Pearson Education, Inc. 2004

4. Wave Forms with Same Wavelength-Wave Energy. Source: Ranking Tasks in

Physics/ edited by Thomas L. O’Kuma, David P. Maloney, and Curtis
J.Hieggelke. Pearson Education, Inc. 2004

5. Modeling Instruction Program 2003. W4- Interference Activity. v3.0

6. Modeling Instruction Program 2004. W4- Mechanical Waves in 3D. WS1 v3.0
Diffraction & Interference worksheets and assessments
Wave Model of Light Worksheet 3: Wave Interference Key
1. The intersection of two crests is shown. Sketch the position of these two crests a
short time later and indicate the direction of the movement of the intersection.

It moves straight ahead

2. On the diagram below the dark lines are crests. Identify the type of interference at the
lettered points. Also identify the phase of the waves that are meeting at that point. (crest,
trough, or in between)
B
A C

A: constructive, trough-trough B: constructive, crest-crest C: destructive,

crest-trough D: neither, crest-in-between

3. For each of the lettered points on the interference pattern below answer these
questions: How many wavelengths from each source is it, by how many wavelengths
do the two paths differ and whether there is constructive or destructive interference at
the point.

A C

F B

E
D

S1 S2

Letter Wavelengths from Wavelengths from S2 Difference Constr or

S1 Destr
 A 8 8 0 C
B 8 6.5 1.5 D
C 10 8 2 C
D 5.5 3 2.5 D
E 4 5 1 C
F 6.5 8.5 2 C

4. On the pattern below draw the maximum lines (antinodal lines). Where the lines come
out the top label the zero, first, second and third order lines on each side. (7 lines total)

S1 S2

5. On the pattern below draw 6 minimum lines (nodal lines).

S1 S2

6. In question 4 the distance between source 1 and 2 is 6 wavelengths. Now they are
separated by 3 wavelengths. Draw in 5 lines of constructive interference and comment
on what happens to the spacing of the lines of interference.
lines are much farther apart

S1 S2

7. In this question the sources are the same distance apart as in number 4, however the
wavelength is doubled. Draw in 5 lines of constructive interference and comment on
what happens to the spacing of the lines of interference.
lines much farther apart
8. Answer the following questions using the interference pattern below.
a) What is the difference in the two path lengths to A in wavelengths? 11 – 9 = 2
b) What is the difference in the two path lengths to B in wavelengths? 7.5 – 6.5 = 1
c) What is the difference in the two path lengths to C in wavelengths? 11.5 – 8 = 2.5
d) Draw in the zero order line. On the right side of the pattern draw in all of the nodal lines,
and on the left side all of the antinodes lines.
e) Find a point on a second nodal line past the center where a crest from S1 and a trough
from S2 interfere. Label the point X.
f) Find a point on a third order antinodes line where a trough from S1 and a trough from S2
interfere. Label the point Y.
g) Locate the point 5.0 cm from S1 and 6.5 cm from S2. Label the point Z.
h) Which of the six letters on the diagram show constructive interference? A, B, Y
i) Which of the six letters on the diagram show destructive interference? C, X, Z

B X

Y
Z

S1 S2
9. Two sources, S1 and S2, are producing an interference pattern. Constructive interference
occurs at point P, which happens to be on the third constructive line past the center (zero
order) line. The distance from S1 to P is 30 cm and the distance from S2 to P is 24 cm. What
is the wavelength being produced? Draw a sketch of the situation.
30 cm P
Third constructive
interference is 3 waves. 24 cm
Three waves totaling 6 cm is S1 S2
a wavelength of 2.0 cm. 6 cm

10. Two sources, S1 and S2, are producing 2.0 cm wavelength waves. Destructive interference
occurs at point P, which happens to be on the second destructive line past the center (zero
order) line. The distance from S1 to P is 26 cm. What is the distance between S2 and P?
Draw a sketch of the situation.

Second destructive line is 1.5 P

26 cm
wavelengths, 1.5 waves is 3 cm, 26 cm
– 3 cm is 23 cm. (could also be 29 cm if 23 cm
S1 is closer, in other words P would be S1 S2
to the left of S1) 1.5λ
Key to Ranking Task Exercises in Physics: Student Edition 2004

Wave Forms with Same Wavelength

Wave Pulses-Leading Edge Time to Travel197

Highest 1_______ 2________ 3_______ 4________ 5________ 6________ Lowest

A = B = C = D = E = F

9 Or, all waves have the same time to travel 3m.

Reasoning:

They reach the leading edge at the same time. The amplitude of a wave does not affect
the speed at which the wave travels. Waves A through Wave F travel at the same speed.
The speed of a wave is only altered by alterations in the properties of the medium through
which it travels.

Wave Speed 198

Highest 1_______ 2________ 3_______ 4________ 5________ 6________ Lowest

A = B = C = D = E = F

9 Or, all waves have the same speed.

Reasoning:

All the waves have the same wave speed. They all have equal frequency and wavelength

Wave Energy199

Highest 1_______ 2________ 3_______ 4________ 5________ 6________ Lowest

A = B = C E = F D

Reasoning:

Amplitude is related to energy. E α A2

Name Date Period

Diffraction Activity
In each of the following diagrams, a series of plane wavefronts approach an object from
the left. Use the ripple tank to help you complete the following sketches.

1. Draw the waves as they pass through the slits.

2. Compare how the wavelength affects the amount of diffraction that occurs.

3. Draw the waves as they pass through the slits.

4. Compare how the wavelength affects the amount of diffraction that occurs.

5. Examining situations 1 and 3, compare how the opening size affects the amount of
diffraction.
6. Draw the waves as they pass around the barrier.

7. Compare how the wavelength affects the amount of diffraction that occurs.

8. Draw the waves as they pass around the smaller barrier.

9. Summarize how the wavelength and opening/barrier size relates to the amount of
diffraction that occurs.
Name Date Period

Interference Activity
Use the ripple tank to help you complete the following sketches.

1. Sketch the pattern produced by one point source.

2. Now add a second point source. To the right of the point sources, sketch the pattern
produced.

3. Describe what happens to the spacing of the nodal lines if the frequency is kept
constant and the point sources are moved farther apart.

4. Describe what happens to the spacing of the nodal lines if the distance between the
point sources is kept constant and the frequency is increased.
5. Now set up barriers as shown below and place the plane wave generator on the
oscillator. Sketch the pattern produced by this two slit barrier. How does it compare to
the 2-point source pattern?

6. Describe what happens to the separation of the nodal lines when the wavelength of the
plane waves is increased.

7. Now increase the distance between the slits by adding another aluminum cube.
Describe what happens to the spacing of the nodal lines when the separation of the slits is
increased.

8. Describe what happens to the spacing of the nodal lines when the wavelength is
decreased.

9. Summarize how wavelength and separation of the sources (be they point sources or
slits) determines the spacing of the lines of interference.
Name Date Period

Waves Unit IV, Worksheet 1

Materials Needed: Ruler, Protractor and Pencil.
Part A: Reflection
1. Below is a ray with four wave fronts approaching a barrier. Draw the missing
incident and reflected wave fronts. At the spot the incident ray strikes the barrier,
draw a normal and the reflected ray. Place the velocity chevrons on the wave fronts.

2. The reflected wave fronts are shown below. Draw in the missing incident wave
fronts, and at the location of your choice, the incident and reflected rays and a normal.
Label the incident and reflected rays and angles.

3. Using 3 mirrors, direct the light from the laser to the target above. The light
from the laser can only exit the laser straight ahead. (The wall can’t be
moved, these words can not be crossed and the laser can’t be rotated.)

wall
Part B: Refraction
4. The incident wave fronts are shown below. Draw in the refracted wave fronts. At any
location you wish, draw the normal, the incident and the refracted ray. Label the
incident and refracted rays and angles.

slow fast

5. The refracted ray and two wave fronts are shown below. Draw in the incident ray, the
normal and all of the missing wave fronts. Label the incident and refracted rays and
angles.

slow
fast

Part C: Reflection and Refraction (since this is what really happens)

6. The incident ray and 3 wave fronts are shown below. Draw in the refracted and the
reflected wave fronts. Also draw the normal, the reflected and the refracted ray. Label
the incident, reflected, refracted rays and angles.

fast

slow
7. The reflected ray and wavefronts are shown below. Draw in the incident and refracted
wavefronts, the normal, the incident and refracted rays. Label the incident, reflected,
refracted rays and angles.

fast
slow

8. The reflected wave fronts are shown below. Draw in the incident and refracted wave
fronts. At the location of your choice on the boundary, draw and label an incident ray,
a reflected ray, a refracted ray and a normal.

slow fast

a) How does the incident frequency compare to the reflected frequency? How do
you know?

b) How does the incident wavelength compare to the reflected wavelength? How do
you know?

c) How does the incident wave speed compare to the reflected wave speed? How do
you know?
d) How does the incident frequency compare to the refracted frequency? How do
you know?

e) How does the incident wavelength compare to the refracted wavelength? How do
you know?

f) How would the incident wave speed compare to the refracted wave speed if the
refracted ray had a larger angle to the normal than the incident ray? How do you
know?
Name Date Period

Waves Unit IV, Worksheet 1 Key

Materials Needed: Ruler, Protractor and Pencil.
Part A: Reflection
1. Below is a ray with four wave fronts approaching a barrier. Draw the missing
incident and reflected wave fronts. At the spot the incident ray strikes the barrier,
draw a normal and the reflected ray. Place the velocity chevrons on the wave fronts.

2. The reflected wave fronts are shown below. Draw in the missing incident wave
fronts, and at the location of your choice, the incident and reflected rays and a normal.
Label the incident and reflected rays and angles.

reflected ray
incident ray
θr
θi

3. Using 3 mirrors, direct the light from the laser to the target above. The light
from the laser can only exit the laser straight ahead. (The wall can’t be
moved, these words can not be crossed and the laser can’t be rotated.)
There are many possibilities, here is one. The steps are to draw the 3 rays.
Measure the angle between two, divide that angle by two and draw the
normal at that angle from one ray. Draw the mirror perpendicular to the
normal.
wall
Part B: Refraction
4. The incident wave fronts are shown below. Draw in the refracted wavefronts. At any
location you wish, draw the normal, the incident and the refracted ray. Label the
incident and refracted rays and angles.

incident ray
θi

θr

refracted ray

slow fast

5. The refracted ray and two wave fronts are shown below. Draw in the incident ray, the
normal and all of the missing wave fronts. Label the incident and refracted rays and
angles.

refracted ray

slow θr
fast θi
incident ray

Part C: Reflection and Refraction (since this is what really happens)

6. The incident ray and 3 wave fronts are shown below. Draw in the refracted and the
reflected wave fronts. Also draw the normal, the reflected and the refracted ray. Label
the incident, reflected, refracted rays and angles.
refracted ray
θrefr

fast

slow reflected ray

θrefl
θi

incident ray
7. The reflected ray and wave fronts are shown below. Draw in the incident and refracted
wave fronts, the normal, the incident and refracted rays. Label the incident, reflected,
refracted rays and angles.

refracted ray θrefr

fast
slow

θi
θrefl incident ray
reflected ray

8. The reflected wavefronts are shown below. Draw in the incident and refracted
wavefronts. At the location of your choice on the boundary, draw an incident ray, a
reflected ray, a refracted ray and a normal.
incident ray
normal

θi θrefr
θrefl

slow fast
refracted ray

reflected ray

a) How does the incident frequency compare to the reflected frequency? How do
you know?
They are the same, no change in the waves per second
b) How does the incident wavelength compare to the reflected wavelength? How do
you know?
They are the same, no change in medium
c) How does the incident wavespeed compare to the reflected wavespeed? How do
you know?
They are the same, no change in medium
d) How does the incident frequency compare to the refracted frequency? How do
you know?
They are the same, no change in the waves per time
e) How does the incident wavelength compare to the refracted wavelength? How do
you know?
If the speed increases, the wavelength increases, if the
frequency is constant and the velocity is larger, v/f will
be larger.
f) How would the incident wave speed compare to the refracted wave speed if the
refracted ray had a larger angle to the normal than the incident ray? How do you
know?
The speed is faster, waves that speed up move farther from the normal.
Name Date Period
Waves Unit IV, Worksheet 4: Interference Problems
1) Dan Sinkween is standing on a beach watching waves come through two openings in a
wave break. The water waves are 3.0 m long and he is standing 26.5 m from one
opening and 31.0 m from the other. Will there be waves at his feet or not?

2) Two speakers are vibrating in phase at 170 Hz. Ken E. Doit is standing 10.m from
speaker A. What are 3 distances someone could move speaker B from Ken to provide
destructive interference if he remains 10 m from speaker A? Give 3 distances for
constructive interference.

3) Light with a frequency of 6.670x1014 Hz passes through two slits 1.34x10-3 cm apart.
How far from the center will the first fringe appear if the screen is 60.00 cm from the
grating?

4) Microwaves of an unknown frequency are passed through double slits separated by

35.0 cm. The first maximum is found 15.8o from the center. What is the wavelength
of the microwaves?

5) To calibrate a diffraction grating, Oprah Glasses aims a helium neon laser through the
grating. The laser light has a wavelength of 632.8 nm. When the screen is 1.000 m
from the grating the first order fringe is 35.05 cm from the center dot.
a) What is the angle to the first fringe? b) What is the distance between the lines
on the grating?
c) How many lines/cm are on the grating? d) What is the frequency of the light?
 6) A diffraction grating with 5,000 lines/cm is placed 95.00 cm from a spectrum tube. A
first order fringe is seen 26.54 cm from the tube. What wavelength is the fringe in cm? in
m? in nm?

7) Diane Taseeya is instructed to order a diffraction grating that will spread light of 700.
nm to an angle of 30.0o. What should the lines/cm be for the grating?

8) Light passes through a grating of 4,000 lines/cm. Light appears on a screen 1.60
meters away. If the first order fringe is 34.0 cm from the center, what is the
wavelength of the light?

9) If a grating has 6000 lines/cm, what will be the angle between the first order fringe for
light of 400nm and 700nm? If the screen is 100.00 cm away, how far apart will the
two fringes be?
 4.5m
1) path 2 - path 1 = 4.5 m, m
= 1.5 waves , 1.5 waves = destructive interference, so
3.0 wave
no waves at his feet
340 ms
2) λ = = 2.0m destructive = 1/2 wave = 1.0 m, 1.5 waves = 3.0 m, 2.5 waves =
170Hz
5.0 m, etc
constructive = 0 waves = 0 m, 1.0 waves = 2.0 m, 2.0 waves =
4.0 m, etc
3)
v 3.00x10 8 m/s λ 4.50x10 -7 m
λ= = = 4.50x10 -7
m, sinθ = = , θ = 1.924 o , x = tan1.924(6 0cm) = 2.02cm
f 6.67x10 14 Hz d 1.34x10 -5 m

4) λ = d(sinθ) =.35m(sin15.8 o ) = 9.53x10 -2 m

35.05cm
5a) tan θ = θ = tan-1(.3505) = 19.32o 5b)
100cm
632.8nm( 101m
9 )( 100cm
1m
)
d= nm
o
= 1.91x10 - 4 cm
sin19.32

1 v 3.00x10 8 m / s
5c) = 5227 lines / cm 5d) f= = = 4.74x1014 Hz
1913
. x10 -4 line
cm λ 6.328x10 -7 m

6)
26.54cm 1
tanθ = θ = tan -1 (.2794) = 15.61o d = = 2.000 × 10 -4 cm
95cm 5000 lines
cm

λ = dsinθ = 2.000x10 -4 cm(sin15.61o ) = 5.38 × 10 -5 cm ( 100cm

1m
) = 5.38 × 10 -7 m ( 1nm
)= 538nm
10 - 9 m

λ 7.00x10 -5 cm 1
7) d= = = 1.40 × 10 -4 cm ⇒ = 7140 lines
cm
sinθ sin30 o 1.40 × 10 -4 cm
line

34cm 1
tanθ = θ = tan -1 (.2125) = 12.00 o d = = 2.50 × 10 -4 cm
8) 160cm 4000 lines
cm

λ = dsinθ = 2.50 × 10 -4 cm(sin12.00 o ) = 5.20 × 10 -5 cm ( 100cm

1m
)( 1nm
) = 520nm
10 - 9 m

9) 10.9o, 21.6 cm
Oakland Schools Physics Resource Unit

Mechanical Waves,
Sound & Music

Nicole Y. Murawski
Royal Oak High School
School District of the City of Royal Oak
 Mechanical Waves, Sound & Music
Content Statements
P1.1 Scientific Inquiry
Science is a way of understanding nature. Scientific research may begin by generating new scientific
questions that can be answered through replicable scientific investigations that are logically developed
and conducted systematically. Scientific conclusions and explanations result from careful analysis of
empirical evidence and the use of logical reasoning. Some questions in science are addressed through
indirect rather than direct observation, evaluating the consistency of new evidence with results
predicted by models of natural processes. Results from investigations are communicated in reports that
are scrutinized through a peer review process.
P4.1 Energy Transfer
Moving objects and waves transfer energy from one location to another. They also transfer energy to
objects during interactions (e.g., sunlight transfers energy to the ground when it warms the ground;
sunlight also transfers energy from the sun to the Earth).
P4.4 Wave Characteristics
Waves (mechanical and electromagnetic) are described by their wavelength, amplitude, frequency, and
speed.
P4.4x Wave Characteristics — Calculations
Wave velocity, wavelength, and frequency are related by v = λf. The energy transferred by a wave is
proportional to the square of the amplitude of vibration and its frequency.
P4.5 Mechanical Wave Propagation
Vibrations in matter initiate mechanical waves (e.g., water waves, sound waves, seismic waves), which
may propagate in all directions and decrease in intensity in proportion to the distance squared for a
point source. Waves transfer energy from one place to another without transferring mass.

Content Expectations
P1.1A Generate new questions that can be investigated in the laboratory or field.

P1.1C Conduct scientific investigations using appropriate tools and techniques (e.g., selecting an instrument
that measures the desired quantity–length, volume, weight, time interval, temperature–with the
appropriate level of precision).
P1.1D Identify patterns in data and relate them to theoretical models.

P1.1f Predict what would happen if the variables, methods, or timing of an investigation were changed.

P1.1h Design and conduct a systematic scientific investigation that tests a hypothesis. Draw conclusions from
data presented in charts or tables.
P4.1A Account for and represent energy into and out of systems using energy transfer diagrams.

P4.1B Explain instances of energy transfer by waves and objects in everyday activities (e.g., why the ground
gets warm during the day, how you hear a distant sound, why it hurts when you are hit by a baseball).
P4.2C Explain how energy is conserved in common systems (e.g., light incident on a transparent material,
light incident on a leaf, mechanical energy in a collision).
P4.4A Describe specific mechanical waves (e.g., on a demonstration spring, on the ocean) in terms of
wavelength, amplitude, frequency, and speed.
P4.4B Identify everyday examples of transverse and compression (longitudinal) waves.
P4.4C Compare and contrast transverse and compression (longitudinal) waves in terms of wavelength,
amplitude, and frequency.
P4.4d Demonstrate that frequency and wavelength of a wave are inversely proportional in a given medium.

P4.4e Calculate the amount of energy transferred by transverse or compression waves of different
amplitudes and frequencies (e.g., seismic waves).
P4.5A Identify everyday examples of energy transfer by waves and their sources.

P4.5B Explain why an object (e.g., fishing bobber) does not move forward as a wave passes under it.

P4.5C Provide evidence to support the claim that sound is energy transferred by a wave, not energy
transferred by particles.
P4.5D Explain how waves propagate from vibrating sources and why the intensity decreases with the square
of the distance from a point source.
P4.5E Explain why everyone in a classroom can hear one person speaking, but why an amplification system is
often used in the rear of a large concert auditorium.
P4.8c Describe how two wave pulses propagated from opposite ends of a demonstration spring interact as
they meet.
Instructional Background Information:

What is a Wave?

A wave can be described as a disturbance that travels through a medium, or a vacuum,

from one location to another location. A medium is a substance or material which carries
the wave. The wave medium is not the wave and it doesn't make the wave; it merely
carries or transports the wave from its source to other locations.

A mechanical wave is a wave which is not capable of transmitting its energy through a
vacuum. Mechanical waves require a medium in order to transport their energy from one
location to another. A sound wave is an example of a mechanical wave. Sound waves are
incapable of traveling through a vacuum. Slinky waves, water waves, stadium waves, and
jump rope waves are other examples of mechanical waves; each requires some medium
in order to exist. A slinky wave requires the coils of the slinky; a water wave requires
water; a stadium wave requires fans in a stadium; and a jump rope wave requires a jump
rope.

A Wave Transports Energy and Not Matter

When a wave is present in a medium, the individual particles of the medium are only
temporarily displaced from their rest position. There is always a force acting upon the
particles which restores them to their original position. It is for this reason that a wave is
said to involve the movement of a disturbance without the movement of matter. The
particles of the medium simply vibrate about a fixed position as the pattern of the
disturbance moves from one location to another.

Waves are said to be an energy transport phenomenon. As a disturbance moves through a

medium from one particle to its adjacent particle, energy is being transported from one
end of the medium to the other. With a wave in a slinky, this process of energy transfer
continues as each coil interacts with its neighbor. In this manner, energy is transported
from one end of the slinky to the other, from its source to another location.

This characteristic of a wave as an energy transport phenomenon distinguishes waves

from other types of phenomenon. In a wave phenomenon, energy can move from one
location to another, yet the particles of matter in the medium return to their fixed
position. A wave transports its energy without transporting matter.
The Anatomy of a Wave

A transverse wave is a wave in which the particles of the medium are displaced in a
direction perpendicular to the direction of energy transport. If a snapshot of such a
transverse wave in a string could be taken, then it would look like the following diagram.

The dashed line drawn through the center of the diagram represents the equilibrium or
rest position of the string. This is the position that a string would assume if there were no
disturbance moving through it. Once a disturbance is introduced into the string, the
particles of the string begin to vibrate upwards and downwards. At any given moment in
time, a particle on the medium could be above or below the rest position. Points A, E and
H on the diagram represent the crests of this wave. The crest of a wave is the point on the
medium which exhibits the maximum amount of positive or upwards displacement from
the rest position. Points C and J on the diagram represent the troughs of this wave. The
trough of a wave is the point on the medium which exhibits the maximum amount of
negative or downwards displacement from the rest position.

The wave shown above can be described by a variety of properties. One such property is
amplitude. The amplitude of a wave refers to the maximum amount of displacement of a
particle on the medium from its rest position. In a sense, the amplitude is the distance
from rest to crest. Similarly, the amplitude can be measured from the rest position to the
trough position. In the diagram above, the amplitude could be measured as the distance of
a line segment which is perpendicular to the rest position and extends vertically upward
from the rest position to point A.

The wavelength is another property of a wave which is portrayed in the diagram above.
The wavelength of a wave is simply the length of one complete wave cycle. The
wavelength can be measured as the distance from crest to crest or from trough to trough.
In fact, the wavelength of a wave can be measured as the distance from a point on a wave
to the corresponding point on the next cycle of the wave. In the diagram above, the
wavelength is the horizontal distance from A to E, or the horizontal distance from B to F,
or the horizontal distance from D to G, or the horizontal distance from E to H. Any one of
these distance measurements would suffice in determining the wavelength of this wave.

A longitudinal wave is a wave in which the particles of the medium are displaced in a
direction parallel to the direction of energy transport. A longitudinal wave can be created
in a slinky if the slinky is stretched out horizontally and the end coil is vibrated back-and-
forth in a horizontal direction. If a snapshot of such a longitudinal wave could be taken so
as to freeze the shape of the slinky in time, then it would look like the following diagram.
A region where the coils are pressed together in a small amount of space is known as a
compression. A compression is a point on a medium through which a longitudinal wave
is traveling which has the maximum density. A region where the coils are spread apart,
thus maximizing the distance between coils, is known as a rarefaction. A rarefaction is a
point on a medium through which a longitudinal wave is traveling which has the
minimum density. Points A, C and E on the diagram above represent compressions and
points B, D, and F represent rarefactions. Since a sound wave consists of a repeating
pattern of high pressure (compressions) and low pressure (rarefactions) regions moving
through a medium, they are an example of a longitudinal wave and are sometimes also
referred to as a pressure wave .

As discussed above, the wavelength of a wave is the length of one complete cycle of a
wave. For a transverse wave, the wavelength is determined by measuring from crest to
crest. However, for a longitudinal wave the wavelength can always be determined by
measuring the distance between any two corresponding points on adjacent waves. In the
case of a longitudinal wave, a wavelength measurement is made by measuring the
distance from a compression to the next compression or from a rarefaction to the next
rarefaction. On the diagram above, the distance from point A to point C or from point B
to point D would be representative of the wavelength.

Source: The Physics Classroom (www.physicsclassroom.com)

Terms and Concepts

Wave Medium Mechanical Wave

Transverse Wave Crest Wavelength

Trough Amplitude Beats

Resonance Reflection (erect/inverted) Rarefaction

Wave Cycle Longitudinal Wave Compression

Wave Speed Destructive Interference Standing Wave

Standing Wave Constructive Interference Fundamental

Frequency
Node Antinode Harmonics
Instructional Resources
Audacity – Sound Recording Software (free to download for windows or mac)
http://audacity.sourceforge.net/

The Book of Phyz

http://homepage.mac.com/phyzman/phyz/BOP/index.html

Canadian Space Agency – The Science of Sound

http://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/educators/resources/neemo/sound/speech.asp

Diagnoser Project
www.diagnoser.com

HippoCampus
http://www.hippocampus.org

PhET – University of Colorado at Boulder

http://phet.colorado.edu/index.php

Ranking Task Exercises in Physics Student Edition

Available for purchase from:
http://www.mypearsonstore.com/bookstore/product.asp?isbn=013144851X&xid=PSED

Rutgers – Physics Teaching Technology Resource

http://paer.rutgers.edu/PT3/index.php

Teaching Physics for the First Time Manual (ISBN: 978-1-931024-10-5)

Available for purchase from the AAPT Store online
http://www.aapt.org/Store/
 M ECHAN ICAL W AVES, SOUND & M USIC
Activity #1 – Waves on a String

Questions to be investigated
How does the speed of a wave depend upon a medium? What relationship exists between
the frequency and wavelength of a wave?

Objectives
Students will learn that the speed of a wave depends on the properties of the medium in
which the wave is traveling through, and is independent of the frequency or wavelength.
Students will discover that the frequency varies inversely with the wavelength of a wave.

Materials
Computer(s) with internet access, or with downloaded PhET simulation.

Safety Concerns
None

Real-World Connections
Waves are a component of so many parts of daily life, from sound to light to ocean
waves.

Teacher Notes
This activity is written to be appropriate for either a foundational or capstone course.
Your foundational students may need more guidance, whereas your capstone students
will likely be able to work more independently.

I added an Extension to the activity which should be a good question for your more
advanced/capstone students. (Hint: the frequencies are not being measured in Hertz!)

Procedure/Description of Lesson
See the worksheet at the end of the activity description.

Assessment Ideas:
Given sketches of various wave pulses of different frequencies in the same medium, ask
students to compare and contrast them on the basis of energy, wavelength and speed.
Using mathematical relationships, students can solve for unknown values. Depending on
the level of student, you can make the calculations more straight forward, or more
complex. Also, you can view the videos found at the following website, and answer the
questions provided: http://paer.rutgers.edu/PT3/experiment.php?topicid=6&exptid=183
Waves on a String Name_________________________

Date___________Hour_____

PURPOSE: To learn about the relationship between the frequency, wavelength and
speed of waves, and what each variable is dependent upon.

PROCEDURES:

1. Go to the following website to view the Waves on a String simulation:

http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Wave_on_a_String

2. You may “Download” if you wish to save the simulation to your computer, or “Run
Now” if saving the file is not required.

3. Get familiar with the simulation – play around for 2-3 minutes. Briefly describe 2
things that you discovered while getting to know how to utilize this simulation.

4. Now, you’re ready to begin the investigation. Click the pulse button. Adjust the
settings so that there is zero damping and low tension. Leave the amplitude and
pulse width at 50, and keep a fixed end. Click to insert a timer onto the screen, at the
upper right-hand corner.

5. Determine the time it takes for a pulse to travel to the end of the string when the
tension is low. Try it 2-3 times, until you are certain you have measured the time
correctly. Ask your teacher for help if you are having difficulty with this step.
Increase the tension to medium, then high, repeating the steps above. Be sure to reset
between each trial. Record the times for each pulse below:
Tension Time (sec)
Low
Medium
High
6. Click on the rulers and measure the length of the string from the start of the first red
ball to the end of the last red ball. Record your measurement below: _________ cm

7. Compute the speed at which the energy traveled down the string in all 3 situations.
Be sure to show your formula and calculation! (Ask your teacher if you need help)
Tension Speed (cm/s)
Low
Medium
High
8. Based on your data, summarize the relationship between the tension of the string and
the speed in which the energy travels through the string.

9. Does changing the amplitude of the pulse have any effect on the speed of the wave?
Return the tension to medium and change the amplitude to see. Describe your
findings:

10. Change the setting to oscillate, and click the reset button to start a new wave. Set the
amplitude = 50 and the frequency = 5. Click the pause button when you have a nice
looking wave that hasn’t reached the end of the string yet. Sketch the wave and label
the following: amplitude, wavelength, crest, and trough. Also, note how many wave
cycles are visible in your wave.

11. What direction is the energy traveling in? ___________________________________

What direction are the particles (balls) of the medium traveling in? _______________

What type of wave is being formed in the string? _____________________________

12. Let’s see what effect changing the frequency will have on the wavelength of the
wave. Set the amplitude = 50 and the frequency = 5. Reset and click the oscillate
button to start a pulse. Pause when you can get a good snapshot. Measure the
wavelength of your wave, as shown below and enter it into the following table.
13. Increase the frequency to 10, 15, 20 and 25 and repeat the steps above. Be sure to
reset after each trial. Record your findings in the table below:
Frequency Wavelength (cm)
5
10
15
20
25

14. Based on your data, what is the relationship between the frequency and wavelength of
your wave?

15. Describe how the wheel’s rate of rotation changes as you increase the frequency.

Based on your observations, what can you say about the relationship between the
energy put into a wave and frequency?

16. Now, let’s look at the effect that changing the frequency will have on the speed of the
wave. This part will be a little trickier; you should move the meter stick to line up the
second green dot at 0 cm, as shown in the diagram below. You are going to time how
long it takes for the pulse to travel from this point to the end of the string.
17. Click the oscillate button and pause for a moment. Set the amplitude = 50 and the
frequency = 5. Reset to start the wave again, and measure the time it takes for the
leading edge of the wave to make it to the end of the string. Increase the frequency to
10, 15, 20 and 25, and repeat. Record your times here:
Frequency Time (sec)
5
10
15
20
25

18. Based on your data, what effect does frequency have on the speed of the wave? Why
do you suppose that is?

Extension: The speed of a wave can be computed by multiplying the frequency by the
wavelength of the wave. Using your data from step 13, compute the speed of the wave
for each of trials. Show each of your calculations in the space provided.

Frequency Speed (cm/s)

5
10
15
20
25
Describe how the answers compare to one another. Is this what you would have
expected?

Compare these answers to the speed that you calculated, for medium tension, in step 7.
Notice that these answers do not agree with each other, although they should! Give a
plausible reason for this discrepancy (No, it’s not “the simulation is broken!”)
Activity # 2 – Wave Demos with a Slinky and a Snakey

Questions to be investigated
How are longitudinal and transverse waves produced? What are standing waves and how
are they created? What are the source and medium in a wave? What are harmonics and
overtones? What are erect and inverted reflections and how do they form? What
properties of a wave are dependent upon the source (or the medium)?

Objectives
Students will be able to compare and contrast longitudinal and transverse waves.
Students will understand how and why erect and inverted reflections form. Students will
be able to describe constructive and destructive interference. Students will be able to
describe the formation of standing waves, and understand fundamental frequencies and
harmonics.

Materials
Slinky, snakey, long piece of string, and room to stretch out.

Safety Concerns
None.

Real-World Connections
Waves are involved in sound, light, earthquakes, tsunamis, etc. Musical instruments
create sounds through standing waves and sound different from one another due to the
interference of their harmonics.

Teacher Notes
This foundational or capstone activity works quite well on smooth, tiled floor. I use the
hallway outside of my classroom, as I have plenty of space to spread out, while the kids
can line up on either side of the hallway and get a good view of what is being
demonstrated. I also have another student assist me by holding the other end of the
slinky. Sometimes, I will swap out assistants so they have a chance to view the waves
from above as opposed to always seeing them from the end-on view.

When I do this activity, I simply have a class discussion, while asking lots of questions.
You certainly could have students take notes in a lab book or notebook, include sketches,
etc. I also prefer to use the larger slinky for discussion of wave types. However, when I
get into harmonics and interference, I prefer the thinner “snakey” which is available from
Arbor Scientific or Science Kit, or various other science supply companies.

Avoid using your slinkies/snakeys “in the air” and instead use them on the floor. They
are far less likely to get stretched out, and therefore will not need replaced yearly!
Procedure/Description of Lesson

Elicitation:

1. Think of a warm, summer day with lots of wind. You are watching waves move on a
lake. The wind is creating wave pulses that are about 2 feet high. A large boat goes by
and creates wave pulses that are 3 feet high. Think about how these two kinds of
waves will interact.

A. Describe/sketch what happens when the 3 ft crest meets the 2 ft crest.

B. What will the wave(s) look like a few seconds after they meet?

2.

A. Describe/sketch what happens when this 3 ft crest meets this 2 ft trough.

B. What will the wave(s) look like a few seconds after they meet?

3. What happens when two sound waves interact? Explain your thinking.

Show your students the video clips found at the website below, and ask the questions at
the bottom of the page. Note: You can pause and slowly advance forward or backward
when the pulses collide, for a better view of what is truly happening.
http://paer.rutgers.edu/PT3/experiment.php?topicid=6&exptid=171

Be sure to help them see that the pulses do not bounce off one another, but instead pass
through each other.
Explore:

Take your students into a long hallway, or somewhere where you have a lot of space to
work in.

Start with a large slinky, with several pieces of small, bright strings tied onto. Move your
arm back and forth quickly to create a (transverse) pulse, like the one shown below:

Have the students observe the pulse’s behavior as it travels down the slinky, reflects, and
returns. Ask students questions, to get them talking about energy (and the transfer of),
reflections, source and medium, etc.

• Why is the pulse getting smaller?

• What happens when it gets to the end of the slinky?
• What is the source of the wave? (what is causing it)
• Where is the energy originating from? (the vibrations in my hand)
• Where is that energy going? (through the slinky to the other end)
• What evidence is there that energy gets to the end? (see the wave, student feels it)
• What is the medium for the wave (the material the energy is traveling through)?
• What direction is the energy traveling in?
• What direction are the particles in the medium traveling in (look at the strings)?
• What is the relationship between the direction of these two (parallel or
perpendicular)?
• What kind of wave is this?

Now, push the slinky to create a (longitudinal) pulse, like the one shown below:

Ask students to compare this pulse to the one shown before. Ask the following
questions:

• What direction is the energy traveling in?

• What direction are the particles in the medium traveling in?
• What is the relationship between the direction of these two (parallel or
perpendicular)?
• What kind of wave is this?

Now, switch to the thinner snakey. Send a good transverse pulse down and have students
observe the reflection. If you give it enough energy, you can get a few good reflections.
 • Was a crest or trough sent down (will need to establish and agree upon)?
• What does it come back as? (Discuss WHY an inverted reflection occurs.)
• What must be done to get a larger amplitude?

Now, tie a really long string onto the end of the snakey. Send another transverse pulse
down, and observe the energy that transmits into the string.

• How is this reflection different than before? (smaller amplitude, erect, explain)

You may want to make some observations of the speed that the pulse in the slinky versus
the string travels in. If your string is long enough, your students will easily be able to see
this.

• Why do the pulses travel at different speeds in the two different materials?

Reel the string back in so that the student is now holding the other end of the snakey. Do
some interference demonstrations. (I find that my students do not quickly pick up the
skill of making good pulses. So, I will send a good crest down and let it reflect as a
trough, and then send another crest/trough down to interfere with it.) Create a variety of
situations; same amplitudes, different amplitudes, crest and trough, trough and trough.
Draw on their observations of the video clip shown earlier, as you do not have the luxury
of going in “slow motion” during this part of the activity. Ask students questions like:

• Some kinds of interference are constructive, and some are destructive. What do
you think that means?
• Which of the previous scenarios fall into the two categories?

Now that the students have seen interference, send a wave-train of pulses down to the end
until you get a good rhythm and a clear standing wave. Take some time to discuss how
the incident and reflected pulses are continuously interfering with each other, ask
students to point out regions of constructive and destructive interference, and introduce
the terms node and antinode. Tell students that this is an example of a standing wave.

Start a slow, repetitive wave, in which you create one half wavelength of a standing
wave. Discuss that this is the lowest frequency in which a standing wave will form in the
slinky, and is referred to as the fundamental frequency.

• How they we determine the frequency of this wave (count how many cycles occur
in a certain amount of time)?
• What is determining that frequency (my hand)?
• What might happen if I were to move my hand faster?

Slowly increase the frequency so they can see that the standing wave is “being destroyed”
and discuss how you must not have a “magical frequency.” Go back to your first low
frequency wave and get a rhythm for what twice that frequency would be. Restart your
wave with this new frequency and notice that a new standing wave was created.
 • How does this wave compare to the previous, in terms of frequency, wavelength
and number of wave cycles?

Discuss that, in music, this would represent the 2nd harmonic, or 1st overtone.

Go back to your first wave and determine what three times that frequency would be.
Create that wave, and again have students compare to the previous. Again, in music this
would represent the 3rd harmonic, or 2nd overtone.

Continue to increase the frequency and asking your students to describe the waves that
they see.

Extension: Line up a row of plastic cups on one or both sides of the snakey and create
instances of constructive or destructive interference. For example, have two medium
sized crests come towards each other. When they meet, the combined amplitude will be
greater. If this interference occurs where there is a cup, the cup will be knocked down.
Similarly, if you have a large crest meet a large trough, many cups will be knocked down
as they travel. However, where the destructive interference occurs, the cups will not be
knocked down.

For an example of what this might look like, go to:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P_rK66GFeI4
Assessment Ideas:

The following Ranking Task exercise can be given to students. Have them work on it
independently, and complete their own comfort-level analysis, before discussing as a
class. Note that there are two sets of equal height. Therefore you may want to discuss
the possibility of not having 6 distinct answers with your students if this is their first
exposure to Ranking Tasks.
Activity #3 – Sound Waves

Questions to be investigated
How do the properties of a sound relate to the characteristics of a wave? What is the
pitch dependent on? What is the volume (intensity) dependent on? What happens when
more than one sound is created at the same time?

Objectives
Students will learn that the pitch of a sound is dependent upon the frequency of the wave
and that the volume (intensity) relies on the amplitude of the wave. In addition, students
will learn that when different two sounds will interfere with one another, and sometimes
produce beats. Students will derive an equation for computing the beat frequency.

Materials
Computer with Audacity installed (free to download, see resources) and data projector.
You may wish to have tuning forks and an electronic keyboard, if available.

Safety Concerns
None

Real-World Connections
Sound waves are a part of everyday life. We hear each others’ voices, listen to the radio,
talk on our cell phones, and listen to the birds chirp at 5:30am! Using our ears to listen to
sounds is a means of using one of our 5 senses, ya know. What an enjoyable sense it is…

Teacher Notes
This foundational or capstone activity should be done as a class demonstration with a
data projector. If you have a cheap electronic keyboard, it will be a great asset for an
activity such as this (although you could probably replicate much of the same kinds of
results with tuning forks or a good whistle, etc.). In addition, similar activities may be
done with LoggerPro, but will require modifications.

Before doing this activity with your students, get to know how to use Audacity. There
are some great tutorials available online, if you do a quick Google search. However, the
instructions that follow should be more than sufficient for getting to know the program.

The basic button functions that you will need include:

Record Stop Play

Procedure/Description of Lesson

Elicitation:

Before beginning this activity, ask your students the following questions. At this point,
accept all reasonable answers and allow students to talk to each other as well.

• How does a high pitched sound differ from one with low pitch?
• When is a sound “too high?”
• How does a loud sound compare to one that is quiet?
• When is a loud sound “too loud?”
• Why does my brother sound different when he sings the exact same pitch as I do?
• Similarly, why does a piano and a cello, playing the exact same pitch, sound
different?

Explore:

Part I: Pitch and Frequency

The example shown below was done with three short recordings – a high pitched whistle,
then a medium pitched whistle, and finally a low-pitched whistle. This was created by
simply clicking record, whistling briefly, and then clicking stop. Repeat two more
times. Audacity will line all three recordings up, one above the other, as shown below.

Notice that it is not possible to see the difference between the three, so you will need to
zoom in!
In order to zoom in, place your cursor at the start of a short segment that you like, and
click and drag across the wave section, as shown below. All three will be captured in
the same segment of time. Then, click the zoom in button until you get the results you
want.

Eventually, you will see a graph that will look like this:

Now, you can clearly see the difference between the three waves!
Ask students to compare/contrast all three waves – how do their frequencies and
wavelengths compare. (And – my imperfect whistles did NOT have equal amplitudes!
You may use the tone generator, explained later, or a keyboard to eliminate this “error.”)

To have students compute the frequencies of all three waves, highlight a segment of each
wave, such as shown below, and note the time span identified at the bottom of the screen.

In this example, the first wave completed 10 cycles in 0.006281 seconds. Therefore, the
10
frequency would be cycles/sec, or 1592 Hz.
0.006281

Ask your students to compute the wavelength of each wave, if you assume the speed of
sound in your classroom is, say, 344 m/s. (You could certainly have your students
compute the speed of sound in the room, if temperature is measured, using the equation
shown in the next activity). This is a good opportunity for them to see the reality of the
sound waves that they hear can have wavelengths on the order of 22 cm.

Note: If at any point you want to do a play back of your recording, click the play key. If
you mute any of the waves, you will only hear the others.
Part II: Volume (Intensity) and Amplitude

The next demonstration that you should try is to record a loud and a quiet sound. Again,
if you quickly record the two, one right after the other, they will line up on the screen
nicely. Be sure to produce the same pitched sound, so the only obvious difference is the
change in amplitude. (A keyboard may be utilized instead.)

By clicking near the 0.0 a couple of times on each graph, as well as using the zoom in
button, you can produce an image that is much easier to see:
Again, choose a small segment to highlight, and zoom in until you get a graph that looks
like the following:

Ask students now to compare/contrast the two waves. They should notice that the
amplitudes are different, but the frequencies/wavelengths are the same. (If they debate
that, ask the students how they could verify that the are/are not different!)

Part III: Interference and Beats

Audacity has the ability to generate tones of various frequencies. Open the tone
generation function as shown below,

Keep the frequency at 440 Hz, and change the time to 3 seconds, click generate tone.
You should get a graph that looks like this:

Click in the grey region, and then repeat the process to generate a second tone, of 335 Hz.
Now, your screen should look like this:

Click the zoom in button a few times, until your graph looks like this:

Ask your students to describe the similarities and differences between the two. Ask them
how they compare to the waves that were created earlier with the whistles (they may
notice a more consistent amplitude.)

Press the play button, and listen to both tones simultaneously. Ask students to describe
what they hear (they should hear beats).
If you would like to SEE the beat wave, you can save the file and place it onto a second
computer (or make another from scratch). While the second computer plays both tones
simultaneously, record the sound on the first computer. Again, click in the grey zone
(outside of the existing graphs) before recording so you do not end up losing any of your
existing graphs.

You will create a new graph that will look like this:

Zoom in to get a close-up view of the constructive and destructive interference.

Ask students, now that they have seen this wave, WHY they heard what they did when
both sounds were played simultaneously. They should notice that the amplitude is
sometimes high and sometimes low. They should recognize that this change in amplitude
is what causes a change in volume/intensity, which is why they hear “waa-waa-waas.”

The beat frequency can be determined, at this point. Highlight one complete beat, as
shown below (or, you could do more):

1
Dividing the number of beats by time: beats/sec, or 4.95 Hz
0.202042
Ask students how you could use the frequencies of the two tones to arrive at 4.95 Hz
(approximately 5 Hz). They should hopefully recognize that it represents the difference
between the two frequencies (340 Hz – 335 Hz).

Ask students what they would expect to happen if, instead, the two tones were 520 Hz
and 525 Hz. Would it make a difference if it were 525 Hz and 530 Hz?

Have students suggest a possible formula for computing the beat frequency when two
tones are heard simultaneously. If they don’t arrive at the following formula, you may
wish to guide them a little…
f beat = f a − f b

Extension 1: You may want to repeat this exercise, or have students do so themselves or
in pairs (depending on your access to computers) with a variety of different pitches.
What happens if the difference in frequencies is larger? What if the difference is
smaller? What if there is no difference at all? They could quantitatively compare the
effect of a 340 Hz and a 345 Hz sound, as opposed to 340 Hz and 335 Hz. Here, the beat
frequency is the same…but, does it sound the same?

Extension 2: You may also want to ask your musically inclined students to bring their
instruments in on this day to analyze the sound waves created by different instruments.
For example, a flute will produce a nice, pure, smooth wave. However, a French horn
will have a much richer, more complex wave as a result of the increased number of
overtones produced by its shape.

Assessment Ideas:
Have students compute the beat frequency between two tones, for example: 1373 Hz and
1377 Hz. Ask them what other frequency would produce the same beat frequency with
the 1373 Hz sound.

For more advanced students, you may want to give them the speed and wavelengths of
two sounds, such that they need to compute the two frequencies and then the beat
frequency.
Activity #4 – Resonance and Speed of Sound

Questions to be investigated
How do resonant lengths vary with frequency? How can resonant lengths be used to
compute the speed of sound? How do different speed calculation methods compare?

Objectives
Students will use various tuning forks, with different frequencies, in order to find
resonant lengths within a closed-end resonance tube. Students will determine the
wavelengths of each sound, as well as the speed in which each wave is traveling within
the tube. Finally, students will compare their results to the speed of sound based on the
temperature of the room.

Materials
Various tuning forks, large graduated cylinders and tubes (glass or PVC work well),
thermometer or temperature probe.

Safety Concerns
None

Real-World Connections
Resonance is involved in the making of sound in musical instruments, the swaying and
collapse of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge (http://www.archive.org/details/SF121), the
reception of a cell phone call, pushing a child on a swing, and in MRI’s (magnetic
resonance imaging!) For more information on the real-world applications, go to:
http://www.scienceclarified.com/everyday/Real-Life-Physics-Vol-2/Resonance.html

Teacher Notes
This activity is written to be appropriate for either a foundational or capstone course.
Your foundational students may need more guidance, whereas your capstone students
will likely be able to work more independently.

I have found that a tube that can allow a resonant air column length that varies between
about 20 cm – 35 cm works well with tuning forks ranging from C (256 Hz) through G
(384 Hz). The tubes that I have cut, out of PVC, are 50 cm in length. I also have them
pre-marked on the outside with permanent marker every centimeter for easy measuring.
You can certainly decide if you want your student to get more accurate measurements by
using a ruler. When a 1000 mL graduated cylinder is filled to approximately 800 mL,
you should get the desired results with this length of tube.

In this activity, I have kept the calculations more simple for the foundational course, and
made them a bit more advanced for the capstone course. For example, foundational
course students will approximate the wavelength of a sound using λ = 4L, whereas the
capstone course students will adjust for the diameter of the tube, using the equation
λ = 4(L + 0.4d). In addition, the foundational course students will qualitatively compare
their speed calculations, whereas the capstone course students will be asked to compute a
percent difference.

I ask my students to compute a percent difference (comparing two experimental

measurements) as opposed to percent error (comparing one experimental measurement to
a theoretically accepted value). The formula that I use to attain this value is:

A− B
% Difference = x 100%
 A + B
 2 

In other words, it’s the ratio of the difference to the average of their two results.

Many of the questions that I am asking here are typical of what I would ask my students
verbally. Feel free to delete the written questions, and simply incorporate them into your
discussion with your classes instead, if you prefer.

Procedure/Description of Lesson

Elicitation:

Hold various pieces of PVC tubing of different length, and ask students what
observations they can make about them. How could they possibly be used to produce
sound (banging them on the table, blowing over the top, pop the bottom against the palm
of your hand)? What observations can they make regarding the sound qualities of the
different length tubes? What connection exists between the length of the tube and the
sounds that they produce? How is this similar to the musical instruments that they play,
or have listened to? (Accept all reasonable answers at this time.)

Explore:

See the worksheet at the end of the activity description.

Assessment Ideas:
Provide a student with a length of PVC tube to measure (one that is pre-measured to
correspond with the frequency of a tuning fork that you have access to). Ask them to
calculate the wavelength of the sound that will resonate in the tube. Given the speed of
sound (or the information necessary to calculate it) ask the student to compute the
frequency of the sound that will resonate. Now, ask the student to take a longer piece of
PVC tube, insert it into a container of water to produce an air column as long as their first
tube. With the selected tuning fork vibrating above the open end of the tube, have the
student demonstrate that resonance, indeed, will occur. Accept a reasonable margin of
error.
Resonance and Speed of Sound Name_________________________

Date___________Hour_____

PURPOSE: To determine resonant lengths for various known frequencies as a means to

measure the speed of sound.

PROCEDURES:

1. Gather your materials – 3 different tuning forks, a graduated cylinder with water, and
a tube (glass/PVC) to insert into the graduated cylinder, as well as a thermometer.

2. Note the frequencies labeled on each tuning fork. Using your observations, describe
the relationship between the length of the tuning fork and its frequency.

3. Using what you have learned in prior activities explain how the speed of a wave
compares if all three tuning forks are creating sound in the same medium.

4. Using your prior knowledge, explain what happens to the wavelength as the
frequency increases.

5. The diagram below represents the standing wave that forms within an air column
when a vibrating tuning fork is held above the tube and resonance occurs. What
fraction of the wave’s wavelength is shown in the diagram?

6. If L represents the length of the tube, write an equation for the wavelength of the
sound.
For Capstone Course, Question 6b:

To correct the length of your tube based on its internal diameter you will need to add
0.4d, for each open end, to your equation for wavelength. Below, write out your
corrected equation for wavelength for the type of tube you are using in this lab. Be
sure to show your teacher when you think you have written it correctly.

7. Practice striking your tuning fork on a firm (not too hard) surface, such as the bottom
of your shoe. You want to make sure you don’t strike it too hard that you hear a
second harmonic - a high-pitched, unwanted sound. The lower hum is the sound you
want, which matches the frequency labeled on the tuning fork. Listen to all three
tuning forks. How do they sound different? What’s the relationship between what
you hear and the frequency of the tuning fork?

Now, let’s get to the experiment!!!

8. Select your first tuning fork, and enter its frequency into the
data table. Strike the tuning fork, and hold it over the open
end of the tube. Slowly raise and lower the tube in the water
until you find the position where the loudest sound
(resonance) occurs.

9. Hold the tube firmly while a partner measures the length of

the air column from the top of the tube to the water surface.
Record this tube length, in meters, and enter this value into
the data table.

10. Repeat this step with the other two tuning forks.

11. As the frequency increases, what happens to the resonant air column length? Why do
you suppose this is?

12. Using a thermometer, or temperature probe, measure the temperate of the air column
inside of the tube (in Celsius), and record it in the data table.

For Capstone Course, Question 13:

13. Measure the inner diameter of your tube, and enter it into the data table.
For the Foundational/Entry Level Course:

DATA TABLE:

Frequency Length of Room Temp

TRIAL
(Hz) Air Column (m) (°C)
1
2
3

CALCULATIONS:

Show your computations for all trials in the spaces provided below. Enter the results
from all computations in the calculations table below.

1. Compute the wavelength of the sound from the resonant length of the air column for
each trial, using the formula you developed in step 6. Be sure to check with your
teacher first to see that your formula is correct, before moving on!

2. Compute the speed of sound for each trial from the wavelengths and frequencies,
using the formula: ν = ƒλ. Enter your results in the calculations table.

3. Compute the average speed of these three trials, and enter the value in the table. Ask
your teacher if you need help with this calculation.

4. Determine the speed of sound in air, corrected for the temperature of the resonant air
column, using the formula: ν = 331.5 + 0.607T, where T = temperature. Enter the
value in the table.
CALCULATIONS TABLE:

Speed of Sound
Wavelength Using Using
TRIAL
(m) Resonant Length Room Temp
(m/s) (m/s)
1
2
3
Average:

4. How does your average speed, found with the resonance lengths, compare to that you
computed using room temperature? Is this a reasonable difference?

5. If you said “no” to question 4, explain two experimental sources of error that could
account for such a high percent difference.
For the Capstone/Advanced Level Course:

DATA TABLE:

Frequency Length of Diameter of Tube Room Temp

TRIAL
(Hz) Air Column (m) (m) (°C)
1
2
3

CALCULATIONS:

Show your computations for all trials in the spaces provided below. Enter the results
from all computations in the calculations table below.

1. Compute the wavelength of the sound from the resonant length and diameter of the
air column for each trial, using your equation from step 6b.

2. Compute the speed of sound for each trial from the wavelengths and frequencies.
Also, compute the average speed of these three trials.

3. Determine the speed of sound in air, corrected for the temperature of the resonant air
column.
CALCULATIONS TABLE:

Speed of Sound
Wavelength Using Using Percent
TRIAL
(m) Resonant Length Room Temp Difference (%)
(m/s) (m/s)
1
2
3
Average:

4. Compare your two values for the speed of sound by computing the percent difference
between the two. Is this a reasonable value?

5. If you said “no” to question 4, explain two experimental sources of error that could
account for such a high percent difference.

Extension: For more advanced/capstone students - have them calculate the Period (1/f)
of each tuning fork. Then, plot a graph of wavelength (y-axis) as a function of Period (x-
axis). They may want to obtain some additional data from more groups so they have
more data points to plot. They should sketch the best-fit curve (line) for their data, and
compute its slope. This may be possible with foundational/entry level students, if they
have received sufficient graphical analysis training beforehand.

Depending upon the level of student you have, or how much experience they have had at
this point with graphing analysis, have them determine what the slope represents, with or
without your assistance. Have them compare this value to the speeds that they calculated
earlier in the experiment. You can again have them compute a percent difference
between this and another method’s results.
Activity #5 – Speed of Sound with an Echo

Questions to be investigated
How can the speed of sound be measured with an echo?

Objectives
Students will be able to demonstrate their ability to compute the speed of sound using
distance and time measurements. Students will be able to compare their results to those
computed using air temperature.

Materials
Computer with Audacity installed (free to download, see resources), approximately 1-2 m
lengths of PVC or cardboard tubing, microphone, and meter stick.

Safety Concerns
None

Real-World Connections
Echoes are commonly used to measure distance using sonar, radar, ultrasounds and
echolocation (e.g. bats). Echoes can also be a nuisance if you are trying to record music
in a room with poor sound quality. However, echoes help to provide you with your very
own back-up singers every time you sing in the shower…and you sound marvelous!

Teacher Notes
This foundational or capstone activity can be done as a class demo, or as lab for small
groups. It is expected that, at this point, teachers and students are familiar with using
Audacity (LoggerPro has a similar activity). The microphone I used is one attached to a
headset that my husband uses when communicating online. It’s nothing special.

Procedure/Description of Lesson

Elicitation:

Ask students if they know what an echo is. How do bats use echoes to locate food? How
do police officers use echoes to determine how fast you are traveling? (You may want to
also ask them how the Doppler Effect plays a role in these scenarios. More information
on the Doppler Effect can be found in the next activity.) If it takes 3 seconds for an echo
to reach a distant wall then return to you, what other information would you need to
compute the speed of sound? If a wall is 1000 m away, how fast did the sound travel?
(Help guide students to recognize that either the round-trip distance and time must be
used OR the one-way distance and time).
Explore:

Open up the Audacity program and quickly test your

microphone. You want your tube to be resting firmly
on the floor, with your microphone at the top edge, as
shown in this photo.

Press record and snap over the tube. You may wish to
do this a few times until you get comfortable with the
appearance of the expected graph. Press stop, and you
should see a graph like this: http://sites.google.com/a/flosscience.com/probeware/Home/determine-the-speed-of-sound

Highlight the snap region and zoom in a few times. This is actually the snap and a couple
of its echoes. But, until you zoom in further, it’s really hard to tell.

Eventually, you will see an image like this one:

Now, you can clearly see the snap and the first returning echo.
Highlight the region from the start of the snap to the start of the first echo, as shown here:

This is the time it took for the sound to travel to the bottom of the tube, then return to the
top and get detected again by the microphone.

The only other fact that is necessary in order to compute the speed of sound is the
distance the sound traveled – which is twice the length of the tube. So, measure the
length of the tube, and double it.

My tube is 94 cm long. Therefore, d = 1.88 m. Since the travel time was 0.005465 sec,
d 1.88
then v = = m/s, or 344 m/s, which agrees nicely with my expectations!
t 0.005465

If you wish to do this as a student activity, see the worksheet found at the end of the
activity description.

Assessment Ideas:

Ask students to provide a brief written explanation of how they computed the speed of
sound, using their snap, during this activity. Included in this explanation should be
sample calculations, using data other than what they attained during the experiment.
Speed of Sound Lab Name_________________________

Date___________Hour_____

Data:

Time Between Temperature (°C) Tube Length (m)

Trial
Snap and Echo (s)
1
2
3
4
5
Average

Analysis:

1. Calculate the speed of sound using your distance and time data. Remember that your
time interval represents the time for sound to travel down the tube and back.

2. The accepted speed of sound at atmospheric pressure and 0°C is 331.5 m/s. The
speed of sound increases by 0.607 m/s for every °C. Measure the temperature of the
air in your tube with a thermometer. Calculate the speed of sound using this value.

3. Compare your two computed values by calculating a percent difference between

them. Is this a reasonable value? Explain.

Extension: Using the speed of sound you computed with air temperature above,
determine the time it would take for a sound to travel down and back within a tube 6m in
length. If the time to travel is 0.3586 seconds, how long is the tube?
Activity #6 – Doppler Effect

Questions to be investigated
How does motion affect sound waves? How does this change what we hear?

Objectives
Students will qualitatively and quantitatively compare sounds observed when a source
and observer move towards one another and when they move away from one another.

Materials
Computer with Audacity installed (free to download, see resources), data projector,
tuning fork(s) and string.

Safety Concerns
Don’t hit your students in the head with the tuning fork during the demo!

Real-World Connections
When we hear a racecar pass by us, the changing sound is all too familiar, and is caused
by the Doppler Effect. When an ultrasound is performed on our heart, the waves return at
a higher or lower frequency depending on the rate and direction in which the blood is
moving. The Doppler Effect also is used with light, for weather forecasting, clocking
speeders on the highway, and determining the motion of stars in space based on the
degree of “red-shifting” or “blue-shifting.”

Teacher Notes
This activity is designed to be foundational or capstone. It is expected that, at this point,
teachers (and students) are familiar with using Audacity.

I find that asking a student to assist in the tuning fork demo is helpful. Have them strike
the tuning fork with great force (small wooden mallet works well for great intensity), let
go, and get out of the way! You need a good amount of space in order to swing it around
your head. Be sure that the class is being really quiet, and listening well when this demo
is performed. Don’t be surprised if your students confuse pitch with volume – even some
of the more musically inclined students may make this mistake. In addition, although
many students will acknowledge that the volume is changing (louder when close, quieter
when far); try to lead them towards noticing the change in pitch. I think it sounds a bit
like a UFO!

You may want to tailor the amount of math you do with your students, depending on their
level. A simplified Doppler Effect equation that I like to use is: f o = f s (1 ± x), where f o
is the frequency observed, f s is the frequency from the source, and x represents the
“change” resulting from relative motion. Notice that if there is no relative motion, x = 0,
and the frequency observed will match the frequency from the source. The “plus” sign is
used for objects moving towards each other (causing an increased observed frequency)
and the “minus” sign is used for objects moving away from one another (causing a
decreased observed frequency). If the speed is the same in both cases, x will have the
same value.

Procedure/Description of Lesson

Elicitation:

You are standing downtown, on a hot summer day, and a car is driving down the street
blasting some rockin’ Engelbert Humperdinck tunes! You are sitting in front of
Starbucks, enjoying your iced cold raspberry mocha frappuccino.

• Describe what you would hear as the car approaches you.

• Describe what you hear when the car is parked in front of you waiting for the light to
turn.
• Describe what you hear as the car is leaving.

Explore:

Tie a string around a tuning fork (as shown in photo below) and swing it around your
head. Ask your students to describe what they hear. Students will likely comment that
the sound gets louder and softer; but, you want to guide them to acknowledging that the
pitch is changing – higher when it approaches them, and lower as it moves away.

http://physics.usc.edu/demolab/w_doppler.html

Play the following video clip for your students, and have them describe any observations
that they have: http://www.freesound.org/samplesViewSingle.php?id=38396

What do all of these scenarios have in common (moving sounds)? What they have been
observing is a phenomenon known as the Doppler Effect. The following activity will
help you to better understand the cause and effect of this occurrence.
Whistle a constant note, and ask your students what they hear. Ask them what will
happen if you run towards them, or run away from them. Try it! Can they hear a
difference (they likely will not)?

Now, open the Audacity program, and be certain that you can identify the location of
your microphone (I recorded while snapping my fingers until I found where the sound got
louder…voila! The little hole in my laptop was where the mic was!)

While whistling a constant note, quickly move your head towards and away from the
microphone, while recording. You will get an image that will look like this:

Ask your students to describe the graph. They should notice that there are two “bulges”
of higher amplitude resulting from getting close to the microphone on two occasions.
Remind them that the beginning of a bulge represents when you were moving closer to
the microphone, and the end of the bulge is when you were moving away.

Zoom in closer to one of the bulges until you can clearly see the beginning and the end of
it.

Choose a segment of the beginning to zoom in on.

Continue to zoom in until you can see a good segment of the wave, and highlight a
segment for frequency calculations.

In this example, I have highlighted 20 wave cycles that occurred over 0.011523 seconds.
20
Therefore the frequency recorded here is cycles/sec, or 1735.7 Hz.
0.011523

Now, let’s compare that to a segment of the wave at the end of the bulge.

Ask the students what they expect the outcome to be. Accept all reasonable answers at
this point.

Again, I have highlighted 20 wave cycles that occurred over 0.011455 seconds.
20
Therefore the frequency recorded here is cycles/sec, or 1746.0 Hz.
0.011455
Ask the students what the frequency of the sound truly is (must be in between these two
values). The image below is from a segment of my wave that represents when my head
was not moving (when I paused between the two “bulges.”)

20
The frequency recorded here is cycles/sec, or 1740.8 Hz. Nice!
0.011489

Ask your students how your speed compared when you were moving towards the
microphone versus moving away. They should notice that the frequency increased when
moving towards the microphone by 1746.0 – 1740.8 = 5.2 Hz. The decrease in frequency
when moving away from the microphone was 1740.8 – 1735.7 = 5.1 Hz. The difference
between these two is quite negligible, and therefore the students should conclude that the
speeds were pretty much the same.

Extension: You could also do this activity with a tuning fork, or ask your students to
repeat the same activity with a tuning fork. However, measure the frequency of the
tuning fork using the method shown above, as often the number labeled is not perfectly
accurate.

Assessment Ideas:
Foundational/Entry Level: A train’s horn produces a sound with a frequency of 2200
Hz. However, the frequency heard by an observer is 2320 Hz. Is the train leaving or
approaching? What will be heard if the train maintains the same speed in the other
direction?

Capstone/Advanced Level: A train’s horn produces a sound with a frequency of 2200

Hz. However, the frequency heard by an observer is 2320 Hz. Is the train leaving or
approaching? If the train maintains the same speed in the other direction, what frequency
will the observer now hear?
 Oakland Schools Physics Resource Unit

Electrostatic Forces & Fields

Pat Perry
Lakeland High School
Huron Valley School District
 Electrostatic Forces & Fields
Content Statements
P1.1 Scientific Inquiry
Science is a way of understanding nature. Scientific research may begin by generating new scientific
questions that can be answered through replicable scientific investigations that are logically developed
and conducted systematically. Scientific conclusions and explanations result from careful analysis of
empirical evidence and the use of logical reasoning. Some questions in science are addressed through
indirect rather than direct observation, evaluating the consistency of new evidence with results
predicted by models of natural processes. Results from investigations are communicated in reports that
are scrutinized through a peer review process.
P3.7 Electric Charges
Electric force exists between any two charged objects. Oppositely charged objects attract, while objects
with like charge repel. The strength of the electric force between two charged objects is proportional to
the magnitudes of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them
(Coulomb’s Law).
P3.7x Electric Charges — Interactions
Charged objects can attract electrically neutral objects by induction.

Content Expectations
P1.1A Generate new questions that can be investigated in the laboratory or field.
P1.1C Conduct scientific investigations using appropriate tools and techniques (e.g., selecting an instrument
that measures the desired quantity–length, volume, weight, time interval, temperature–with the
appropriate level of precision).
P1.1D Identify patterns in data and relate them to theoretical models.
P3.1b Explain why scientists can ignore the gravitational force when measuring the net force between two
electrons.
P3.1c Provide examples that illustrate the importance of the electric force in everyday life.
P3.7f Determine the new electric force on charged objects after they touch and are then separated.
P3.7A Predict how the electric force between charged objects varies when the distance between them and/or
the magnitude of charges change.
P3.7B Explain why acquiring a large excess static charge (e.g., pulling off a wool cap, touching a Van de
Graaff generator, combing) affects your hair.
P3.7c Draw the redistribution of electric charges on a neutral object when a charged object is brought near.
P3.7d Identify examples of induced static charges.
P3.7e Explain why an attractive force results from bringing a charged object near a neutral object.
P3.7g Propose a mechanism based on electric forces to explain current flow in an electric circuit.
Instructional Background Information:

Amber, the hardened sap from various trees such as pine, was known to the ancient Greeks.
They viewed amber to have a unique virtue: when rubbed by cloth it can attract nearby objects,
an effect for which they coined the term electrik. Magnetic rocks seem to have a similar
attraction for iron. This was noted by Homer in his Odyssey. (The Sailors had to find a way
past a magnetic mountain where nails pulled from boats caused sinking.) Magnetic lodestones
hung from threads were used by travelers and later by sailors to provide orientation when there
was no visual landmark. But there was little new interest in these phenomena until William
Gilbert of Colchester (1544-1603, at right from title page of de Magnete), physician to Queen
Elizabeth I of England, had the time to review the phenomena, make a careful study, and
publish in 1600 AD de Magnete. Gilbert noted

a. that amber is not unique, but rather a large class of substances showed the same effects
when induced by rubbing.
b. that lodestones require no stimulus of friction such as was needed for amber, glass and
sulphur.
c. that lodestone attracts only magnetizable substances whereas electrified bodies attract
everything.
d. that magnetic attraction between two bodies is not affected by placing between the
bodies a sheet of paper or cloth, or immersing the bodies in water, whereas the electric
attractions is readily destroyed by such screens.
e. that the magnetic forces tends to align bodies in definite orientations, whereas electric
force merely tends to heap them together in shapeless clusters.
f. Gilbert concludes that in contrast to magnetic bodies, the electric phenomena is due to
something of a material nature which the friction liberates from the body. For all these
reasons, electric and magnetic effects must be different phenomena and therefore
should be studied independently.

Electric sparks and their effects became the rage at royal parties in Europe. In 1734 Charles-
Francois de C. Du Fay (1667-1736 or 1698-1739 sources differ) distinguished two different
types of electrical effects. Du Fay named the electric charge created by rubbing pitchy
substances such as amber and rubber with fur such as wool resinous and that created by
rubbing of glass with silk vitreous.

Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790 shown at left) in Philadelphia in the American colonies, far
from the established civilization of Europe, proposed that only one kind of electricity
was required. He believed the two effects could be explained as an excess of electric
fluid or a deficiency. Franklin observed that sparks, although very fast, seemed to
jump from glass rubbed with silk to sealing wax rubbed with wool. So Franklin called
glass (previously called vitreous) which seemed to have the excess charge positive and
wax (previously called resinous) negative. (The spark actually moves in the opposite
direction. Franklin's accidental reversal of names will probably never be corrected.

The French scientist Charles-Augustin de Coulomb (1736–1806) discovered that

electric forces obey a law similar to the law of universal gravitation.

Coulomb's Law

The interaction between charged objects is a non-contact force which acts over some distance
of separation. Charge, charge and distance. Every electrical interaction involves a force which
highlights the importance of these three variables. Whether it is a plastic golf tube attracting
paper bits, two like-charged balloons repelling or a charged Styrofoam plate interacting with
electrons in a piece of aluminum, there is always two charges and a distance between them as
the three critical variables which influence the strength of the interaction.

Force as a Vector Quantity

The electrical force, like all forces, is typically expressed in units of Newtons. Being a force,
the strength of the electrical interaction is a vector quantity which has both magnitude and
direction. The direction of the electrical force is dependent upon whether the charged objects
are charged with like charge or opposite charge and upon their spatial orientation. By knowing
the type of charge on the two objects, the direction of the force on either one of them can be
determined with a little reasoning. In the diagram below, objects A and B have like charge
causing them to repel each other. Thus, the force on object A is directed leftward (away from
B) and the force on object B is directed rightward (away from A). On the other hand, objects C
and D have opposite charge causing them to attract each other. Thus, the force on object C is
directed rightward (toward object D) and the force on object D is directed leftward (toward
object C). When it comes to the electrical force vector, perhaps the best way to determine the
direction of it is to apply the fundamental rules of charge interaction (opposites attract and likes
repel) using a little reasoning.

Electrical force also has a magnitude or strength. Like most types of forces, there are a variety
of factors which influence the magnitude of the electrical force. Two like-charged balloons will
repel each other and the strength of their repulsive force can be altered by changing three
variables. First, the quantity of charge on one of the balloons will affect the strength of the
repulsive force. The more charged a balloon is, the greater the repulsive force. Second, the
quantity of charge on the second balloon will affect the strength of the repulsive force. Gently
rub two balloons with animal fur and they repel a little. Rub the two balloons vigorously to
impart more charge to both of them, and they repel a lot. Finally, the distance between the two
balloons will have a significant and noticeable affect upon the repulsive force. The electrical
force is strongest when the balloons are closest together. Decreasing the separation distance
increases the force. The magnitude of the force and the distance between the two balloons is
said to be inversely related.
Coulomb's Law Equation

The quantitative expression for the affect of these three variables on electric force is known as
Coulomb's law. Coulomb's law states that the electrical force between two charged objects is
directly proportional to the product of the quantity of charge on the objects and inversely
proportional to the square of the separation distance between the two objects. In equation form,
Coulomb's law can be stated as

where Q1 represents the quantity of charge on object 1 (in Coulombs), Q2 represents the
quantity of charge on object 2 (in Coulombs), and d represents the distance of separation
between the two objects (in meters). The symbol k is a proportionality constant known as the
Coulomb's law constant. The value of this constant is dependent upon the medium that the
charged objects are immersed in. In the case of air, the value is approximately 9.0 x 109 N • m2
/ C2. If the charged objects are present in water, the value of k can be reduced by as much as a
factor of 80. It is worthwhile to point out that the units on k are such that when substituted into
the equation the units on charge (Coulombs) and the units on distance (meters) will be
canceled, leaving a Newton as the unit of force.

The Coulomb's law equation provides an accurate description of the force between two objects
whenever the objects act as point charges. A charged conducting sphere interacts with other
charged objects as though all of its charge were located at its center. While the charge is
uniformly spread across the surface of the sphere, the center of charge can be considered to be
the center of the sphere. The sphere acts as a point charge with its excess charge located at its
center. Since Coulomb's law applies to point charges, the distance d in the equation is the
distance between the centers of charge for both objects (not the distance between their nearest
surfaces).

The symbols Q1 and Q2 in the Coulomb's law equation represent the quantities of charge on the
two interacting objects. Since an object can be charged positively or negatively, these
quantities are often expressed as "+" or "-" values. The sign on the charge is simply
representative of whether the object has an excess of electrons (a negatively charged object) or
a shortage of electrons (a positively charged object). It might be tempting to utilize the "+" and
"-" signs in the calculations of force. While the practice is not recommended, there is certainly
no harm in doing so. When using the "+" and "-" signs in the calculation of force, the result
will be that a "-" value for force is a sign of an attractive force and a "+" value for force
signifies a repulsive force. Mathematically, the force value would be found to be positive when
Q1 and Q2 are of like charge - either both "+" or both "-". And the force value would be found
to be negative when Q1 and Q2 are of opposite charge - one is "+" and the other is "-". This is
consistent with the concept that oppositely charged objects have an attractive interaction and
like charged objects have a repulsive interaction. In the end, if you're thinking conceptually
(and not merely mathematically), you would be very able to determine the nature of the force -
attractive or repulsive - without the use of "+" and "-" signs in the equation.
Inside an atom, electric forces are much stronger than gravitational forces. Electric forces form
chemical bonds, which must be overcome in chemical changes. Electric forces also cause
friction and other contact forces. But on a large scale, matter is mostly neutral and in that case,
electric forces are close to zero.

The SI unit of electric charge is the coulomb (C). It takes about 6.24 × 1018 electrons to
produce a single coulomb.

Electric Field of Point Charge

The electric field of a point charge can be obtained from Coulomb's
law:

The electric field is radially outward from the point charge in all
directions. The circles represent spherical equipotential surfaces.

The electric field from any number of point charges can be obtained from a vector sum of the
individual fields. A positive number is taken to be an outward field; the field of a negative
charge is toward it.
Terms and Concepts
Electric Charge Electric Force

Electric Conductor Grounding

Electric Insulator Potential Difference
Electric Induction Polarization

Electric Field
Instructional Resources

Ranking Task Exercises in Physics, Prentice Hall, 2004, O’Kuma, Maloney, Hieggelke.

Teaching About Electrostatics, An AAPT/PTRA-PLUS Workshop Manual, American

Association of Physics Teachers, 1992, Robert A. Morse

Do you want to know more about Franklin's kite? Tesla coils? Lightning? Visit the Theater of
Electricity.
http://www.mos.org/sln/toe/toe.html

Here are several very brief videos on several topics, including liquid nitrogen and static
electricity.
http://education.jlab.org/frost/

This has directions for building your own Van de Graaf generator as well as explaining how
static electricity works.
http://www.howstuffworks.com/vdg.htm/printable

This focuses on the electrostatic process of lightning.

http://www.sciencejoywagon.com/physicszone/lesson/07elecst/lightn...

This webpage describes the mechanism of the electric spark. The page also gives example of
the application of electric circuits and other devices to produce electric sparks.
http://www.pureenergysystems.com/os/EdGrayMotor/PM_PEM_MG/theory/...

This web biography of Otto van Guericke who built the first machine to create an electric
spark, describes Guericke's life and career, and is illustrated with diagrams and photographs.
Links to a number of related resources are also provided.
http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekatz/scientists/guericke.html

The video discusses charges, charge conservation, insulators, and Coulomb's Law. To jump to
Coulomb's Law click on the 4th circle. There you will find graphics and interactive problems
to help in understanding this concept.
http://www.ucopenaccess.org/courses/APPhysCIIV2/course%20files/mu...

Watch the lightning as this page describes it as a natural capacitor.

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/electromag/java/lightning/index.html

What is static electricity? Learn about the nature of matter and static electricity. Do some
projects to help you understand static electricity better.
http://www.sciencemadesimple.com/static.html
This is an animated lesson that illustrates how water vapor and other particles in the air can
steal charge from a charged object.
http://www.sciencejoywagon.com/physicszone/lesson/07elecst/static...
Video demonstrations resources: go to
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/mmedia/

Physics Classroom Tutorial

http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/GBSSCI/PHYS/Class/estatics/u8l1d.html

The Modeling Workshop

http://modeling.asu.edu/
ELECTROSTATIC FORCES & FIELDS
Activity #1 Investigating Electric Charges (Foundational)
Questions to be investigated
If you rub a balloon across your hair it becomes charged. That means it will become either
positive or negative. What would happen when the balloon is brought near other charged or
non charged objects?

Objectives
To investigate the effects of a charge on other objects and determine the charge on each.

Materials
Cellophane tape, 2 balloons, wool or fur, and small bits of paper.

Safety Concerns
Do not over inflate balloons as they may pop unexpectedly. Lack of careful handling of
equipment, no matter how simple, may produce inconsistent results.

Real-World Connections
Everyone has experienced static electricity in their everyday life. Static cling, getting zapped
when you reach for a door knob, frizzy hair, and the power of plastic wrap are among some of
the examples.

Electrostatic spraying technology has been applied to various industries to improve coverage of
the product. For example the agricultural industry uses electrostatic spraying to reduce the
amount of pesticides and fertilizers needed. Electrostatic spraying of paints in the automotive
industry has saved millions of dollars each year.

Most cling wrap is made of polyurethane. This part of the formula is what creates the water
and air barrier for your food but it doesn’t make it stick These chemicals do not mix well with
the polyurethane and it leaves a sticky residue on the plastic that is similar to the tape you wrap
your packages with only not as strong. It is then electrically charged to decrease the stickiness
of the cling and that is why it sticks to some things and not others. It is attracted to glass and
plastic especially but there are some things it won’t adhere to due to the chemical composition.

Teacher Notes
Electrons move from your hair to the balloon because atoms in rubber have a greater attraction
for electrons than atoms in hair. The balloon picks up a net negative charge.

As the balloon approaches the blackboard the negative charges on the balloon repel the
negative charges on the blackboard leaving a positively charged surface on the blackboard near
the approaching balloon. So the balloon sticks to this positively charged area of the blackboard.
Later, as electrons flow from the balloon to the blackboard, the balloon become electrically
neutral and falls, especially in humid weather.

When you rip the two pieces of tape off the table, there is a tug-of-war for electric charges
between each tape and the table. The tape either steals negative charges (electrons) from the
table or leaves some of its own negative charges behind, depending on what the table is made
of (a positive charge doesn't move in this situation). In any case, both pieces of tape end up
with the same kind of charge, either positive or negative. Since like charges repel, the pieces of
tape repel each other.

When the tape sandwich is pulled apart, one piece rips negative charges from the other. One
piece of tape therefore has extra negative charges. The other piece, which has lost some
negative charges, now has an overall positive charge. Since opposite charges attract, the two
tapes attract each other.

Since some table surfaces will not charge the tape, be sure to test your surfaces.

Charge leaks slowly off the tape into the air or along the surface of the tape, so you may have
to recharge your tapes after a few minutes of use.

Procedure/Description of Lesson
• Briskly rub a balloon across your hair and observe the results. Is there an attraction or
repulsion between your hair and the balloon?

• Tear bits of paper into small pieces. Bring an uncharged balloon near the paper without
touching them. Record your observations.

• Try it with a balloon that has been charged. Is there a difference?

• Attach a string to a second balloon and have your partner hold it by the string away
from them or suspend it from the ceiling or a ring stand. Rub the balloon with your hair
or the wool. Now bring both charged balloons close to each other and observe what
happens. Does the result indicate whether the charges are the same or different?

• Place three 8 cm pieces of cellophane tape, sticky side down on your desk or table.
Fold over one end to make a small handle. Label them with your pen A, B, and C.

• Pull up pieces A and B by their handles. Bring B and bring it close to A (non sticky
sides), and describe how they react.

• Pull up piece C and bring it close to A and B.

• Test: (A with B), (B with C), (A with C) and record the reactions you observe.
 • Recharge two pieces of cellophane tape by pulling them off the table again. Slowly
bring the two pieces together and observe what happens. Describe the strength of the
static force as you move the tapes closer and then farther away.

• Now place B and C back on the table and place A on top of B. Rub them firmly
together. Pull up A and B together. Try to discharge the A and B combination by
rubbing it on the back of your hand or in your fingers. Test them with paper bits to
make sure that the A and B combination tape is completely discharged. Now quickly
pull them apart and test the reactions of (A with B), (B with C), and (A with C).

• Will A, B, or both pick up paper?

Is A charged? Is B charged?

• Rub the balloon in your hair once again. Knowing the electrons from your hair are
rubbed onto the balloon making it negatively charged bring the balloon and the sticky
tape close together and now determine what the charge is on each sticky tape.

• How many types of interactions did you observe between the pieces of tape? Give your
hypothesis for how the tapes might have acquired different kinds of charges.

• If you scuff electrons onto your shoes while walking across a rug, are you negatively or
positively charged? Explain.

• Now bring the charged balloon to the wall. Does it stick? What charge did the wall
have before the balloon stuck to it? What charge does it have now?

• Make diagrams to illustrate your explanation of the situations you have explored.
Show charges on these diagrams to illustrate their behavior and what you think is
happening in each situation. Add written descriptions of what your diagrams are
showing.
Balloon to hair.
Charged balloon to pieces of paper.
Two charged balloons brought together.
Tape pulled off the desk.
Tape A as it is pulled away from Tape B and after Tape A is pulled off of Tape B.
Tape A with paper bits. Tape B with paper bits.
Balloon and wall.
Assessment Ideas:
Demonstration of different methods of charging objects with student participation and written
explanations of how these occurred. This will show student understanding of how charges are
acquired and transferred.
Activity #2 Electrostatics (Capstone)
Questions to be investigated
When objects made of two different materials are rubbed together, electric charges accumulate
on both objects. When an object has an electric charge, it attracts some things and repels
others. The charges can also be transferred. How can different charges be distinguished? Can
the force between two charges be determined using Coulomb’s Law.

Objectives
To investigate the effects of a charge on other objects and determine the charge on each.

Materials
Cellophane tape, pieces of paper, glass rod, rubber rod, piece of fur, a piece of silk, and
miscellaneous materials for testing.

Safety Concerns
Lack of careful handling of equipment, no matter how simple, may produce inconsistent
results.

Real-World Connections

Everyone has experienced static electricity in their everyday life. Static cling, getting zapped
when you reach for a door knob, frizzy hair, and the power of plastic wrap are among some of
the examples.
Industry uses electrostatic spraying technology to improve coverage of a given product. For
example the agricultural industry uses electrostatic spraying to reduce the amount of pesticides
and fertilizers needed. Electrostatic spraying of paints in the automotive industry has saved
millions of dollars each year.

To explain the power of plastic wrap we start by understanding that most cling wrap is made of
polyurethane. This part of the formula is what creates the water and air barrier for your food
but it doesn’t make it stick These chemicals do not mix well with the polyurethane and it
leaves a sticky residue on the plastic that is similar to the tape you wrap your packages with
only not as strong. It is then electrically charged to decrease the stickiness of the cling and that
is why it sticks to some things and not others. It is attracted to glass and plastic especially but
there are some things it won’t adhere to due to the chemical composition.

Teacher Notes
When you rip the two pieces of tape off the table, there is a tug-of-war for electric charges
between each tape and the table. The tape either steals negative charges (electrons) from the
table or leaves some of its own negative charges behind, depending on what the table is made
of (a positive charge doesn't move in this situation). In any case, both pieces of tape end up
with the same kind of charge, either positive or negative. Since like charges repel, the pieces of
tape repel each other.
When the tape sandwich is pulled apart, one piece rips negative charges from the other. One
piece of tape therefore has extra negative charges. The other piece, which has lost some
negative charges, now has an overall positive charge. Since opposite charges attract, the two
tapes attract each other.

Since some table surfaces will not charge the tape, be sure to test your surfaces.

Charge leaks slowly off the tape into the air or along the surface of the tape, so you may have
to recharge your tapes after a few minutes of use.

Pre Lab Interactive Video: The video discusses charges, charge conservation, insulators, and
Coulomb's Law. To jump to Coulomb's Law click on the 4th circle. There you will find
graphics and interactive problems to help in understanding this concept.
http://www.ucopenaccess.org/courses/APPhysCIIV2/course%20files/mu...

Procedure/Description of Lesson

• Place three 8 cm pieces of cellophane tape, sticky side down on your desk or table.
Fold over one end to make a small handle. Label them with your pen A, B, and C.

• Pull up piece A by its handle. Test whether A is attracted to your finger – if not,
remake the tape.

• Pull up piece B and bring it close to A (non sticky sides). Observe what happens,
noting how the behavior changes with the distance between the tapes.

1. Describe and explain what happens as two tapes are brought closer together.

2. What qualitative conclusions can you draw about the relationship between electric force
and the distance between charges. How do your observations related to Coulomb’s Law?

3. Can you tell from your experiment whether the tapes carry a positive charge or a negative
charge? Explain your answer.

• Pull up piece C and bring it close to A and B. Test all possible combinations and
record the reactions you observe.
A with B B with C A with C

4: Explain what happens between the desk and the tape when you pull up the tape that results
in the charge?

5: Can you conclude that all three pieces of tape are charged?

6: Do you think it is acceptable to assume that they are charged the same way? Explain why
or why not.
 • Recharge two pieces of cellophane tape by pulling them off the table again. Slowly
bring the two pieces together and observe what happens. What can you conclude about
the relationship between the size of the force and the distance between the pieces of
tape?

• Now place B and C back on the table and place A on top of B. Rub them firmly
together. Pull up A and B together. Try to discharge the A and B combination by
rubbing it on the back of your hand or in your fingers. Test them with paper bits to see
if the paper is attracted to make sure that the A and B combination tape is completely
discharged. Now quickly pull them apart and test the reactions again.
A with B B with C A with C

Do the same test with the other pair.

• Test A and B for charge. Will they both pick up paper?

Is A charged? Is B charged?

7: Explain what you think is happening between the two pieces of tape when you pull them
apart.

8: Explain why both tapes (A and B) can attract the uncharged paper.

9: Explain what “uncharged” means.

10. Make a statement relating the lab activity to Coulomb’s Law and Compare Coulomb’s Law
to that of Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation.

11. Using additional equipment and materials that has been supplied design and carry out an
experiment that allows you to determine the sign of the charge on the tapes. Write out and
describe the experiment and its results.

Assessment Ideas:
Provide Coulomb’s Law Problems work sheet.
Activity #3 Determining a Charge with an Electroscope (Foundational)
Questions to be investigated
Can an electric charge be detected?

Objectives
In this activity you will put to work the information you got from the sticky tape lab to
construct a simple device known as an electroscope that can be used to test for the presence
and type of charge. (This exercise is adapted from PRISMS)

Materials
Styrofoam cup, Styrofoam tray, plastic straw with flexible elbow, tape, pith ball, aluminum pie
pan, wool cloth or fur, glass rod, silk cloth. Miscellaneous items to be tested.

Safety Concerns
Lack of careful handling of equipment, no matter how simple, may produce inconsistent
results. Do not use batteries, electrical devices, or magnets with this exercise.

Real-World Connections
Everyone has experienced electrostatics in their everyday life. Lightning, static cling, getting
zapped when you reach for a door knob, frizzy hair, and the power of plastic wrap are among
some of the examples of electrostatics. Electrostatics has a wide industrial application.

Teacher Notes
An electric charge can be detected by an instrument called an electroscope. A typical
electroscope consists of a metal rod with a knob at the top and a pair of thin metal leaves at the
bottom. The rod is inserted into a one-hole rubber stopper and fits into a flask. The flask
contains the lower part of the rod and the metal leaves. In an uncharged electroscope, the
leaves hang straight down. When a negatively charged object touches the metal knob electric
charges travel down the rod and into the leaves. The leaves spread apart indicating the
presence of an electric charge. If a positively charged object touches the knob, free electrons
in the leaves and metal rod are attracted by the positive object. The loss of electrons causes the
leaves to become positively charged and they repel.

Procedure/Description of Lesson
Tape the straw to the foam cup as shown in figure #1 and suspend the pith ball from the straw.
You can attach the thread of the pith ball to the straw by cutting a small vertical slit in the end
of the straw to slide the thread into the slit.
1. Rub the glass rod with the silk and bring it close to but not touching the pith ball.
Is there evidence of an interaction? Draw a simple force diagram that would help explain your
observation below.

2. Now touch the pith ball with the glass rod. When you bring the rod back close to the pith
ball is there evidence of an interaction? Draw a simple force diagram below to support your
observation. Remember that when Benjamin Franklin did this experiment he called the charge
on the glass rod positive (+) , so to be consistent with history, we will do the same.

3. Touch the pith ball with your finger. What effect does this have on the charge? This
process is called grounding.

4. Try charging different objects and test which charge you placed on the objects. Record
your observations by listing the objects, what you did to charge the objects, and which charge
was in excess on the object.

5. Charge your electroscope with a positive charge. Now rub the foam tray with wool or fur.
Which kind of charge does the tray have?

6. Tape the foam cup to the inside of the pie pan as shown in below in figure 2a. Recharge the
foam tray and hold the pie pan close above the top of the foam tray. Now touch the rim of the
pie pan momentarily with your finger. After removing your finger, remove the pie pan from
the foam tray by only touching the foam cup. Which charge is in excess on the pie pan? How
do you know?

7. Now place the straw with the pith ball on top of your foam cup hanging between the pie pan
and a second really close pie pan which you touch, grounding it as shown in figure 2b. Adjust
the position of the straw so that the pith ball just touches the outside edge of the rim of the first
pie pan then tape the straw in place. Observe the behavior of the pith ball. Explain these
observations with the use of diagrams.

Assessment Ideas:
Ask students to explain what happens in an electroscope on the basis of their knowledge of
electric charges. Provide labeled diagrams with written explanations.
Activity #4 Electrophorus (Capstone)
Questions to be investigated
Can an object acquire a charge without contact with another object that is charged by simply
being in close to it?
Objectives
To understand how a charge can be produced on objects using electrostatic induction.
Materials
Styrofoam cup, Styrofoam plate, aluminum pie pan, small neon bulb, animal fur, and tape.

Safety Concerns
Lack of careful handling of equipment, no matter how simple, may produce inconsistent
results.

Real-World Connections
Everyone has experienced electrostatics in their everyday life. Static cling, getting zapped
when you reach for a door knob, frizzy hair, and the power of plastic wrap are among some of
the examples. Lightning is a basic form of electrostatics. Electrostatics has a wide industrial
application.

Teacher Notes
The electrophorus was invented by the 18th century American scientist and political activist,
Benjamin Franklin. He constructed his device with wood, sulfur, wax and pewter. Our
electrophorus is constructed from an aluminum pie pan, a Styrofoam plate and cup, tape and a
small neon bulb. The electrophorus is actually a manually operated electrostatic generator,
using the same principle of electrostatic induction as electrostatic machines such as the Van de
Graaf generator. DEMONSTRATION: go to www.physicsclassroom.com/mmedia/, Static
Electricity, Charging an Electrophorus Plate by Induction Using a Negatively-Charged Object

Procedure/Description of Lesson
Construct an electrophorus by taping a Styrofoam cup to the
center of a pie pan. Separate the leads of the neon bulb and
tape one end to the edge of the pie pan. The neon bulb will
clearly glow at 65V - 90V, readily indicating typical static
electric charges.
1. Charge the Styrofoam plate by rubbing it against your hair or fur, and then place it on the
table. Using the Styrofoam cup taped to the pie pan as a handle, hold the aluminum pan just
above the Styrofoam plate. Be careful not to touch the aluminum with your hand. Touch the
outer wire of the neon bulb with your finger. You should draw a spark and light the bulb.

2. Now raise the aluminum pan by the insulating handle, and again touch your finger to the
outer wire of the neon bulb. The light should again glow. Repeat the down-touch, up-touch
cycle several times with your partners.
Discussion
1. The original source of charge for the electrophorus is the charged Styrofoam plate. How
does this charge come about? What is the sign of this charge?

2. Describe the flow of electrons to or from the Al plate when it is close to the Styrofoam
plate and the bulb is touched. Draw a diagram indicating the charge distribution before the
hand contacts the bulb, and the flow of the charge when the hand touches the bulb.
What is the net charge of the pie pan after the bulb lights?

before contact during contact

3. Again describe what happens to electrons when the Al plate is raised in the air and again
touched. Again diagram the charge distribution before contact and the flow of charge
during contact. How is the up-in-the-air situation different?
What is the net charge of the pie pan after the bulb lights?
before contact during contact

4. Closely examine the Ne bulb during the down-touch, up-touch cycle. Only one side of the
Ne bulb should glow at a time, and this should change depending on whether the Al plate is up
or down. Which side of the bulb (most positive or most negative) glows?
5. The down-touch, up-touch cycle can be repeated almost indefinitely or until the charge on
the Styrofoam leaks away. Since the charge on the Styrofoam is not "used up," where does the
energy to light the bulb repeatedly come from in this device?

6. You have been contacted by a visiting film company that is making a science fiction film
and needs a small, hovering, hoop, shaped toy. They are looking for someone to develop this
toy. Using the principles of an electrophorus and electrostatics, build, and demonstrate a
working levitating toy hoop that can be maneuvered around the room. The toy should also
include portals that the hoop can fly through.

• The toy should demonstrate electrostatic repulsion and be made lightweight materials.
• Start by constructing a levitating hoop.
• Once you have this constructed construct a large portal for the hoop to hover through.
• Determine whether the portal should be made from an insulator or conductor or
grounded. Hang the portal from some thread.
• Before you begin, submit a procedure you intend to follow. The plan should include
the method you will use for charging the different parts of the toy.
• The final product should include labeled diagrams with explanations.

Suggestion of materials:
Foam plates and cups
Aluminum pie pan
Fur and silk material
Glue
Meter stick
Craft knife
Cardboard/poster board
Space blanket material
Thread

Assessment Ideas:
Demonstrate a Leyden jar (Teaching about Electrostatics) and have students explain and draw
what charges are doing in the charging process.
Activity # 5 (Virtual) Electric Fields Capstone
Questions to be investigated
What happens to the strength of a charge as the distance between charged objects or the
strength of the charge on the objects is changed.
Objectives
To visualize forces between charges and the properties of electric fields.
To experiment with simulations to make clear conclusions.

Materials
Access to computers and internet.

Safety Concerns
Lack of careful handling of equipment, no matter how simple, may produce inconsistent
results.

Real-World Connections
Everyone has experienced electrostatics in their everyday life. Static cling, getting zapped
when you reach for a door knob, frizzy hair, and the power of plastic wrap are among some of
the examples. Lightning is a basic form of electrostatics. Electrostatics has a wide industrial
application.

Teacher Notes
The effect an electric charge has on other charges in the space around it is the charge's electric
field. The strength of an electric field depends on the amount of charge that produces the field
and on the distance from the charge. The lines representing the field are closer together near
the charge, where the field is stronger.

The strength of an electric field depends on the amount of charge that produces the field and on
the distance from the charge. A: The electric field around a positive charge points outward. B:
The electric field around a negative charge points inward.

An electric field exerts forces on any charged object placed in the field. The force depends on
the net charge in the object and on the strength and direction of the field at the object's
position. The more net charge an object has, the greater is the force on it. The direction of each
field line shows the direction of the force on a positive charge.

Procedure/Description of Lesson
Go to: http://physics.ius.edu/~kyle/physlets/electrostatics/electrostatics.html
Part A: Click on Simulation A at the left side of the window. Drag the charges around
with the mouse and note the magnitude and direction of the force at various locations.
1: Is there any way to tell from this simulation which charge is positive and which is negative?
Explain.
2: Is there any way to tell from this simulation which charge has the larger magnitude?
Explain.
3: Clearly state the direction of the force one charge exerts on the other.

Part B: Click on Simulation B at the left side of the window.

1: Which charges have like signs? How did you arrive at your answer?
2: Move charges a and b to the far left of the window and the other three charges to the far
right. What can you say about the force on charge a as compared to the force on charge b (is
Newton's third law obeyed)? Now move one of the other three charges closer to the pair on the
left. Why are the forces on a and b no longer equal and opposite?

3: Now move one of the other three charges closer to the pair on the left. Why are the forces
on a and b no longer equal and opposite?

Part C: Click on Simulation C at the left side of the window.

6. Click on the Reset button.
7. Click on the add button to add a positive charge.
8. Click on the add button again to add a second positive charge.
1. With two positive charges describe the electric field around each charge. What happens if
you lay a positive charge exactly on top of a positive charge of the same magnitude?

• Reset and add equal and opposite charges

2. With a positive and a negative charge showing describe the electric field around each
charge. What happens if you lay a positive charge exactly on top of a negative charge of the
same magnitude? Both charges are still there so why don’t you see a field?

3. In this simulation there is a way to tell from the picture which charge is negative and which
is positive? Explain how.

Part D: Click on Simulation J at the left side of the window.

1: Start the charge at x=0, y=0. What happens? Describe why this happens.

2: Start the charge at x=0, y=2. How does the direction of the test charge’s motion compare to
the electric field vector’s direction when the charge first starts to move?
3: What is the relationship between the direction the test charge travels and the electric field
vectors after the charge has moved for a while?

4. How does the direction of the force vector on the test charge relate to the electric field
vectors?

5. Why does the charge not collide with the dipole in this case (why doesn’t the charge follow
the field vectors)?

Part E: Go to:
http://phet.colorado.edu/new/simulations/index.php?cat=Electricity_Magnets_and_Circuits
Click on Charges & Fields and choose Run Now
Place a positive 1 nano-coulomb charge at the center of the screen. Click on”Show
Numbers”.
Bring out an electric field sensor.

1: What are the units of an electric field?

2: Is the electric field a scalar or a vector?

3: To do its job, the electric field sensor should have a charge. Why?

4. Does the field sensor have a positive or negative charge?

Turn on the “Tape measure”.
As you sample the electric field further and further from a charge, you find that the field
strength weakens. Do you think the E field vs. distance relation is an inverse relation, an
inverse square, or some other power relation? Use the Electric field sensor and tape measure to
collect data sets in order to answer this question.

Use Graphical Analysis to find the equation that relates E field to separation distances.
Staple your data collection table and correctly labeled graph to your answer sheet.

5. Clear the screen and place a -1 nano-coulomb charge at the center of the screen. How does
the field change?

6. Place a second -1 nano-coulomb charge on top of the first. How does the electric field
change?

What is the relationship between the amount of charge creating the field and the strength of the
field?

7. Click on Show E-Field. What field properties are shown by these arrows?
8. Clear the screen, place on + and one – charge on the screen about 3 cm apart. Use field
sensors to collect information about the field. Make a sketch that shows the location of your
field chares, and the magnitude and direction of the electric field around the charges. Show the
E-field. Explain why the field has this appearance.

Go to:
http://phet.colorado.edu/new/simulations/index.php?cat=Electricity_Magnets_and_Circuits
Part F – Click on Electric Field Hockey and choose Run Now.
Electric Field Hockey is a computer-simulated game played with a charged puck (or ball) on a
frictionless horizontal surface. The object of the simulation, as it is traditional field hockey
game, is to score a goal by propelling the puck into a net. However, here the puck is positively
charged and moves only as a result of the influence of other charged particles which, once you
put them where you want them, are “glued” down on the playing surface. Hitting a blue
obstacle with end the simulation.

Take some practice shots by selecting Practice, adding a fixed charge, and pressing the start
button. If you miss, select the game again, add and reposition the fixed charge, and try again.
1. What does the arrow that appears on the puck represent? Explain how you know.
When you have scored a goal and have a good feel for the playing field, move on to Game 1.
2. Score a goal in game one. Sketch the charge configuration that allows you to score a goal.

Turn on the Trace and Field

3. Does the + charge hockey puck’s path have any consistent relationship to the electric field?

6. Change the mass of the puck. How does this affect its motion?
7. Change the sign of the puck to negative. How does this affect its motion?
8. Try to score with just one + and one - charge. If you are successful sketch your field
arrangement.

9. Move on to games 2. Score a goal in and sketch the charge configuration.

10. Suppose you changed the sign of the charges on the puck and on the fixed charges
(turned all positive charges into negative and vice versa) for a situation where you
scored a goal. What would be the effect on the trajectory of the puck? Explain.

11. Which direction do electric field lines point for positive charges?

12. Which direction do electric field lines point for negative charges?

13. What do the direction and strength of the field lines indicate for the (positively charged)
“puck?”

14. Did the (positively charged) puck always move in the same direction as the field lines it
was passing over?

15. How did the distance between the puck and the particles affect the motion of the puck?
Assessment Ideas:
Ranking Task Exercises: Electric Charges, Electric Potential, Electric Force, Electric Field,
Attractive Force, Induced Charges, Attractive and Repulsive Force, etc.
Activity # 6 Static Electricity and the Van de Graaff Generator
(Foundational)

Questions to be investigated
What is the relationship between a charges and the movement of electrons?

Objectives
To demonstrate that friction can create a charge.
To demonstrate the how lightning is created and discharged.

Materials
Van de Graaff Generator, metal discharge wand, pieces of Styrofoam, fluorescent tube, animal
fur, coil of heavy gauge bent wire, pie plates, confetti, strips of newspaper, candle, and other
materials you may desire.

Safety Concerns

ELECTRIC CURRENT: a tabletop VDG produces an electric current below 100 uA

(microamperes), which is about ten times smaller than a human is able to feel. If you lick your
fingertips and touch them to the terminals of a 9v radio battery, the level of current in your
fingers will be much higher than that produced by a VDG machine. As far as constant currents
go, a 9v battery is more dangerous than a VDG.

SPARKS AND IMPULSE CURRENT: here is where there is possible danger.

The peak current during the spark from a VDG machine can be as high as thousands of
amperes. However, at this amperage the current lasts for less than a millionth of a second. At a
more moderate discharge current of 10mA, the discharge might last up to a millisecond. This is
above the threshold of human perception of current, and yes, if you allow the spark to jump to
a metal object held in your hand, you sometimes can feel a small twitch in the muscles of your
arm. On the other hand, when you feel pain from a "static" spark, the pain comes mostly comes
from the high electric current concentrated in a tiny area, and from the microscopic region of
burned skin where the spark enters your body. Small sparks might be slightly painful, but there
is far more danger from the surprise they can cause if they happen unexpectedly. However,
even the smallest spark can trigger a heart attack in a person who has a severe heart condition.

SPARK ENERGY: The danger of a spark can also be rated in terms of spark energy. If you
receive a "static" spark from touching a car, the energy can be as high as 500 mJ (millijoules)
Typical spark energy E =1/2CV^2, and since human body capacitance might be as high as
400pF, then 50,000 volts on a human body gives an energy discharge of 0.5 Joules. Touching
the sphere of a VDG is about as dangerous as touching a car if your own body is electrically
charged.

GENUINE HAZARDS
 • AVOID SUPRISES: A person who is surprised by the small shock might stumble and
fall, especially if they are standing on a rickety chair during the during the usual "hair
raise" demonstration

• NO LEYDEN JARS OR CAPACTIORS: If you use your VDG to electrify a large

Leyden Jar, you can store extremely dangerous amounts of energy and create an
electrocution hazard. If you touch the wrong parts of the electrified leyden jar, the
discharge through your body can violently tense your muscles, causing you to crash
into nearby furniture. The discharge might send you into unconsciousness so that you
fall and hit your head. It may even stop your heart (by triggering fibrillations). Don't
use Leyden Jars in your demonstrations unless you are trained in dealing with
hazardous high voltage.
•
• NO PACEMAKERS OR IMPLANTS: Medical implants could be damaged either by
the large e-fields which surround a VDG, or by the powerful pulses of radio waves
created during spark discharge. A person with a cochlear implant in their ear, a portable
external defibrillator, or other sensitive device, is often advised to steer clear of radio
transmitters, microwave ovens, cellular phones, and sparks from doorknobs. They
should also steer FAR clear from playing with VDG machines!!!

• UNDIAGNOSED HEART DISEASE: The small spark from a VDG could cause a
heart attack in a person having a serious undiagnosed heart condition. Needless to say,
this possibility gives nightmares to public science demonstrators. It doesn't matter if
that person would have had a heart attack within hours anyway.

• If a person has flammable liquids or gasses on their skin or clothing, a spark from a
VDG might trigger a fire. The classic hazard is the butane gas from a cigarette lighter
which is leaking unnoticed in an inside pocket in a jumpsuit. If that person receives a
big spark from a doorknob or a VDG machine, the butane could ignite. Yes, this is a
rare instance: a smoker wearing a jumpsuit who has a lighter which is leaking.

• Some older VDG machines contain a high voltage power supply. This supply presents
an electrocution hazard if the generator's case is opened or if the charged lower comb is
touched. Also, if the generator's belt becomes conductive because of built-up dirt, and if
both combs electrically arc to the dirty belt, then the generator's upper sphere will
become connected to the internal high-voltage power supply. In that case, touching the
VDG sphere is the same as touching the high voltage DC supply directly. If the DC
supply in the VDG machine does not have safe current limiting, then there will be an
extreme electrocution hazard.

Real-World Connections
Electrostatics is used in many industrial applications and seen in everyday life.

Teacher Notes
Here are several very brief videos on static electricity using the Van de Graaff.
http://education.jlab.org/frost/van_de_graaff_how_work.html

The Van de Graaff generator is commonly made up of:

A motor
Two rollers
A belt
Two brush assemblies
An output terminal (usually a metal or aluminum sphere)

A Van de Graaf generator produces static electricity by friction. Electrons supplied by a metal
comb (lower brush) ride up a rubber belt to the top of the generator, are picked off by the
charge collector (upper brush), and transferred to the metal sphere. A large negative charge is
built up and used to produce discharges of static electricity.

THE TERM "STATIC ELECTRICITY"

When explaining Van de Graaff machines it's probably a good idea to avoid the words "Static
Electricity." A VDG machine is simply an electric power supply which has a characteristic of
high voltage and low current output. This is in contrast to a dry cell battery. Dry cells are
electric power supplies which give high current and low voltage output.
While it's true that electric charge, charge imbalance, voltage, current, power, and energy exist,
it is NOT true that there is a "stuff" called Static Electricity. Just because voltage and current
may vary, that's no reason to invoke a new kind of "electricity" called "static."

Van de Graaff machines and batteries do not differ as much as we might think. After all, if
enough VDG machines are connected in parallel, their currents add up and they can light a
normal incandescent bulb. And if enough dry cells are connected in series, their voltages add
up and they can attract lint, raise your hair, charge your body, cause corona discharge, and
make giant sparks.

Electrostatics, or "Static Electricity," is a class of effects in the same way that "biology" or
"weather" are classes of effects. And, while scuffing your shoes on the rug involves "static
electricity," scuffing your shoes does not create any substance or energy called static
electricity. If we always call it "electrostatics" instead of "static electricity", we won't be so
confused about it's nature. If we say "surface charge", we won't be so surprised when it moves
or flows ("Static" must be unmoving, right? Wrong, surface charges can and do flow.) Assume
that the words "static electricity" breed confusion and ignorance, then avoid speaking them.

Demonstrations

• Sparks
When the grounded discharge wand is brought near the collector dome, lightning
discharges will occur, accompanied by a crackling sound. Try varying the distance
between the wand and the collector to see the different types of sparks the generator can
produce. Some are white-hot and quite intense; others are a red-purple and less intense.
Try to see how long you can get the white-hot sparks to jump. Under the best
circumstances, sparks can leap up to fifteen inches (three inches for every 100,000
volts).
• Current Kills, not Voltage
Discharge the generator without the wand. Bring the side of your forearm near the
collector. Do not allow the generator to run long before doing this. If you come up on it
pretty fast it won't have time to accumulate a lot of charge and you can zap yourself
with relatively little pain. You could also try holding a fluorescent tube. The length of
the tube offers some protection from really violent shocks and the tube will light up.
• Hair Raising
Pick a student volunteer with long blonde hair for this demo. Darker hair is too heavy
and short hair isn't very dramatic. Your volunteer should also have clean, unprocessed,
un-moussed hair. Thoroughly discharge the generator before beginning. Have your
volunteer stand on the insulating footstool. Your volunteer should not be touching the
table or anything else. Your volunteer should also not be wearing a jacket, hat, or layers
of loose clothing. These can serve as discharge points. Turn the generator on and wait.
Your volunteer's hair will begin to levitate by electrostatic repulsion. Show you
volunteer the results in a mirror, but stay a safe distance away. When your volunteer
looks thoroughly charged have her hold her other hand out horizontally with spread
fingers. Under the right conditions, the charge will safely leak off her fingers making a
crackling noise. When you are done turn off the generator. Tell your volunteer to
 remove her hand. Discharge the generator with the discharge wand. Tell your volunteer
to "shake off" the excess charges before stepping of the footstool. This will reduce or
eliminate the shock.
• Lightning Rod
Use a coil of heavy gauge wire bent so that the inside of the coil stands up like an
antenna. Place it on top of the uncharged generator and turn the generator on. Place
your hand nearer to the generator than normal. You will find you can get quite close
before there is a spark and that the spark is mild in comparison to those generated
earlier. This happens as the charge concentrates at the tip of the wire and discharges
continuously, reducing the charge of the collector sphere. You can also touch the wire
with similar results. This illustrates the operating principle behind the lightning rod.
Contrary to popular belief, lightning rods reduce the likelihood of a lightning strike by
discharging the area around them.
• More Repulsion Demos (and One Repulsion-Attraction Demo)
o Lay a piece of animal fur on the generator and turn it on. The hairs will stand
up. Bring your hand near the fur. Corona discharge between your fingers and
the fur will discharge parts of the fur. If you do it right you can make the fur
look as if it were being animated by a mad scientist.
o Lay the stack of pie plates on the generator and turn it on. The plates will rise
off one at a time by electrostatic repulsion as if they were an armada of UFOs.
o Drop confetti on the generator and turn it on. The confetti will fly off.
o Tear long narrow strips of newspaper and tape them on to the collector with
scotch tape. Turn on the generator. The strips will try to align themselves with
the electrostatic field. Do the same with the smaller Van de Graaff generator
and put the two generators near each other. You will get a crude approximation
of the field around two positive charges. Thoroughly remove the tape when you
are done to keep the performance of the generator high.
o Bring a lit candle near the collector after the generator is turned on. The flame
will deflect away from the collector. This shows the flow of ions away from the
collector and mimics the solar wind to a certain extent. If you bring the flame
very close, a portion of the flame will be attracted toward the collector. The ions
in the flame are separating by charge.
o A balloon placed near the dome is first attracted, then when it touches the dome,
the charge is conducted and it is repelled. The charge leaks off and this repeats
over and over again. Use this to lead into Coulomb’s Law and the force due to
the electric charge. Here are a few demonstrations that I haven’t yet tried:
o Soap bubbles are repelled as they get near the dome.

Procedure/Description of Lesson
1. Select volunteers to participate in the various demonstrations.
2. Students will be responsible for completing diagrams with explanations for each
demonstration. Be sure to label all parts and show the charges.

• Sparks
 • Current Kills, not Voltage

• Hair Raising

• Lightning Rod

• More Repulsion Demos (and One Repulsion-Attraction Demo)

o Animal fur
o Stack of pie plates
o Dropped confetti
o Long narrow strips of newspaper taped on to the collector with scotch tape.
o A lit candle near the collector after the generator is turned on.
o Balloons
o Soap Bubbles

• Relate what you have learned from the Van de Graaff demonstrations to explain how
and where lightning can occur. Draw labeled diagrams showing all charges. Explain
how the electrons produced by lightning move into other objects. Use correct terms in
all your explanations.

Assessment Ideas:
• Students can do additional research to discuss the role of lightning rods in providing
protection from lightning. They can provide research on some various designs for such
devices along with a discussion on where it is important for the use of such devices.

• Also, research on the safety aspects related to the subject of lightning if caught
outdoors. Explain why you are protected from lightning in an automobile or aircraft.

• Explain why thunder is heard and why it is seen after the lightning strike.
Assessment #1 Predicting Motion of Charge

Benjamin Franklin has convinced his hapless assistant Mike Piepan to participate in an
experiment on electricity. Ben has set up a lightning rod, the end of which extends into his
laboratory. Mike is suspended from the ceiling by an insulating rope. To one side of Mike is
the end of the lightning rod, on the other side is a metal rod that is “grounded” (i.e. conducts
electricity into the Earth, essentially a “charge dump”). A bolt of lightning strikes the rod,
giving it an enormous quantity of excess negative charge. Assuming that no charge leaps
through the air in the lab, explain, in as much detail as possible, what you think will happen to
poor Mr. Piepan.. Use correct vocabulary and clearly show with diagrams where charge
accumulates and where it moves in each part of Mike Piepan’s motion.

Scoring
Shows complete Nearly complete Partial Minor Little to no
Understanding. understanding. understanding. understanding is understanding
Only electrons Some elements Charge motionis shown.
move, shows of charge motion not totally clear. Poor
polarization, unclear. Some demonstration of
conduction & vocabulary is not charge motion &
grounding used. vocabulary use.
5 4 3 2 1

Adapted from the modeling workshop

Return to Contents
Assessment #2 Coulomb’s Law

ANSWER KEY
C=D, A=B, E=F

This question checks understanding of the interaction between charges as always equal with
the equalities.
It distinguishes between attraction and repulsion.
Checks understanding of the effect of the amount of charge on force.
Checks understanding of the inverse square relationship with separation distance and force.

Taken from Ranking Tasks

http://dev.prenhall.com/divisions/esm/adv/marketing_websites/TIPS/tipsfolder2/rankingtask/na
v10.htm#10
Oakland Schools Physics Resource Unit

Circuit Electricity

Gary Campbell
Rochester High School
Rochester Community Schools
 Circuit Electricity
Content Statements
P4.10 Current Electricity — Circuits
Current electricity is described as movement of charges. It is a particularly useful form of energy
because it can be easily transferred from place to place and readily transformed by various devices into
other forms of energy (e.g., light, heat, sound, and motion). Electrical current (amperage) in a circuit is
determined by the potential difference (voltage) of the power source and the resistance of the loads in
the circuit.
P4.10x Current Electricity — Ohm’s Law, Work, and Power
In circuits, the relationship between electric current, I, electric potential difference, V, and resistance,
R, is quantified by V = I R (Ohm’s Law). Work is the amount of energy transferred during an
interaction. In electrical systems, work is done when
charges are moved through the circuit. Electric power is the amount of work done by an electric current
in a unit of time,
which can be calculated using P = I V.
P4.2 Energy Transformation
Energy is often transformed from one form to another. The amount of energy before a transformation is
equal to the amount of energy after the transformation. In most energy transformations, some energy is
converted to thermal energy.

Content Expectations
P3.7g Propose a mechanism based on electric forces to explain current flow in an electric circuit.
P4.10A Describe the energy transformations when electrical energy is produced and transferred to homes and
businesses.
P4.10B Identify common household devices that transform electrical energy to other forms of energy, and
describe the type of energy transformation.
P4.10C Given diagrams of many different possible connections of electric circuit elements, identify complete
circuits, open circuits, and short circuits and explain the reasons for the classification.
P4.10D Discriminate between voltage, resistance, and current as they apply to an electric circuit.
P4.10e Explain energy transfer in a circuit, using an electrical charge model.
P4.10f Calculate the amount of work done when a charge moves through a potential difference, V.
P4.10g Compare the currents, voltages, and power in parallel and series circuits.
P4.10h Explain how circuit breakers and fuses protect household appliances.
P4.10i Compare the energy used in one day by common household appliances (e.g., refrigerator, lamps, hair
dryer, toaster, televisions, music players).
P4.10j Explain the difference between electric power and electric energy as used in bills from an electric
company.
P4.1A Account for and represent energy into and out of systems using energy transfer diagrams.
P4.2f Identify and label the energy inputs, transformations, and outputs using qualitative or quantitative
representations in simple technological systems (e.g., toaster, motor, hair dryer) to show energy
conservation.
 Background Instructional Information:
USED FOR BOTH FOUNDATIONAL AND CAPSTONE COURSE
(ANY ADDITIONAL CAPSTONE MATERIAL INCLUDED WILL BE HIGHLIGHTED IN RED BELOW)

THIS UNIT SHOULD COME AFTER COMPLETING A UNIT ON STATIC ELECTRICITY AND
ELECTRIC FIELDS.

Diagrams and Common Circuit Symbols:

Conductive wire
Battery Resistor connection Switch

Positive Negative
side side

Voltmeter Ammeter Light Bulb Capacitor

V A L
Terms and Concepts:
Open/Closed Circuit Short Circuit Schematic Diagrams
Voltage and Potential Current (amperes) Resistance (ohms)
Difference (volts)
Power (watts) Series Circuits Parallel Circuits
Fuse/Circuit Breaker Ohm’s Law Thermal Energy

Open Circuit – An incomplete circuit. An opening exists in the conductive path that
prevents charge from flowing.

Closed Circuit – A complete conductive loop (circuit) in which charge can flow.

Short Circuit – A closed loop that connects high voltage to low voltage without any
restriction to the circuit (negligible resistance). Current will flow fast and
possibly out of control resulting in excessive (possibly dangerous) levels of heat.

Voltage Difference – The driving force in a circuit. Typically a battery that provides the
High and Low voltage to push forces through the circuit. Measured in Volts (V)

Current – The actual movement of charge. More specifically, the rate of moving charge.
A high current means Fast moving charge, a low current means slow moving
charge. Measured in Amperes (unit abbreviation: A)

Thermal Energy – the faster the charges move, the more heat is generated in the
conductors. Equation: Energy = Power x time (E = Pt) (unit: Joules)

Circuit Breaker – A safety device that will open a circuit if current gets too high.
Intended to prevent a dangerous level of heat from developing in the wires.

Resistance – intended to control the current in a circuit. It is responsible for governing

the speed of charge in a circuit. Different materials have a different inherent
resistance. For example, copper has a low resistance, while plastic has a high
resistance. Measured in Ohms (unit abbreviation: Ω)

Equivalent Resistance equations – CAPSTONE Topic

Series Circuit: Total Resistance (RT) = R1 + R2 + R3 +…

Parallel Circuit: 1 = 1 + 1 + 1
RT R1 R2 R3

Power – the rate at which work is done to the charges in a circuit. Measured in Watts
(unit abbreviation: W).
 Series Circuit – a circuit in which two or more resistors (or light bulbs) are connected
end-to-end around a single loop. One wire connects the two resistors.

Students will discover that the voltage across the individual resistors in a series circuit will add up
to the total voltage of the battery. They will also discover that the current through each resistor
will be equal to the current coming out of the battery.

Parallel Circuit – a circuit in which two or more resistors are connected side-by-side in a
“ladder rung style” of connection. Two wires connect the two resistors.
Note: for the CAPSTONE Physics
Note: for the FOUNDATIONAL course, Series and Parallel circuits
Physics course, only the basic 2- will go beyond basic 2-resistor
resistor Series and Parallel circuits circuits. Complex combinations of
will be necessary. Any additional series and parallel circuits will be an
is gravy. aggressive goal to aim for.

Students will discover that the voltage across the individual resistors in a parallel circuit are
equal to each other. They will also discover that the current through the individual resistors will
add up to the total current leaving the battery.

Basic Combined Series and Parallel Circuits – advanced circuitry for CAPSTONE Course

Ohm’s Law – Voltage difference across any two points in a circuit is directly proportional
to the current through those points. The equation:
Voltage = Current x Resistance (abbrev: V = I.R)
where Resistance is the constant of proportionality

Power Equations: Power = Voltage x Current (abbrev: P = I.V)

2
P=I R These two equations fit the CAPSTONE course
P = V2/R
Resistor Color Stripe Codes:
Black 0 Blue 6
Brown 1 Violet 7
Red 2
Gray 8
Orange 3
White 9
Yellow 4 1st Stripe = 1st digit
nd nd
Green 5 2 stripe = 2 digit
3rd stripe = # of Zeros at end

Voltmeters – get connected PARALLEL to a resistor or battery to get a proper reading.

Ammeters – get connected in SERIES with a resistor or battery to get a proper reading.

Ohmmeters – get connected PARALLEL to a resistor to get the proper resistance reading.
Instructional Resources
Paul Hewitt – Physics Alive video series – Current Electricity. Outstanding video series.
Found at http://www.arborsci.com/SearchResult.aspx?CategoryID=20

http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/circuits/ - excellent Tutorial for physics

definitions and concepts

http://homepage.mac.com/phyzman/phyz/ -

CASTLE project (Capacitor-Aided System for Teaching and Learning Electricity) -

http://www.pasco.com/featured-products/castle/index.cfm

http://phet.colorado.edu/index.php - Physics simulations from Colorado University

Tipers Physics assessment resource:

O’Kuma, Thomas L. Ed, et al. Ranking Task Exercises in Physics. New Jersey: Prentice
Hall, 2000.

Circuit Breaker Assessment Game

http://www.epcor.ca/sse/power/breaker.html

University of Minnesota Physics demonstrations on Quicktime

http://groups.physics.umn.edu/demo/

http://www.diagnoser.com/diagnoser/index.jsp
Circuit Electricity
Activity #1 – Coloring the Circuits: a Voltage Investigation – HOW
do charges move?
USED FOR BOTH FOUNDATIONAL AND CAPSTONE COURSE
Questions to be investigated
1. What conditions will allow charges to move through a light bulb (or resistor of
any kind)?
2. In a complex circuit, which light bulbs will light up?
3. How do I measure voltage in a circuit?
4. Given a set of criteria, how could you predict the voltage difference across each
light bulb in a circuit (Extra Question For Capstone Course)

Objectives
1. Students will analyze the voltage difference across light bulbs in several circuits
using a wire coloring modeling method.
2. Students will build several of the drawn circuits.
3. Students will utilize proper instrumentation to measure the voltage across each
light bulb.

Materials
Colored pencils, worksheets attached below, set of wires (with alligator clips), two D-cell
batteries with battery cradles, three light bulbs, a switch, and a voltmeter.

Safety Concerns
Tell Students: Do NOT use the voltmeter to test any outlets. It could cause injury and
damage the meter.

Real-World Connections
It is important for any homeowner (which our students will presumable be one day) to
know that high and low voltage is present in every outlet and is the reason why charge
can move. It is important that students know that our bodies will act as a path for charge
to move if we make that mistake of connecting high and low voltage with our hands or
fingers or hand/foot, etc. That mistake could be fatal.

Teacher Notes
On the first day of the unit I start with this coloring worksheet (front and back)
that is posted below. Allow the students to use colored pencils. Clarify the instruction
that they are to color the positive terminal of the battery red (for “highest voltage”) and
all of the wires that are connected to it with continuous, uninterrupted conductive path
(without coloring across any light bulbs). Then color the negative terminal of the battery
blue (for “lowest voltage”) and all of the wires attached to that terminal (without coloring
across any light bulbs, once again). When those two colors are completed, there will be
some wires that are not colored at all. Those are the wires that have an “in-between”
voltage and will be colored either yellow, or green, orange, etc. Any light bulb that has a
“color-difference” also has a “voltage difference” across it. Therefore, charge will move
through that light bulb. I remind them that the three necessary conditions for charge to
move from any point A to any other point B, is: a high potential (voltage), a low potential
(voltage), and a path to get there (conductive). Some of the light bulbs on the worksheet
will have red wires on both sides of the bulb or blue wires on both sides of the bulb. The
students should recognize that, although, the light bulb may have a voltage touching it,
there must be a voltage difference from one side to the other in order to light up. For the
CAPSTONE course, I tell my students to assume all the light bulbs are identical (with
equal power) and to assume that each circuit is powered by a 12 V battery. Label the
voltage difference across each light bulb in each circuit.
The third and fourth page below are a complete answer key to the front side and a
partial answer key to the back side of the worksheet. I project the front side on the board
after the students have completed their coloring. Then I project the back side on the
board and ask students to come up and color their answers using colored markers or chalk
or smart board tools.
On the second day, I give the students a set of wires (with alligator clips), two D-
cell batteries with battery cradles, three light bulbs, and a switch. I instruct them to
follow the diagrams on the next worksheet (inserted below – called Measuring Voltage
Lab) to build some of the circuits they colored on the first day. After building each
circuit, they will use a voltmeter to measure the voltages. They should see that all the
parallel bulbs have the same voltage difference (as they have the same “color difference”
on yesterday’s worksheet). They should also see that the voltage differences across the
series bulbs add up to the voltage of the battery.
I will later demonstrate for my students, using an AC voltmeter, what the voltage
difference is across the slots of a household outlet. Remind them not to try this at home
unless supervised by a responsible adult. This is also the opportunity to use the voltmeter
to show that if connected to the positive terminal of an outlet, ANY low voltage
connection will allow charge to move – touch the second voltmeter lead to the chalk
ledge and you will see the meter register about 120 volts. “If that was your finger tips
registering a 120 V difference, charges would move through your body and possibly
through your heart…BAD NEWS!!! Always use caution – ALWAYS shut off your
circuit breaker if you ever work with electrical circuits in the walls of your house.”

Procedure/Description of Lesson: (See attached Lab worksheets on next five pages)

First worksheet below was taken and modified from The CASTLE Project found at:
http://www.pasco.com/featured-products/castle/index.cfm
Front of Worksheet
Back of Worksheet
Measuring Voltage Lab
1. Using a single battery and a pair of wires, make one light bulb light up. (Do not use
a light bulb socket). Draw a picture of your successful configuration below. Where
on the light bulb does the High and Low Potential need to touch?

+
2. Next put the light bulbs in their sockets and make
sure you have three that work. –

3. Using wires, two batteries, three light bulbs, and a switch, you will create the four
circuits (one at a time) that appeared on the front side of the “Color Coding Circuits”
Worksheet. Take out that worksheet to use as reference when making your
conclusions.

4. For each circuit, use a multi-meter to measure the voltage across the batteries, and the
voltage across each light bulb. Record each voltage on the line next to the respective item.
See the first example below to learn how to connect the voltmeter in order to get a proper
reading.

™ Look at the color coding WS. These first four circuits are the same circuits as
you will find on the front of yesterday’s worksheet. Explain how the recorded
voltages reflect the same idea?
™ Conclude on the pattern that you find from the voltage measurements.
™ Note, also, the brightness of the bulbs relative to the other circuits.

Series Circuit

V
V

Parallel Circuit

5. Next you will expand on the series circuit and on the parallel circuit. Once again record
the voltage across each element of the circuit. Before taking apart the series circuit
below, unscrew one bulb and record the result. Do the same for the parallel circuit below
before you finish?
Assessment Ideas: Understanding Potential Difference
The following could act as a “bell ringer” check your understanding activity the day after these labs have
been completed.
Circuit Electricity
Activity #2 – Ohm’s Law Lab
USED FOR FOUNDATIONAL COURSE
Questions to be investigated
1. How do you connect a basic electrical circuit?
2. How do you properly connect a voltmeter and an ammeter to a circuit?
3. What effect will a varying voltage have on the current through a constant resistor?
4. How will different resistors behave under same test conditions?

Objectives
1. Students will measure/record the varying voltage and current for three different
fixed resistance circuits.
2. Students will graph their data on an x-y plane and analyze the shape of the graph.
3. Students will interpret the color codes marked on a resistor.

Materials
Variable power supply, switch, 3-4 wires with alligator clips, 3 different resistors.

Safety Concerns
Tell the students to vary their power supply so that the current increase by consistent
increments (perhaps 0.1 amperes each time). Avoid currents over 0.8 amps otherwise
some resistors may burn in class (and smell bad!). SAFETY: resistors may be hot to the
touch. Avoid contact with resistors until the circuit has been opened for several seconds

Real-World Connections
All household appliances are built with a specific resistance, and allow a specific amount
of current to flow through in order to function as intended. Students will be assigned to
find out the Current Rating of their household vacuum cleaner (it should be written
somewhere on the machine, or in the instruction manual) to bring to class the following
day. Using that current and the voltage of an outlet (120 V), students will calculate the
resistance of the machine as designed by the manufacturer.

Teacher Notes
During the lab, the students should be able to conclude that for any constant resistance,
when the current is increased, the voltage increases as well. When this data is graphed,
they should see a straight line. This is an outstanding opportunity to show students that
“SLOPE” means something in physics. It is not just a task for their math classes. The
slope always represents a CONSTANT value. The constant for their graph, they will find,
should be equal to the constant resistance. The stripes on the resistor will verify this
number (or closely match) and will represent the manufactured resistance. The rules for
the stripes on the resistor can be found at:
http://www.hep.fsu.edu/~wahl/phy3802/expinfo/electronics/res-color-code.gif
Procedure/Description of Lesson: (See attached Lab worksheets on
next three pages)
 Voltage and Current (Ohm’s Law)
Before you begin collecting data, refresh your memory…
1. Describe, in words, what is meant by voltage in a circuit.

2. Describe, in words, what is meant by current through a circuit.

For this lab, you will find a relationship between Voltage and Current. Set up the circuit with a fixed
resistor. Record the color bands on the resistor. Plug the circuit into the variable DC outlets on the
table. Adjust the dial and record the voltage across the resistor and the current through the circuit.

1. Color Bands on Resistor: ____________________________________________

Voltmeter
Current (amps) Voltage (volts)
Ammeter
0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7 Power Supply

-
+
2. Color Bands on Resistor: ____________________________________________

Current (amps) Voltage (volts)

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7
 3. Color Bands on Resistor: ____________________________________________

Current (amps) Voltage (volts)

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

Graph your data on the x-y axis below. Be careful to scale your y-axis in order to fit all of
your voltage data

Title: ______________________________________________________
)
Voltage (

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

Current ( )
Conclusions

1. What consistently happened to the voltage every time the current was notched up?

2. What is the shape of each of the three graphs?

3. What would your math teacher tell you that you can calculate for that kind of graph?

4. Show that calculation for each of the three graphs in the space below.

5. Now review your notes about the color coded stripes on the resistors. What did the
manufacturer intend to be the resistance of each of those?

6. Do those numbers closely match your slope calculations above?

Assessment Ideas: Ohm’s Law
A sample quiz has been attached below that can be given the next day. It could be
modified to be a 3 minute “bell ringer” activity for the students as they enter the
classroom to check their understanding or as a quick review before starting the next day’s
activity. Or it could be expanded to act as a homework worksheet.
 Ohm’s Law Lab Follow Up

Ohm’s Law says that voltage is directly proportional to current. This means that when
voltage is increased by equal amounts, then current naturally increases by equal amounts
also. The relation between the two is a constant resistance.

For the table below, fill in the blank boxes using Ohm’s Law equation: V= IR

Voltage (volts) Current (amps) Resistance (ohms)

1. 12 75

2. 240 15

3. 5.5 20

4. What is the current flowing through a light bulb if the resistance is 20 ohms and the
voltage is 45 volts?

5. A current of 0.75 amps flows through a bulb. What is the resistance of the bulb if the
voltage is 55 volts?

6. What is the resistance rating of the resistor shown below?

a. 2.5 Ω b. 25 Ω c. 250 Ω d. 2,500 Ω e. 25,000 Ω

Red Brown Gold

Green
Circuit Electricity
Activity #2 – Current and Resistance Labs: How FAST will Charges Move?
USED FOR CAPSTONE COURSE
Questions to be investigated
1. How FAST will charges move through a circuit?
2. How fast will charges move through the individual resistors of a circuit?
3. Will current be the same in all parts of a given circuit, or can it be different from
one location to another within the circuit?
4. What is the general rule about current in a series circuit vs. a parallel circuit?
5. How are current and resistance related to each other?

Objectives
1. Students will properly connect an ammeter in a circuit in order to measure/record
the current at various locations within a circuit.
2. Students will experimentally analyze the current throughout a series circuit and a
parallel circuit.
3. Students will experimentally analyze the total resistance of a series circuit and a
parallel circuit.
4. Students will demonstrate the importance of circuit breakers in household circuits.
5. Students will interpret the color codes marked on a resistor.
6. Students will explain the current and resistance relationship as it applies to
household appliances

Materials
2 D-cell batteries with battery pack, switch, 10-12 wires with alligator clips, 4 different
resistors, and an ammeter.

Safety Concerns
Caution: resistors may be hot to the touch. Avoid contact with resistors until the circuit
has been opened for several seconds

Real-World Connections
All household outlets (120 V) are connected in PARALLEL to each other.
Students will make the connection that current gets higher in a parallel circuit when many
appliances or electrical devices are turned on at the same time on the same circuit. The
Real-World result is that a fuse (or circuit breaker) can blow out under those
circumstances. The importance of circuit breakers in household circuits is a natural
discussion during this activity since it is excessive current (resulting in thermal energy
within the wires) that will cause a fuse to blow.
Every household appliance has a specific amount of current that runs through it in
order to properly function as intended by the manufacturer. Students can calculate that
current and the corresponding resistance when connected to a 120 V outlet.
Teacher Notes
The most important note for a new teacher is to try out these labs on your own
before allowing students to do them. The lab is intended to be a simplified approach to
circuits, but there will be fires to put out with the students. For example, the wire
connections must be good metal to metal connection. Making parallel connections takes
practice (there are several possible methods), as does measuring current through a single
parallel branch. Students will need to be reminded that an ammeter gets connected in
series with a resistor, which is different than how they measured voltage in the previous
lab activity.
These labs should take about 2 full days (perhaps up to 3). During the labs, the
students should be able to conclude that current gets weaker and weaker as you connect
more resistors in SERIES one at a time. However, the current gets higher and higher as
you connect resistors in PARALLEL one at a time. This seems wrong to many students
since they were adding resistors to the circuit and naturally, they often feel, current
should get weaker again. But the analogy can be made that when resistors are added in
parallel, there are more paths for charge to “escape” the battery. Therefore, charge is able
to move faster, resulting in a higher current. Later, in the resistance lab, students will see
that the total resistance in a parallel circuit gets lower when more and more resisters get
added. This fits Ohm’s Law relationship that current will increase as resistance
decreases.
Students will also conclude that the current through every resistor in Series will
be equal to the current leaving the battery. The current through the individual resistors in
Parallel will add up to the total current leaving the battery. The part that you, the teacher,
will have to assist students most, is when measuring the current through individual
resistors in the parallel circuits. Like in the picture, tell the students to disconnect the
wire from the left side of the first resistor in order to fit the ammeter (with its 2 wires) in
series with that resistor.
The rules for the stripes on the resistor can be found at:
http://www.hep.fsu.edu/~wahl/phy3802/expinfo/electronics/res-color-code.gif

Procedure/Description of Lesson: (See attached Lab worksheets on next four pages)

 Measuring CURRENT in Circuits
I. Measure the total current leaving the battery in a closed SERIES circuit.
1. Create a simple circuit with one resistor. Measure the current coming out of the
battery.
2. Add one resistor at a time in SERIES with each other (up to 4 resistors). Record the
current after each trial on the line below the picture.

1 resistor 2 resistors in Series 3 resistors in Series 4 resistors in Series

A A A A

Current = __________ Current = __________ Current = __________ Current = __________

Conclusion #1: What happened to the TOTAL CURRENT when resistors were added in
SERIES?

II. Measure the current at many different locations within the Series circuit.
3. Leave all 4 resistors in series, but disconnect the ammeter and move it to the locations
shown in the pictures below.
4. Be CERTAIN that the ammeter is connected in SERIES with the resistors.
A
A

a. b.

Current between the Current between the

1st and 2nd resistors = 2nd and 3rd resistors =

d.
c.
A

Current between the Current going back

3rd and 4th resistors = into the battery =

Conclusion #2: Compare the total current found in conclusion #1 to the current at each of the
different parts of the circuit.
 III. Measure the total current leaving the battery in a closed PARALLEL circuit.
5. Break down your circuit to one resistor again. Measure the current coming out of
the battery again. Record the current on the line below the picture.
6. Add one resistor at a time in PARALLEL with each other (up to 4 resistors). Record the
TOTAL CURRENT after each trial on the line below the picture. 4 resistors in Parallel
3 resistors in Parallel

2 resistors in Parallel

A A A A

Current = __________ Current = __________ Current = __________ Current = __________

Conclusion #3: What happened to the TOTAL CURRENT when resistors were added in
PARLLEL?

IV. Measure the current at many different locations within the Parallel circuit.
7. Leave all 4 resistors in parallel, but disconnect the ammeter and move it to the
locations shown in the pictures below. YOU MUST BE VERY CAREFUL THAT YOU
CONNECT THE AMMETER PROPERLY AS SHOWN IN ORDER TO GET THE PROPER CURRENT
READINGS!
8. Disconnect the wire off of the left side of the first resistor. Connect the ammeter in
series to this resistor as shown in the picture below. Record that current on the line
provided.
9. Reconnect the first resistor back to its original form. Now check the current on the
right side of that same resistor in a similar fashion. Repeat for each resistor following
the pictures.

A A

A A

Current into 1st resistor = ______ Current out from 1st resistor = _____ Current into 2nd resistor = _____ Current out from 2nd resistor = _____

A A
A A

Current into 3rd resistor = _____ Current out from 3rd resistor = _____ Current into 4th resistor = _____ Current out from 4th resistor = _____

Conclusion #4: Compare the total current found in conclusion #3 to the current through each of
the different parallel branches of the circuit.
 RESISTANCE MINI-LAB ACTIVITY
1. Pick two resistors. Write down the color stripes labeled on each resistor:
a)
b)
™ Test the resistance of each resistor. Record those values:
a) b)

2. Link those two resistors in series. Measure the combined resistance and record
below.

3. Get a third resistor and record its color stripes below. Measure the resistance of this
one.

4. Link this resistor in series with the other two. Measure the combined resistance of the
three in series and record below.

5. If you were to add another 15 Ω resistor in series with the first three, what would be
the combined resistance?

Conclusion: Determine a general rule about adding resistors in SERIES.

6. Use the same two resistors that you used in question #1 and link them in parallel.
Remember you are connecting them to each other like a ladder rungs without a
battery. Measure the combined resistance of these two and record below.

7. Link the third resistor (that you used in Q #2) in parallel with the first two. Measure
and record the combined resistance.

8. Get a fourth resistor and record the color stripes. What is its resistance?

9. Link it in parallel with the other three. Measure the total resistance of this
combination and record below.

Conclusion: Determine a general rule about adding resistors in PARALLEL. Try to

figure out a specific equation for calculating Total Resistance in Parallel.
Watts around the House
Look up the Power (in Watts) of each of the following household items. This information can be
found on a label on the back of these items, or inside the door of the item, or stamped right into
the plastic casing. Then calculate the current that runs through each. Finally, calculate the
resistance of each. If there are any items that you do not have, find a different item as a
replacement.

Household Items
Power (Watts) Current (Amps) Resistance (Ohms)
1. Toaster:
1680 w
2. Microwave:
1350 w
3. TV or DVD player:
55 w
4. Blender:
375 w
5. Alarm Clock:
15 w
6. George Foreman Grill:
1500 w
7. Light Bulb over Kitchen Sink:
75 w
8. Electric Clothes Dryer: (240 V)
5400 w
9. Vacuum Cleaner:
7.5 a
10. Coffee Maker:
1025 w
11. List out 3 different combinations of these devices that you could plug in at the same time on
the same 15 amp circuit without blowing a fuse? Remember how the outlets in your house are
connected together: (series or parallel?). Remember, also, what happens to the total current of the
circuit when electric items are added into this type of circuit.

12. Suppose the power company charges 8 cents per Kilowatt-Hour (KWhr). How much would
it leave your kitchen light on for an entire week?

13. How much would it cost to run the George Foreman Grill for an entire week? (bad idea by
the way…do not try at home…this is a trained professional writing this worksheet)
Assessment Ideas: Understanding Resistance & Current
The following could act as a “bell ringer” check your understanding activity the day after these labs have
been completed.
Circuit Electricity
Activity #3 – Build your Own Lamp
USED FOR FOUNDATIONAL COURSE
Questions to be investigated
1. What are the internal characteristics that make a lamp work?
2. What is the voltage across a household lamp bulb when you plug it into an outlet?
3. How does a light bulb company build a 40-watt bulb differently than a 100-watt
bulb?
4. How much current moves through a typical 40-watt bulb compared to a 100-watt
bulb?

Objectives
1. Students will construct their very own working lamp that can be used on their
desk at home.
2. Students will compare and contrast the power, resistance, current and cost of
running two different light bulbs.

Materials
Scrap parts from home may be used for the body of the lamp. An old lamp may be
dissected to use for spare parts, however, an entire lamp may not be submitted as a
project. Students should find free materials as often as possible, but may purchase lamp
building parts at many local hardware stores.

Safety Concerns
Tell the students to ONLY work on their lamp while it is UNPLUGGED from the wall!!!
Students must also build their lamp with a great deal of stability so that there is no
chance for the lamp to tip over…light bulbs will get hot and can ignite paper or other
materials if the lamp falls over.

Real-World Connections
We implement physics every time we flip a light switch and every time we use an
appliance at home.

Teacher Notes
I made this project a contest to be voted on by peers and faculty. After the physics of
electric circuits has been established, students can see that building a lamp is much easier
than one might think when initially suggested. Many students were able to showcase
their artistic abilities for this project. The voting was done by surveying as many students
and staff members as possible to rank their top three favorite lamps that were displayed
for two full days of voting. I advertised it and allowed any student in the school to vote
(one time each) as possible. It took some time to compile the results, but it was well
worth the effort. An article was published in the Parent School Newsletter afterward.
Students loved it and had a cool product at the end.

Procedure/Description of Lesson: (See attached instruction worksheets on next three pages)

 Initial handout for students to read with their parents. (Delete this box)

A Bright Idea
Your next project is to make a working lamp. You may use “spare parts” from an old lamp (hidden in the
attic) or you may make some purchases at a local hardware store to create your own unique lamp. It must be
able to safely plug into a typical 120-volt household outlet, and turn on/off with its own switch. The body of
the lamp must be your own creative creation (you may not use the body of an old lamp). You may use a clean
mayonnaise jar, peanut butter jar, pop bottle, juice bottle, or even an old vase. Or you may choose to make a
base out of some scrap wood from the garage that you stack together and drill a hole up the middle to run your
wire. You may use any clever idea that you like. Whatever base you choose must be capable of running wire
through the inside to come out the top and bottom side. Also, make sure that it is sturdy and will not tip if it
becomes too “top-heavy”. You may choose to decorate a bottle with some decorative stones inside (which
would also add to the stability of the lamp). If you need to do more research on the topic, a good place to begin
might be: www.howstuffworks.com. Make it look nice and be proud of your creation. Grade will mostly be
based on workability and creativity/effort. The other part of the grade will be based on some basic calculations
of current, resistance, and power that we have already practiced…more on this later.
When working with electrical connections, be certain that you are not plugged into any wall outlets. When
making any wire connections, be sure that the wires are neatly screwed to the connection screws. You do not
want any stray strands of wire touching any other stray strands of wire which might cause a short circuit. If
using any power tools during your project, be certain that you have the assistance and supervision of a parent
or legal guardian!!
You may work with ONE partner, or you may work on your own. If you work on your own and supply
your own materials you will end up with a homemade lamp to keep and use at your favorite study place at
home. If you work with a partner, you will have to decide who gets to keep the lamp or compromise a time
share plan for your wonderful creation.
When submitting your project, you must also submit a cost spreadsheet that lists every part on your lamp to
account for costs and all receipts must be stapled to it. Do not include the cost of a gallon of milk, if you use a
bottle that you were planning on disposing of anyway. Likewise, do not include the original cost of any scraps
that you find in the garage or attic that go into the lamp. DO, HOWEVER, list those items on your cost
spreadsheet and mark them as free. Your parents must sign at the bottom of your spreadsheet to verify any free
items are truthful.
Once all projects are submitted, there will be an anonymous vote by your peers and other teachers to pick a list of
the top three favorite lamps. Of those three, the lamp that has the lowest cost spreadsheet will be awarded 2 extra
credit points. One extra credit point will be given to the highest ranked “zero-cost” lamp.
Summary: make the nicest lamp for the least amount of money.
Parents/ Guardians:
At a recent trip to Home Depot, I found that “lamp kits” can be purchased for about $6 - $8. Or
individual parts (wire, light socket, plug end, hardware) can be purchased for about $10. Lamp shades
can be found at K-mart/Wal-Mart for about $5. It is not my intention, at all, to burden any families with
excessive/unnecessary expenses, therefore if you feel you can not make any purchases toward this
project, and can not find any “spare parts” in the attic or garage, please email me and I can call you back
to arrange for an alternate plan. I have some spare parts that I can loan to the first few parents who ask,
but will request to get them back upon completion so that I can use them for future projects. My email
address: (your email here). Please sign below indicating that you have read this project guideline.
Thank you, Science Dept.

Parent/Guardian please check one of the following:

□ We will supply all materials so that my son/daughter can keep his/her lamp.
□ I would rather not pay for any such project and will email you for further correspondence.

Parent/Guardian Signature _______________________________________ Date ____________

 This is a spreadsheet that I posted on my webpage for my students to keep track of any
expenditures and submit along with their completed project. Delete this box

Cost Analysis - Lamp Project

* Go to FILE, click SaveAS…, Name the file and save in a known folder at home.
Then you may edit this spreadsheet and print when complete

If part was free, type the NUMBER zero (0) in

the cost column

Part Description Cost Tax Grand Total

1 $ -
2 $ -
3 $ -
4 $ - Scroll down
5 $ -
6 $ -
7 $ -
8 $ -
9 $ -
10 $ -
11 $ -
If you need
12 $ - more lines for
13 $ - this
spreadesheet,
14 $ - click in the box
15 $ - below your 15th
item and click:
$ -
*Insert
*Rows
Totals: $ - $ - $ -

Parent Signature for cost verification____________________________________ Date _________

* Print this copy to turn in to your teacher

* Please staple all reciepts to the top right corner of this printout.
Favorite Lamp: # ________ (3 pts) Favorite Lamp: # ________ (3 pts)

2nd Favorite: # ___________ (2 pts) 2nd Favorite: # ___________ (2 pts)

3rd Favorite: # ___________ (1 pt) 3rd Favorite: # ___________ (1 pt)

Favorite Lamp: # ________ (3 pts) Favorite Lamp: # ________ (3 pts)

2nd Favorite: # ___________ (2 pts) 2nd Favorite: # ___________ (2 pts)

3rd Favorite: # ___________ (1 pt) 3rd Favorite: # ___________ (1 pt)

Favorite Lamp: # ________ (3 pts) Favorite Lamp: # ________ (3 pts)

2nd Favorite: # ___________ (2 pts) 2nd Favorite: # ___________ (2 pts)

3rd Favorite: # ___________ (1 pt) 3rd Favorite: # ___________ (1 pt)

Favorite Lamp: # ________ (3 pts) Favorite Lamp: # ________ (3 pts)

2nd Favorite: # ___________ (2 pts) 2nd Favorite: # ___________ (2 pts)

3rd Favorite: # ___________ (1 pt) 3rd Favorite: # ___________ (1 pt)

Assessment Ideas:

Electrical Analysis – Lamp Project

1. What is the Power of each of your two light bulbs?

2. How much current goes through each light bulb when the lamp is turned on? Show the brief
calculation below.

3. Calculate the RESISTANCE of each light bulb. Show the brief calculation below.

4. How many of those light bulbs could be turned on at the same time if they were all on the
same circuit that is connected to a typical 15 amp fuse (without breaking the fuse)?

5. How much will the electric company charge you if you leave a 100-watt light bulb turned on
for 24 hours? B) How about if you leave it on for 7 straight days while you are out of town?
(assume a rough estimate of 8 cents per kilowatt-hour)
Extension

The following worksheet may be used to further address the Real-World application of
the “Power Equation” and Ohm’s Law equation.
 WATTS AROUND YOUR HOUSE?
Look up the Power (in Watts) of each of the following household items. This
information can be found on the label on the back of these items in your house.
14. Toaster:

15. Microwave:

16. TV or VCR:

17. Blender:

18. Hair Dryer:

19. George Foreman Grill:

Now calculate the current through each device. Remember that a household circuit is
typically rated at ______ volts. Show your work for each. (Power = Voltage x
Current)… …(and Current = Power ÷ Voltage)
20. Toaster:

21. Microwave:

22. TV or VCR:

23. Blender:

24. Hair Dryer:

25. George Foreman Grill:

How did the manufacturer build each appliance to control this specific amount of current?
They can control how much resistance is put into the appliance. Calculate the resistance of
each appliance by using Ohm’s Law equation: Voltage = Current x Resistance
26. Toaster:

27. Microwave:

28. TV or VCR:

29. Blender:

30. Hair Dryer:

31. George Foreman Grill:

 Circuit Electricity
Activity #3 – Building a Household Circuit
USED FOR CAPSTONE COURSE
Questions to be investigated
1. How is a household circuit going to look, and act differently than a circuit we’ve
build in the lab up to this point?
2. What are some of the practical details that we have learned about constructing
circuits that will be important to recall while building an actual outlet circuit?
3. How do I keep my delicate “fuse” from burning out? What will cause my fuse to
burn out?
4. What should the voltmeter read when plugged into my lab simulated “household
circuit?”

Objectives
1. Students compare and contrast the circuits they built in class with a realistic
household circuit.
2. Students will use a hands-on approach to construct a realistic household circuit
using real electrical devices from a local hardware store (including 2 outlets, and
one switched light bulb).
3. Students will devise a successful method that will make an outlet work
independent from the wall switch (always “Live”). Then they will modify the
circuit so that the outlets depend upon the wall switch.

Materials
I will provide to each group: 2 actual wall outlets, one wall switch, one laboratory light
bulb (flashlight bulb) in lab socket, ring stand to elevate the light bulb, 4 D-cell battery
pack, thin twisted strand of steel wool (to act as a fuse in case they wire together a short
circuit), 4 strands of “speaker cable” (the variety that contains two strands of wire
connected side-by-side but separated by insulating plastic, 3 wire connector screw caps,
outlet face plates and a switch face plate.

Basic set up that I set out for students…the wires

are not long enough to connect each item to the
battery pack, so they must know how to jumper one
Basic supply box…I added faceplates and a steel item to the next.
wool “fuse” the next year – not in this picture.
Safety Concerns
Tell the students to NOT use the outlets that are attached to the lab tables or are
embedded in the wall. Those are connected to 120 V AC. Only use the battery pack I
have supplied (about 6 V DC is much safer).

Real-World Connections
This whole lab is as real-world as I get in my physics class without using dangerous
voltage. Some students have told me in the past that this lab has inspired them to look
more closely at careers as electricians. My favorite part of this lab is actually using
speaker wires that are connected to each other as they go from battery to outlets. Up to
this point, students have used single strands of wire to make “circular looking” circuits.
This requires the students to closely consider how to make a circuit when the positive and
negative wires are side by side, as they are inside our walls all around us.

Teacher Notes
Great Lab Activity!! But, once again, it is important that you try this out before
the students so that you can recognize the pitfalls before the students ask you about the
many. Once you learn how to set it all up, this is a student and teacher favorite. Here are
a few more views of the set-up that I have waiting for the students.

Student connections begin here

Steel Wool FUSE – have lots of

replacements ready for students
 Light bulb arrangement

Procedure/Description of Lesson:
See attached worksheets on next pages. The first page is what I give my students so that
they can draw out their wiring plan before construction. The second page shows a
solution I will present to my students after they have made at least two attempts of their
own to build it properly.
 Light bulb

Fuse

Power
Supply

Switch Outlets

Draw your wiring plan before you begin construction. Use red and blue colored pencils to
represent Hi and Lo voltage. Draw those wires running side-by-side from A) power supply to the
switch, then B) from switch to light bulb, then C) from switch to first outlet, then D) from first outlet
to second outlet. The red and blue wires should only be separated once they get into the gray box
around each device. Further, when the wires are finally separated, both wires must remain inside the
same gray box. Think of all the details about household circuits we have discussed in class.
TRIAL 1 – I want both of the outlets to be “Live” regardless if the switch is ON or OFF.
Clear this with me. I will check everything with a voltmeter.
TRIAL 2 – Change ONE wire connection in your set up so that the outlets are dependent upon
the switch. Outlets work with switch ON and outlets don’t work when switch is OFF.

Extra notes to students:

™ The gray box in the picture above represents the hole in the wall where the wires can
be accessed. Electricians will often only have this small window to work with High
and Low voltage.
™ You will use a screwdriver to make solid connections with your electrical wires.
™ Leave NO loose wire endings. You may use wire screw caps that are provided to tie
off loose wires.
™ I have connected a steel wool “fuse” to the positive terminal of the battery pack. If
that burns out, you have a faulty circuit…Fix it!! I have plenty of extra replacement
steel wool fuses.
™ When you feel you are done, you will finish it all off by attaching wall face plates on
your outlets and switch.
™ Call me over to check your work before taking anything apart.
 Light bulb

Fuse

Power
Supply

Switch Outlets

This is the sample I will draw on my board for my students after they have put in at least
two full attempt at construction.
End of Unit Assessment Ideas:
The following worksheets could each be used as an assessment tool. All could be used
for the Capstone course, or any one could be chosen depending on ability level of the
class. Assessment could be tailored to each individual as well. The toughest assessment
is on the last page, while the easiest one is on the first page below.

If you have an electronic version of this document, the last two pages are solution keys to
the Advanced Circuitry Assessments. I post these on my webpage a day after they have
taken the assessment so that they can check their work with some clues along the way for
those who were stuck. If you do not have this in electronic form, feel free to visit my
website to find solutions: http://www.rochester.k12.mi.us/index.aspx?folder=18936
 SERIES AND PARALLEL ANALYSIS SHEET

2Ω 4Ω
Resistance Power Current Voltage
2

Total: 12

12 V

12 Ω
Resistance Power Current Voltage
12
4Ω
4

Total: 36

36 V

8Ω
4Ω Resistance Power Current Voltage
8

8
8Ω
4

Total: 24
24 V
 Circuit Assessment (2 pts)

Fill in the appropriate Voltage and Current for each Resistor on the table provided.

12.0 Ω 8.0 Ω

6.0 Ω 24.0 Ω

20.0 V

Resistance Current Voltage

(Ω) (amps) (volts)
12.0

6.0
(1 pt)
8.0

24.0

Total 20.0
(1 pt)
 ADVANCED CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

14 Ω
R P I V

14 Ω
3Ω 8Ω

3Ω

8Ω 5Ω 7Ω

5Ω
10 Ω

7Ω

12 V
10 Ω

15 Ω

12 V 15 Ω
Total:

Front Side
 ADVANCED CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
40 Ω

10 Ω

25 Ω 35 Ω

18 Ω

120 V 20 Ω

9Ω

R P I V

9Ω

18 Ω

10 Ω

40 Ω

25 Ω

35 Ω

20 Ω

Total: 120 V

Back Side
 Instructions: After you have an answer on your WS, you may slide the yellow box out of the way to reveal the answer I got. I
have lettered them A through G to represent the order in which my thought process flowed.

CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
14 Ω

R P I V
3Ω 8Ω
14 Ω
0.857 12DV

3Ω
1.09
E 3.27
5Ω 7Ω
See Below

8Ω
1.09
E 8.73
10 Ω

5Ω
1F 5V

7Ω
1
F 7V
12 V

10 Ω
1.2 12DV

15 Ω
0.8 12DV
15 Ω
59.38 4.95 12 V CLUE
Total: A
2.425
C B D. – Color in the wires as we did on
the first day of this unit to see why the voltage is
known across the 15 Ω, 10 Ω, 14 Ω resistors.

E.CLUE
CLUE
E. ––Slide
Lookthis box3 up
at the out of
Ω and thethe
8Ω way to see atogether…the
resistors clue about the current through
combination 3 Ωaand
the has
together 8 Ω lue
red-to-b
resistors
color difference (so a 12 V voltage difference). The combination has a total of 11 Ω across the 12 V difference.
So the current through that branch of the circuit must equal 12 v/11 Ω = ? Since the two resistors are in series,
they each
Same havebethat
clue can same
made forcurrent
the 5 Ωgoing
and 7through it. in part F above.
Ω resistors

Once all of the LETTERS above are filled in, the rest of their respective rows will fall into place by using:

V=IR and P=IV

 CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
40 Ω

10 Ω

25 Ω 35 Ω

18 Ω

120 V 20 Ω

Instructions: After you have an answer in each

9Ω box, you may slide the yellow box out of the
way to reveal the answer I got. I have lettered
them A through G to represent the order in
R P I V which my thought process flowed.

9Ω 1.33 12
E
CLUE
E. To find voltage across
– Slide this each of these,
text box up, outtreat
them as a single 6 ohm resistor that has 2
of the
18 Ω 0.67 12
E wayamps
to seemoving
a clue. through it…

10 Ω 2D 20
40 Ω 1.2 48 CLUE
F. The “Remaining”
– Slidevoltage
this textofbox
theup,
120out
V of
in the
series
wayis
F across this resistor. (120 Vtotal – 40 V – 20 V – 12 V
to see a clue.
= ?)
25 Ω 0.8
G 20
Treat these as a single 60 ohm resistor with 48 V
35 Ω 0.8
G 28 CLUE
G.across it… –48v/60
Slide this
ohms text= ?box up, out of the way
to see a clue.
20 Ω 2
D 40 Then all other cells will fill in with simple algebra…

Total: 60
A 240
C 2
B 120 V When done…close this document but do not save.
Hope this was helpful!
 Oakland Schools Physics Resource Unit

Magnetism &
Electromagnetic Interactions

David Carson
Oxford High School
Oxford Community Schools
 Magnetism & Electromagnetic Interactions
Content Statements
P3.p8 Magnetic Force (prerequisite)
Magnets exert forces on all objects made of ferromagnetic materials (e.g., iron, cobalt, and nickel) as
well as other magnets. This force acts at a distance. Magnetic fields accompany magnets and are
related to the strength and direction of the magnetic force. (prerequisite)
P3.8x Electromagnetic Force
Magnetic and electric forces are two aspects of a single electromagnetic force. Moving electric charges
produce magnetic forces and moving magnets produce electric forces (e.g., electric current in a
conductor).
P4.2 Energy Transformation
Energy is often transformed from one form to another. The amount of energy before a transformation is
equal to the amount of energy after the transformation. In most energy transformations, some energy is
converted to thermal energy.

Content Expectations
P3.p8A Create a representation of magnetic field lines around a bar magnet and qualitatively describe how the
relative strength and direction of the magnetic force changes at various places in the field.
(prerequisite)
P3.8b Explain how the interaction of electric and magnetic forces is the basis for electric motors, generators,
and the production of electromagnetic waves.
P4.2B Name devices that transform specific types of energy into other types (e.g., a device that transforms
electricity into motion).
P4.2A Account for and represent energy transfer and transformation in complex processes (interactions).
Instructional Background Information:

In ancient times, both Greeks and Chinese knew about natural magnets, rare chunks of
iron-rich mineral known as lodestones. The Chinese also knew that if you rubbed a steel
needle against a lodestone, in a fixed direction, it also became a magnet. Around the year
1000, they furthermore found that if a magnet or lodestone was placed on a little "boat"
floating in a bowl of water, it always pointed in a fixed direction--and for a magnetized
iron bar, that direction was always north-south. You could rotate the bowl, but the
magnet would keep pointing in the same direction.
The reason, we now know, is that the Earth, too, is magnetic. From that came the
magnetic compass, quickly copied by Arab navigators and then by Europeans. We may
wonder today--if lodestones did not exist, the compass might have stayed undiscovered
for a long time, and would Columbus have ventured so far from land without it?
The Floating Compass Needle
You can demonstrate this to the class on top of a projector, using a transparent
compass--the kind one can place on top of a map to orient it. I have one here with me.
However, it is much more impressive to float a small magnetized sewing needle in a
Petri dish containing water, on top of that projector. It helps prevent spills if the dish has
a cover, which you remove after it is safely on top of the projection glass; or else, fill it
(from a cup) after placing it on the projector, to a depth of about 7-8 mm. Have a larger
container to take the water afterwards, and just in case, also keep some paper towels on
hand.
The needle should be the thinnest you can get--a small needle of about 3 cm is OK,
heavier ones tend to sink. It should be dry, and handling it helps, as it rubs off some
grease from the fingers. Magnetize it by stroking with a magnet--the button magnet used
in the next demonstration can serve here.
Get several needles, just in case the first one sinks; it may be harder to float a needle
again after it gets wet, although a paper towel can help dry it. .Have a small magnet on
hand to magnetize the needle.
The needle won't sink if you drop it carefully. Hold it horizontally at its middle
between two fingers, just above the water, then let go. (Use fingers, not pincers: a lot of
those are of iron, and the needle may stick magnetically).
Of course, it then points north-south, as you can show by placing the transparent
compass (used below in another demonstration) on the same projector top. Not too close,
or the two magnetic needles interact. (Also, make sure the auxiliary magnet is well away,
or else "north" may be in some funny direction)

On Earth one needs a sensitive needle to detect magnetic forces, and out in space they are
usually much, much weaker. But beyond the dense atmosphere, such forces have a much
bigger role, and a region exists around the Earth where they dominate the environment, a
region known as the Earth's magnetosphere. That region contains a mix of electrically
charged particles, and electric and magnetic phenomena rather than gravity determine its
structure. We call it the Earth's magnetosphere
What would happen if the magnetic field of the Earth suddenly changed?

If the magnetic field of the Earth suddenly changed, and this DOES happen naturally
every 250,000 years or so, the consequences would be fascinating. For life, we can see
from the fossil record that the past field changes had no significant effect on living
organisms. This is most curious because the field reversal ( North magnetic pole shifting
to antarctica and the South magnetic pole shifting to the arctic region in the Northern
Hemisphere) one might expect the field to go to zero strength for a century or so. This
would let cosmic rays freely penetrate to the Earth's surface and cause mutations. This
seems not to have had much effect in the past, so we probably don't really know what is
going on during these field reversals. There have been a dozen of them over the last few
million years, documented in the rock which has emerged and solidified along the mid-
Atlantic Ridge where continental plates are slowly separating. These epochs form parallel
bands all long the ridge where the rock has stored a fossilized image of the local
orientation of the Earth's magnetic field for the last few million years.

Magnetic field wandering would let the aurora borealis occur at any latitude, but other
than that there would be no noticeable effects other than changes in the amount of cosmic
rays that penetrate to the ground. Even this effect is minimal because we can visit the
Arctic and Antarctic and only receive a slight increase in cosmic rays. So long as the
strength of the field remains high during this field wandering event, the effects should be
pretty benign.

The Earth's magnetic field is believed to be generated by the rotation of the Earth's
molten iron-nickel core. The period of field reversal is determined by the rotation rate of
the core and its electrical conductivity. If you were to change either one of these, the field
orientation, strength and '250,000 year cycle' would be increased or decreased. We also
know from studies of the Sun's magnetic dynamo, that this phenomenon can change
abruptly as it did during the 'Little Ice Age' on the Earth a few hundred years ago. There
were no sunspots observed on the Sun for 50 years or so, then rather abruptly, the
familiar 11-year cycle started-up over the course of a few decades. A similar 'chaotic'
phenomenon may occur with the Earth 'suddenly' loosing its magnetic field for a few
million years. Already, geophysicists have begun to notice a decline in the strength of the
Earth's magnetic field, suggesting that the next field reversal epoch may be about to start.
It may, however, take a long time to get here, and we don't really know if the decline is
just a natural, ripple, or the portend of something far more sinister.

A magnet attracts iron, nickel, cobalt and combinations of those metals. All magnets have
North-seeking (N) and South-seeking (S) poles. When magnets are placed near each
other, opposite poles attract and similar poles repel each other. Magnets are found in
many of our electrical appliances.

Only a few of the phenomena observed on the ground come from the magnetosphere:
fluctuations of the magnetic field known as magnetic storms and substorms, and the polar
aurora or "northern lights," appearing in the night skies of places like Alaska and
Norway. Satellites in space, however, sense much more: radiation belts, magnetic
structures, fast streaming particles and processes which energize them. All these are
solid. A group of atoms in a metal may become aligned, but the various groups may be
misaligned. These groups are called domains.

Magnetic material with domains misaligned

Aligned domains makes material highly magnetic

Alignment of electrons, atoms and domains are important in determining the magnetic
response of a material and whether it is a magnet. Since the atoms or molecules need to
be aligned, gases and liquids are typically not magnetic, and most magnets are solid
metals. An exception is in the rotating liquid iron core of the Earth and the rotating
plasmas of the Sun.

Magnets will strongly attract ferromagnetic materials, weakly attract paramagnetic

materials, a nd weakly repel diamagnetic materials. Ferromagnetic materials have the
most magnetic uses. Diamagnetic materials are used in magnetic levitation and MRI.

When electric current passes through a wire, a circular magnetic field is created. Iron
filings on a card can demonstrate the magnetic field when current is passed through a
nearby wire. Using standard conventions for the direction of electric current and
magnetic lines of force, the direction of the magnetic can be determined by what is called
the right-hand rule. The direction of the magnetic field can be demonstrated by using
compasses.

You can detect a magnetic field with a compass, iron filings, or a gaussmeter. The
strength of a magnetic field is measured in gauss units.

The Lorentz Force is applied to an electric charge that moves through a magnetic field. It
is perpendicular to the direction of the charge and the direction of the magnetic field. The
direction of the force is demonstrated by the Right Hand Rule.
By wrapping a wire around an iron core and applying an electric current through the wire,
you create an electromagnet. This device is magnetic only when the current is flowing.
The iron core greatly increases the magnetic strength.

Moving wire through a magnetic field generates electrical current. Electrical generators
rotate a coil of wires through a magnetic field. The difference between an AC and a DC
generator is that the AC generator uses slip rings to transfer the current to the electrical
circuit, while the DC generator uses a split-ring commutator. Very large generators create
electricity for the community. An electric motor is very similar to a generator, except that
power is provided to turn the rotors.

Electromagnets are used in a number of devices, such as loudspeakers and tape recorders.
Some electromagnets can be very strong and its power can be readily turned off and on,
such as in junk yard electromagnets and electromagnetic locks.

Electromagnets can also be used to create continual motion such as with electric motors
and maglev trains.

Stern, D. (1996). Magnetism. Retrieved June 23, 2009, from

http://www.phy6.org/Education/Imagnet.html

Stern, D. (2004, September 28). The Exploration of the Earth's Magnetosphere.

Retrieved June 23, 2009, from http://www.phy6.org/Education/Intro.html

Kurtus , Ron . 11 Oct. 2007. 26 June 2009 <http://www.school-for-

champions.com/science/magnetic_materials.htm>.

Odenwald , Sten . "Earth - Magnetic Field ." Mar. 2007. NASA. 26 June 2009
<http://image.gsfc.nasa.gov/poetry/ask/amag.html>.
Terms and Concepts
Domains Types of magnetic Permanent /
materials Temporary magnets
North and South Poles Opposites attract / likes Magnetic field
repel
Electromagnet Electromagnetic Solenoids
induction

Motor Generator Hand rules

Magnetosphere compass Transformer

Non contact force

Instructional Resources

Succeed in Physical Science Website

http://www.school-for-champions.com/science.htm#Magnetism

Physic Lab Simulations

http://phet.colorado.edu

Earth’s Magnetic Field

http://image.gsfc.nasa.gov/poetry/ask/amag.html

Magnetic Field Lines

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/electromag/java/magneticlines/index.html

Attraction and Repulsion By Magnet Poles

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/electromag/java/magneticlines2/

Magnetic Fields and Compass Orientation

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/electromag/java/compass/index.html

Faraday's Magnetic Field Induction Experiment

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/electromag/java/faraday/index.html

Faraday's Magnetic Field Induction Experiment

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/electromag/java/faraday2/index.html

AC Generator Action
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/electromag/java/generator/ac.html

Lenz Law
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/electromag/java/lenzlaw/index.html

How a transformer works

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/electromag/java/transformer/index.html

How Faraday Flashlights Work

http://www.shake-flashlights.com/how-they-work.html

Cheap Magnets
http://www.magnet4less.com/

Educational Web Sites on Astronomy,

Physics, Spaceflight and the Earth's Magnetism
http://www.phy6.org/readfirst.htm
 Find Magnetic Declination For Any Location
http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/geomagmodels/Declination.jsp

How does a brushless electric motor work?

http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/brushless-motor.htm
 MAGNETISM & ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERACTIONS
Activity #1 – PHET FARADAY’S ELECTROMAGNETIC LAB
(Foundational or Capstone)
Questions to be investigated
Why does a compass point north?
What does placing compasses around an electric wire prove?
What happens when electricity goes through a wire?
How can you make an electromagnet?
How does the number of loops affect an electromagnet?
What factors are involved in electromagnetism?
How is a loop of wire used in an electric generator?
Why is wire wound in so many loops in commercial generators?

Objectives

This lab is to help students build an understanding of general magnetism as well as its
relationship to electricity.

Materials

Computer with internet access.

Safety Concerns

NA

Real-World Connections

Compasses, Transformers, Electromagnets, Generators

Teacher Notes

Give timeline to keep students moving along.

Clicker questions available here:

http://phet.colorado.edu/admin/get-contribution-file.php?contribution_file_id=1117
Procedure/Description of Lesson

Directions: Use the simulation “Faraday’s Electromagnetic Lab” (in the

Electricity, Magnetism, and Circuits section) on the website
http://phet.colorado.edu to complete this paper.

Bar Magnet Tab – General Magnetism

1. Click on the Bar Magnet Tab and you should see a bar magnet and
compass on the screen. Please note that the color red refers to North and
white refers to South. Place the compass at the North end of the bar
magnet and observe which way the “red tip” of the compass points. Move
the compass to the South end and observe where the “red tip” of the
compass points. What can you say about where the north (red) tip of a
compass points?

2. Use your response to #1 to explain why the geographic north pole is the
magnetic south pole.

Pickup Coil Tab – General Electromagnetic Induction

3. Set the number of loops to “1” and note what happens to the light bulb
when

The magnet is not moving and is not in the loop –

The magnet is moving and is not in the loop –

The magnet is not moving and is in the loop –

The magnet is moving and is in the loop -

4. Does the speed of the magnet affect your results to #3? If so, describe
how.

5. Increase the number of loops to “3” and see if it affects your results from
#3. If so, describe how.

6. Increase the loop area to “100” and see if it affects your results from #3. If
so, describe how.
Electromagnet Tab – Is Electromagnetism Reversible?

7. You should see a battery attached to a loop of coil (an electromagnet) and
a compass on the screen. Move the electromagnet around the screen
and describe what the compass does.

8. Move the compass around the electromagnet in order to determine the

North and South poles. Draw a picture and label the North and South
Poles.

9. Change your current source from DC to AC and describe what the

compass does.

10. Observe the electrons in the AC current source and compare their
movement to those in the DC current source. Explain the difference
between DC and AC in terms of electron movement.

Transformer Tab – Can We Use Electromagnetism?

11. The last tab showed us that current can create a magnetic field. Can this
magnetic field generate electricity? That is, can we use electricity to
generate more electricity? Move the electromagnetic back and forth and
note what happens.

12. Can electricity be used to create more electricity? Explain how.

13. Change to an AC source. Note what happens while the electromagnet is

not moving. Why does the light bulb light up? Do the electrons in the light
bulb move as fast as the AC source?

Generator Tab – Putting it All Together

14. Turn on the water faucet and describe what happens.

Kennedy, Robert . "Faraday's Electromagnetic Lab." Dec. 2007. 26 June 2009

<http://phet.colorado.edu/teacher_ideas/view-contribution.php?contribution_id=303>.
Assessment Ideas:
Grade questions above found in lab.

Additional Assessments:

Look up information on “magnetic reversal of the Earth’s poles”.

Summarize what you found.
If the next reversal happened tonight, what problems might occur because of this?

Explain why you think they put a large number of coils of wire in a generator used to
power some household items during a power outage.

It is much more efficient to send AC electricity at very high voltage to your house
through the large power lines you see along the road. However, it would be very
dangerous to have these high voltages in the actual home. How can we change AC
electricity at a high voltage to AC electricity at a lower voltage? (make a simplified
sketch). What are these devices called that change the voltage?

Give me an idea of something you could make that would generate electricity. Make it
out of simple items you could find around the house. Try to keep it “Green”. Do you
have a stream by house? Wind? Hampsters?

Faraday Lab Clicker Questions

A bar below horizontal its North pole pointing toward the loop. Then the magnet is pulled
down, away from the loop. As viewed from above, is the induced current in the loop
clockwise or counterclockwise?

Answer: The B-field from a bar magnet points out of the North pole. As seen from above,
the field through the loop is out (toward the observer). As the magnet is pulled away, the
flux is decreasing. To fight the decrease, the induced Bfield
should add to the original B-field, and also be out (toward the observer). The induced
current will be (B), counterclockwise, in order to make an induced B-field out.
Two bar magnets are brought near each other as shown. The magnets...
A) attract
B) repel
C) exert no net force on each other.

You have a transformer with Np=6 primary windings, and Ns=3 secondary windings, as
shown.
If Vp=120 V AC, what is the current measured by the ammeter "A" in the secondary
circuit?
A) 120 A
B) 60 A
C) 240 A
D) Nothing is measured because the fuse in the ammeter blows!

Loeblein , Trish . "Concept questions for physics using PhET (Inquiry Based)." Oct.
2008. 26 June 2009 <http://phet.colorado.edu/teacher_ideas/view-
contribution.php?contribution_id=555>.
 MAGNETISM & ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERACTIONS
Activity #2 – BUILDING AN ELECTROMAGNET (Foundational or
Capstone)
Questions to be investigated
How can you make an electromagnet?
How does the number of loops affect an electromagnet?
What factors are involved in electromagnetism?
How is magnetism used?
Where are magnets used?
How does an iron core affect the strength?
What devices use variations of electromagnetic force?
How can turning the magnetic field on and off be used?
What does the movement of an electric charge cause?
What does placing compasses around an electric wire prove?
Why should the wire around the iron core be insulated?
What happens when you change the direction of a wire passing through a magnetic field?
Why is an electromagnet good for picking up and dropping things?

Objectives
Students will understand how to build and operate an electromagnet. Students will also
demonstrate the effect of current flow on the magnetic field.

Materials
one 1.5 Volt D cell battery
50 cm of magnet wire or telephone wire
1 nail (around 5 cm long)
l compass

Safety Concerns
Don’t leave wire connected too long, it may get hot.

Real-World Connections
Using solenoids for controls (power door locks, doorbells, turning on furnace/AC, etc)
Speakers

Teacher Notes
Procedure/Description of Lesson

Electromagnets
Supplies you will need:
one 1.5 Volt D cell battery 50 cm of magnet wire or telephone wire
1 nail (around 5 cm long) l compass

Take about 50 cm of wire and wind it around a nail. Clean the insulation
from the ends of the wire. Your Electromagnet will look like the one shown
here.

Touch one end of the wire to the + end of the battery and hold the other end
of the wire to the - end of the battery. Bring a compass near the nail.
Do the head and the point of the nail attract the compass in the same way?
Make sure that you record what you have observed.

Reverse the way the wire is connected to the battery. Test the effect on the
compass again. Make sure that you record what your have observed.

Can you find something that will be attracted to your magnet?

What kind of objects are attracted to the nail?
You have created an electromagnet. What happens when you bring your
electromagnet near permanent magnets?

To complete this activity, careful use of diagrams to assist your thinking

is imperative. When I look at this lab, I will be looking for great
diagrams that are clearly labeled and show without doubt that you
understand the first right hand rule.
Make a diagram that shows the electromagnet, with only one loop around
the nail. Include the orientation of the battery. Identify the direction of
conventional current flow and clearly label it. Apply the first right hand rule
to draw in the magnetic field lines. Use the direction of the field lines to
identify the poles of your electromagnet. Compare your results from this
method with what was observed with the compass.

Repeat the process above with the battery connected in the opposite
orientation.

Assessment Ideas:

Students should be able to:

Explain the purpose of the nail in the coil of an electromagnet.

Explain why it is necessary to make a coil of wire instead of just a wire.

Explain why it is preferable to have several loops of wire, instead of just one.

Use the first right hand rule to determine the north and south end of an electromagnet.
Apply the idea of the electromagnet to design a door lock that could be unlocked with a
push button. Include a diagram.

Deyo, C. Electromagnets. .
MAGNETISM & ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERACTIONS
Activity #3‐ Electricity and Magnetism (Foundational or
Capstone)
Mississippi State University Department of Physics and Astronomy PH 1011 Lab Manual

Questions to be investigated
What is a magnetic field?
What are magnets?
How is magnetism used?
What types of magnets are there?
What are some common properties of magnets?
Where are magnets used?
How does a compass detect a magnetic field?
What devices use variations of electromagnetic force?
How can turning the magnetic field on and off be used?
What devices create continual motion?

Objectives
To investigate the properties of magnets, relationships between Magnetism and
electricity, and practical applications of electricity and magnetism.

Materials
Magnet Packets Two Thick Rubber Bands
Two Six-Volt Batteries A Rectangular Ceramic Magnet
Two Large Iron Nails Two Large Paper Clips
Enamel Coated Copper Wire One D-cell Battery
20 Small Paper Clips Needle Nose Pliers
Compass Sandpaper
Alligator Clip Wires Scissors
Green Stickers

Safety Concerns
Wire will become hot if left hooked up to battery too long.

Real-World Connections

Teacher Notes
http://www.compadre.org/introphys/items/detail.cfm?ID=6269
http://www.physics.msstate.edu/labmanual/ph1011/ELECTRICITY-MAGNETISM.pdf
Procedure/Description of Lesson

Part One: Becoming Familiar with Magnets

Remove from the magnet packets, the magnets, paper clips, rubber bands,
aluminum foil, nail, wire, cork, etc.
1. Determine which objects from the packet are affected by the stack of magnets.
Then determine which objects on and around you are affected. What do the affected
objects have in common?
2. Does the magnetic force act through materials? Try to use the magnets to pick
up a paper clip through a piece of paper, through a piece of aluminum foil, through
plastic, etc.
3. Determine whether distance affects the magnetic force. Describe what you did,
record your results, and give your conclusions.
4. Attract an object like a paper clip to the magnets. Is the object then repelled the
way an electrically uncharged object is sometimes first attracted to and then repelled
from a charged object? Can you describe a magnet as having an excess of something the
way a charged object has an excess of one kind of charge?
5. Start with two paper clips that do not attract each other. Magnetize one of the
paper clips by stroking it with the stack of magnets. What effect does it have on the un-
magnetized paper clip? Is something rubbing off the magnets onto the paper clips? Throw
the magnetized paper clip hard against the floor several times. How does it now affect the
un-magnetized paper clip? What do you conclude?
6. Place one small disk magnet flat on the desktop. Stick a green label on its top.
Carefully bring the stack of other magnets down over it until they almost touch. If the
magnet does not jump up to the stack, slowly move the stack to one side. Repeat with the
same stack orientation and with the disk's labeled side down. Explain the behavior you
observe.
7. Take your labeled magnet and another magnet from the stack and separate them
far enough so that they do not interact noticeably. Using one end of the remaining stack
as a probe, determine which face of each magnet attracts or repels the probe. Label this
disk like the first. Labels should be on the faces that are like in their behavior toward the
stack. In generally accepted magnet terminology, we have labeled like poles.
Without bringing it closer than about 1 cm. use your small compass to see if your
like poles are alike in their behavior toward this compass.
Now bring the labeled disks near one another. How do like poles affect one
another? Unlike poles?
Part Two: Making an Electromagnet
Acquire about a half-meter of copper wire. Scrape the insulation off about 1 cm of
the wire at each end. Wrap copper wire around the nail making at least 20 full turns and
leaving at least 15 cm free at each end. Connect the ends of the wire to the battery.
WARNING: Do not leave the battery connected for more than one half
minute at a time. Disconnect one end of the wire between parts of the experiment to
avoid draining the battery and causing the wire to heat up excessively.
1. Try to pick up some paper clips with the wire and nail electromagnet. What
will happen with one wire disconnected? Where is the electromagnet the strongest?
2. Place a compass at the point end of the nail. Carefully observe the compass
needle. Place the compass at the head of the nail. Carefully observe the compass needle.
What can you infer about the poles at the ends of the nail?
3. Predict what would happen if you reverse the connections to the battery.
Reverse the connections and repeat number two.
4. Remove the nail from the coil. Compare the magnetic strength of the empty
coil with that of the coil containing the nail.
5. Form a hypothesis about how to improve the electromagnet. Experiment. Name
three ways you found to improve your electromagnet.
Part Three: Making a Simple Motor
1. Wind a coil of wire of about twenty turns a “former” (a short piece of plastic
pipe or the “D” cell battery itself), Leave two straight ends going in opposite directions
out of the middle of the coil. See the diagram on the next page. It is very important that
these two ends, which will serve as the axle of the coil and its electrical contact, be
straight, stable and lined up with the center of the coil. You can either secure them by
means of tape or by wrapping them two or three times about the wire bundle.
Scrape the insulation from the top half of the axle wires where they will rest on
the paper clip loop supports. Make sure to remove only half the insulation and the same
half on both ends.
2. With pliers, form loops on the ends of the two paper clips after they have been
straightened.
3. Using the two rubber bands, doubled several times each attach the paper clips
to the ends of the battery as shown in the diagram. Make sure the paper clips make good
contact with the terminals. You may want to place a piece of tape over the battery ends
for extra support.
4. Place the rectangular magnet on top of the battery just under the coil. There
should be just a little clearance between the magnet and coil but they must not hit one
another.
5. Give your coil a little help getting started and it should continue on its own.
 6. Explain, in terms of what you learned earlier in this lab, how the motor works.

You may get a hint by removing the magnet and noting the effect of a very slowly
tumbled coil on a compass held nearby. ortions of this lab were adapted from Glue and
Sticky Tape Labs and OPERATION PHYSICS.

Ferguson, J., & Denson , J. (2007, December 17). Mississippi State Physics Labs:
Electricity and Magnetism. Retrieved June 26, 2009, from
http://www.physics.msstate.edu/labmanual/ph1011/ELECTRICITY-MAGNETISM.pdf

Assessment Ideas:

Explain how you could determine the north and south ends of an unmarked bar magnet
using a compass. Be specific on how you would know which end is north and which end
is south.

Explain how you could determine the north and south ends of an unmarked bar magnet
using only the Earth’s magnetic field. Be specific on how you would know which end is
north and which end is south.

Write detailed instruction for using an electromagnet in an automobile junk yard to move
junk cars from the ground into a car crusher.

Why was it so important that only half of the wire be scraped bare when making the
simple motor?
 MAGNETISM & ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERACTIONS
Activity #4 ‐ Hi‐fidelity Homemade Loudspeaker (Capstone)

Questions to be investigated
How much wire is necessary to make a working speaker with a resistance of 7 ohms?

Objectives
To make a functioning speaker from some very basic materials.
Understand how a speaker using electromagnetism.
Apply this knowledge to gain an understanding of how a microphone works.

Materials
Foam plate.
Two strips of paper.
Two business cards.
Copper wire, AWG 32 (enameled)
Tape.
Glue. (Hot glue works great)
Neo magnet - www.magnet4less.com/product_info.php?cPath=1_11&products_id=123
Audio plug.

Safety Concerns
Careful with hot glue gun and lighter.

Real-World Connections
Speakers, Music, Hearing, Microphones

Teacher Notes
Visit the website for pictures: From the Inventor of the Styrofoam Plate Speaker, here
are the instructions to build the "Hi-Fidelity homemade Styrofoam-plate speaker".
(8/6/2007)
Source: http://www.josepino.com/other_projects/?homemade-hifi-speaker

Use the equation Resistance = Resistivity x Length / Cross Sectional Area to calculate the
number of winds necessary to build a speaker.

The students should be able to complete this speaker in a class period. Materials are
pretty inexpensive, you may want to allow students to pay and take their speakers home,
it would only be a couple of dollars.
Plate Speaker Video.mpg
Procedure/Description of Lesson
First, roll one strip of paper over the magnet. Use tape. Do not tape the paper to the
magnet.

Roll the second paper strip over the first one. Do not tape the paper with the first roll.
Remove the magnet after the paper cylinder is ready.

Glue the paper cylinder to the plate; try to glue it exactly at the center of the plate.

Start making the coil, keep the magnet inside so you don't crush the paper cylinder.
Make about 50 turns of wire (AWG 32). If you don't have copper wire AWG 32, then use
AWG 30 but be sure the coil has at least 7 ohms. After you finish the coil, remove the
magnet and the inner paper cylinder. Discard the inner paper cylinder and try not to
damage the second one. The inner cylinder is only used to create a gap between the
magnet and the coil.

Fold the business cards as the picture shows.

If the magnet is not high, try to make small three tight folds only, so the coil stays just
above the magnet. [I mean, not wide folds]

Glue the cards to the foam plate. Try to align both business cards. (Parallel)

Now, Put some glue on the magnet and each business card...

Now, put the plate so the business cards and the magnet stick to the base. The "base" can
be a solid cardboard or wood. Anything flat and rigid works fine. I did use a cardboard.
Using wood, the sound is better as wood vibrates less than cardboard.
Check the wires, keep the wires away of the business cards or it may cause some noise
and/or a rattle noise, so try to keen both wires separated.

Remove the coating from the copper wire tip. I did remove about 1/4" of the enamel so
the circuit will be closed when connecting the wire. You can take the enamel off much
easier with the flame of a lighter than a wire stripper or a razor.

Testing the speaker.

This step may help you to determine if the home-built speaker is working. Just touch the
sides of ANY AA or AAA battery with both ends from the speaker wire. Do not hold the
wires, just touch the battery sides slightly. While doing this, the speaker should produce a
noise. If there is no sound coming from the speaker that means the wire setup is not good
or there is a short circuit.

If you are using a STEREO plug, just connect one end of the wire to the center of the
plug and the other end to ANY of the side contact from the plug. Don't forget to remove
the coating from the copper wire (Yes, I told you, it should be enameled copper wire. Just
bare copper wire is not going to work.
In case you are using a plug from cheap headphones, connect one end to the copper wire
from the headphones cable and the other end to the red or white wire. Stereo headphones
usually have three wires.

After the glue dries, your homemade speaker is ready! You can make two if you want to
have stereo speakers. I did plug my homemade speaker to my computer and I was
satisfied with the result, the volume is good, the quality of the sound is really good,
basically works fine like a commercial speaker does.

If your speaker sounds Horrible, check:

• Nothing touches the wires. The wires should move freely.
• The cards are completely glued, apply glue on ALL AREAS and no corners are
left unglued.
• The coil have no loose wires. Try to keep the coil tight enough and secure it with
glue or tape. Loose wire may vibrate and cause distortion.
• The coil should not touch the magnet. Try to make the coil wider. Also, the coil
should not touch the base of the speaker.
• If the foam plate is too soft, it may not work well. It should not be folded, bent
or have cuts. Loose parts can cause distortion. If the sound is not loud enough
(don't expect miracles or it to be louder than a commercial speaker)

The sound is too quiet? No sound?

• Be sure the coil have at least 50 turns or, if you have a multi-meter, more than 7
ohms.
• Adjust the height of the coil in reference to the magnet.
• Try to glue the business cards closer or away from the coil until find the perfect
location/volume. Be sure the business cards are parallel.
• Use neodymium magnets.
• Be sure nothing touches the foam plate, only the business cards should touch it.
• Some personal or portable audio devices doesn't have enough power to drive a
speaker. Try many audio sources if you get no sound or the volume is low.

***WARNING*** DO NOT use AWG 24, 26, or 28. You need to use AT LEAST AWG
30. The wire should be isolated! Again, it should have a coating. Do not use any other
kind of wire as it may short-circuit the audio output.

Where to buy the parts:

Foam Plate I did purchase the foam plate from the supermarket. Any brand.
Business cards... that is for free from anyone.
Wire: I did purchase the wire from ebuy, (Dang! I don't get paid for this advertisement)
Some craft stores sell the wire. You may even use the wire from old electronic parts if
you have a background about electronics.
Magnets: I did purchase it from the craft store. Ceramic magnets are ok, but the sound is
louder using neodymium magnets. I do recommend neodymium magnets for better
results. Some hardware stores sell those magnets. Square magnets are ok, just make the
coil square.
Glue: Buy it from anywhere, It depends of how long do you want to wait. If you are
willing to wait until the glue dries, use any kind. If you are some kind of crazy and wants
everything done immediately (just like I'm), use hot glue or instant glue, but be careful!
Your speaker will not work if your finger is glued on it.

Assessment Ideas:

You can now see that by sending current through the coil of wire can cause the speaker to
shake. Try to come up with an explanation on how a microphone works. Are speakers
and microphones basically the same? Test this statement by hooking up a set of
headphones to the microphone jack on a computer and see if you can record your voice
using Windows Sound Recorder ( Start > Accessories > Entertainment > Sound
Recorder).

Draw a diagram showing what is happening when a singer sings into a microphone
hooked up to a loud speaker. Use as many details a possible. Show this explaination to a
parent and have them comment and sign the paper.
 MAGNETISM & ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERACTIONS
Activity #5 ‐ How to make the simplest electric motor (Capstone)

Questions to be investigated
What is the simplest (least parts, easy to assemble) motor that can be made?

Objectives
You have 30 seconds to make an electric motor running in excess of ten thousand RPM.
Can you do it? Surprisingly enough, you can.
Use right hand rule to help understand how this very simple motor works.

Materials

You have one drywall screw, one 1.5 V alkaline cell, six inches of plain copper wire, one small neodymium disk
magnet, and no other tools or supplies.
http://www.magnet4less.com/product_info.php?cPath=1_11&products_id=112 (3/8 x 3/8
neo mags)
Safety Concerns

Real-World Connections

Teacher Notes
Let's take a step back. The most common type of electric motor is the brushed dc electric
motor. This is the kind that you'll find inside essentially everything that moves (or
shakes) and runs on batteries. This type of motor attracts an electromagnet towards a
permanent magnet. When the two are close enough, the polarity of the current through
the electromagnet is reversed, so that it now repels the permanent magnet, and thus keeps
turning. It's quite easy to build a working model; Christian built this example for his
third-grade science project.
A simpler yet motor (sometimes sold as the sold as the "world's simplest motor") just
switches off the current for half of the cycle, letting the angular momentum of the
spinning motor armature carry it through. In Make Magazine Volume 1, the Howtoons
comic shows how to make an electric motor that works that way.
None of these is really the simplest motor. The real champion is the homopolar motor.
Procedure/Description of Lesson

The ingredients (L-R): One ferromagnetic screw, one battery cell, a few inches of copper wire, and a
neodymium disk magnet.

I used a drywall screw both because it has a flat head and because it's easy to tell when it's turning.
You can use a nail instead. The battery needn't be any particular type; an alkaline C-cell works fine
and is easy to hold. Just about any copper wire will work fine for this application. I used some wire with
partially stripped (and partially striped) red insulation that is easy to see in the photos. Bare copper will
work just as well.

The magnet came from an LED throwie with a dead battery. The best magnets for this job are
neodymium disc magnets with a conductive plating. You can get them from plastic toys or buy them
from a number of magnet discount and surplus shops.
Set the screw on the magnet, bend the wire.

Attach the magnet to one end of the battery. The weak, single-point contact that you are
making serves as an low-friction bearing. I like to attach it to the button end, but the other
end will work as well. (If you do so, the motor will spin the opposite direction. You can
also reverse the direction by flipping the magnet up side down.)
(Note to physics geeks: The heavier your magnet plus screw system is, the lower the
friction will be, right up to the point that magnet isn't strong enough to hold them any
more. This is because the friction force is proportional to the normal force. In other
words, a bigger magnet is usually better.)

Press and hold the top end of the wire to the top end of the battery, making an electrical
connection from the top battery end to the wire.
Here we go: Lightly touch the free end of the wire to the side of the magnet. The magnet
and screw start to spin immediately. We can get ours up to 10,000 RPM in about fifteen
seconds.

Watch out: The screw and magnet can easily fly out of control, and you do not want that
screw ending up in your eye. Also note that some of the components, like the wire, can
get very warm while you're doing this. Wear safety glasses and use common sense!

Assessment Ideas:
List a couple advantages and disadvantages for using this type of motor.
Adv. – Simple, few parts, low voltage, low weight Dis. – contact wires wear out,
friction, not powerful
Draw a diagram and use the right hand rule to explain why the magnet spins.

How can you make the magnet spin the other direction?

Why doesn’t the magnet spin if the wire is touched to the bottom of the magnet?
Current is parallel to B field
Since this is a motor, can it also be used as a generator? How would you use it to
generate current?
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homopolar_generator
Assessment Ideas: (make adjustments for appropriate level)

What materials have magnetic properties? (Adjust accordingly for Foundational or

Capstone)

Diamagnetic metals have a very weak and negative susceptibility to magnetic fields.
Diamagnetic materials are slightly repelled by a magnetic field and the material does not
retain the magnetic properties when the external field is removed. Diamagnetic materials
are solids with all paired electron resulting in no permanent net magnetic moment per
atom. Diamagnetic properties arise from the realignment of the electron orbits under the
influence of an external magnetic field. Most elements in the periodic table, including
copper, silver, and gold, are diamagnetic.
Paramagnetic metals have a small and positive susceptibility to magnetic fields. These
materials are slightly attracted by a magnetic field and the material does not retain the
magnetic properties when the external field is removed. Paramagnetic properties are due
to the presence of some unpaired electrons, and from the realignment of the electron
orbits caused by the external magnetic field. Paramagnetic materials include magnesium,
molybdenum, lithium, and tantalum.
Ferromagnetic materials have a large and positive susceptibility to an external magnetic
field. They exhibit a strong attraction to magnetic fields and are able to retain their
magnetic properties after the external field has been removed. Ferromagnetic materials
have some unpaired electrons so their atoms have a net magnetic moment. They get their
strong magnetic properties due to the presence of magnetic domains. In these domains,
large numbers of atom's moments (1012 to 1015) are aligned parallel so that the magnetic
force within the domain is strong. When a ferromagnetic material is in the unmagnitized
state, the domains are nearly randomly organized and the net magnetic field for the part
as a whole is zero. When a magnetizing force is applied, the domains become aligned to
produce a strong magnetic field within the part. Iron, nickel, and cobalt are examples of
ferromagnetic materials. Components with these materials are commonly inspected using
the magnetic particle method.

http://www.ndt-ed.org

What happens when a magnet breaks in half? (Foundational or Capstone)

You get two magnets. The domains are still in the same orientation, so you will have two
magnets with a north and south pole.

How could you use a compass to identify the poles of an unmarked bar magnet?
(Foundational or Capstone)

The north end of the compass will point to the south end of the bar magnet.
Why are compasses “off” for some locations and not for others? How accurate are
compasses when used at school? (Adjust accordingly for Foundational or Capstone)

Magnetic declination – Magnetic north and geographic north are not in the same location.
Depending on your location on Earth, magnetic north and geographic north maybe be
inline with you location, however, they may be very far off as well.

Our school (Michigan) is pretty close (about 7o in 2009).

Find your exact declination at your location here:

http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/geomagmodels/Declination.jsp

Identify the geographic and magnetic poles of the Earth and draw the field
lines around it. (Adjust accordingly for Foundational or Capstone)

Magnetic South

Magnetic South

What are magnetic domains? (Adjust accordingly for Foundational or Capstone)

Ferromagnetic materials get their magnetic properties not only because their atoms carry
a magnetic moment but also because the material is made up of small regions known as
magnetic domains. In each domain, all of the atomic dipoles are coupled together in a
preferential direction. This alignment develops as the material develops its crystalline
structure during solidification from the molten state. Magnetic domains can be detected
using Magnetic Force Microscopy (MFM) and images of the domains like the one shown
below can be constructed.
 Magnetic Force Microscopy
(MFM) image showing the
magnetic domains in a
piece of heat treated carbon
steel.

During solidification, a trillion or more atom moments are aligned parallel so that the
magnetic force within the domain is strong in one direction. Ferromagnetic materials are
said to be characterized by "spontaneous magnetization" since they obtain saturation
magnetization in each of the domains without an external magnetic field being applied.
Even though the domains are magnetically saturated, the bulk material may not show any
signs of magnetism because the domains develop themselves and are randomly oriented
relative to each other.
Ferromagnetic materials become magnetized when the magnetic domains within the
material are aligned. This can be done by placing the material in a strong external
magnetic field or by passing electrical current through the material. Some or all of the
domains can become aligned. The more domains that are aligned, the stronger the
magnetic field in the material. When all of the domains are aligned, the material is said to
be magnetically saturated. When a material is magnetically saturated, no additional
amount of external magnetization force will cause an increase in its internal level of
magnetization.

Unmagnetized Material Magnetized Material

When a nail is placed on a magnet, draw a diagram and explain what is happening inside
the nail. (Adjust accordingly for Foundational or Capstone)
Explain 2 ways in which you could magnetize an iron nail.

1. Pass it through a magnetic field. (Rub it across a magnet in the same direction several
times.)
2. Wrap wire around the nail and apply a DC voltage. Plus, if the material to be
magnetized is heated really hot (above its Curie point, TC) and then put in the field and
then allowed to cool while in the field, it will really pick up the magnetism! This is how
commercial permanent magnets are usually made.
3. Bang it repeatedly on a hard surface with the same orientation.

Explain 2 ways you could demagnetize (or weaken) the magnetized nail.

1. Pass it through a magnetic field in at various orientations.

2. Heat it up.
3. Bang it on a hard surface in a variety of orientations.

Use the right hand rule to label the north and south end of the electromagnet shown
below.
How would you reverse north and south of the electromagnet above?

Hook the wires up opposite from what they were.

Explain why shaking this flashlight for a minute allows it to create light without a battery.

Background:
In the early 1830s, a scientist named Michael Faraday discovered that by passing a
magnet through a coil of wire, a small electrical current is created. The same thing
happens when a person charges a shake flashlight. A magnet passes back and forth
through a coil of wire and creates an electrical current that is then stored in a capacitor.
When the flashlight is turned on, the capacitor supplies the stored energy to the bulb
much like a battery-powered light.
Components:
Faraday flashlights seem like they should be very complicated, but they are quite simple
and only have a few components. However, the quality of these components can make a
difference in your satisfaction with the light. More expensive lights usually have better
quality components. The basic components of a Faraday flashlight include:
• Magnet: The magnet is what generates the power as it passes through the wire
coil. The stronger the magnet, the more power is generated with each shake.
• Coil: The size of the wire coil (i.e. the number of windings) will also determine
how much power is generated on each pass of the magnet.
• Capacitor: The capacitor stores the power that you generate while shaking the
flashlight. The higher the quality and larger the size of the capacitor, the longer
the light output.
• Switch and body: The primary considerations here are the sturdiness and
waterproofness of the flashlight.
• Bulb: Generally this will be an LED due to their reduced power consumption and
durability. Factors include the color of the light and it's brightness.
How To Use:
To use a typical Faraday flashlight, you first shake it for 30 to 60 seconds depending on
the model (or up to 3 minutes if the capacitor is fully discharged). This builds up energy
in the capacitor. Now turn the flashlight on and use it like a typical flashlight until its
lighting power is diminished. Then simply shake it up again and repeat the process as
often as needed.
*
If you do not see the animation at the top of the page, it is because some computers are
set up to block certain types of images that may be advertisements. If the image is not in
motion, your browser or ad blocking software is disallowing it. Either temporarily
disable those features or simply imagine the silver magnet traveling back and forth
through the copper-colored coil of wire charging the capacitor.

http://www.shake-flashlights.com/how-they-work.html

Clearly identify the direction of the force on the charge shown if it is moving in
the direction of the arrow.

Draw the field around the current carrying wires shown. Use the third right
hand rule to predict the direction of the force on the left wire by the field of the
right wire.
Draw a diagram and label the key components necessary to build a speaker. Include a
short explanation of the function of each component.

Diaphragm – The purpose of this component is to actually shake the air that will
eventually shake our eardrums.

Suspension – The purpose of this component is to support the diaphragm, but also allow
it to move freely.

Coil – The purpose of this component is to create varying magnetic fields which in turn
will cause the diaphragm to move.

Magnet – The purpose of this component is to provide the force to the coil.

4 pts - 1 pt each for the key components included in the diagram.

4 pts - ! pt each for each key component labeled correctly.
4pts – 1 pt each for the correct description of each component.

12 pts Total

Give 3 similarities and 1 difference between an electric generator and an electric motor.

The motor uses current flow to produce movement.

The generator uses movement to produce electric current flow
They both have the armatures to rotate the loop.
They work on the magnetic effects of electric current.

1 pt each
Oakland Schools Physics Resource Unit

The Atom & Nuclear Energy

Brad Schopieray
Lakeland High School
Huron Valley Schools
 The Atom & Nuclear Energy
Content Statements
P4.r9x Nature of Light — Wave-Particle Nature (recommended)
The dual wave-particle nature of matter and light is the foundation for modern physics. (recommended)
P4.r7x Quantum Theory of Waves (recommended)
Electromagnetic energy is transferred on the atomic scale in discrete amounts called quanta. The
equation E = h f quantifies the relationship between the energy transferred and the frequency, where h
is Planck’s constant. (recommended)
P4.12 Nuclear Reactions
Changes in atomic nuclei can occur through three processes: fission, fusion, and radioactive decay.
Fission and fusion can convert small amounts of matter into large amounts of energy. Fission is the
splitting of a large nucleus into smaller
nuclei at extremely high temperature and pressure. Fusion is the combination of smaller nuclei into a
large nucleus and is responsible for the energy of the Sun and other stars. Radioactive decay occurs
naturally in the Earth’s crust (rocks, minerals) and can be used in technological applications (e.g.,
medical diagnosis and treatment).
P4.12x Mass and Energy
In nuclear reactions, a small amount of mass is converted to a large amount of energy, E = mc2, where
c is the speed of light in a vacuum. The amount of energy before and after nuclear reactions must
consider mass changes as part of the energy transformation.

Content Expectations
P4.r9d Describe evidence that supports the dual wave particle nature of light. (recommended)

P4.r7a Calculate and compare the energy in various electromagnetic quanta (e.g., visible light, x-rays)
(recommended).
P4.12A Describe peaceful technological applications of nuclear fission and radioactive decay.
P4.12B Describe possible problems caused by exposure to prolonged radioactive decay.
P4.12C Explain how stars, including our Sun, produce huge amounts of energy (e.g., visible, infrared, or
ultraviolet light).
P4.12d Identify the source of energy in fission and fusion nuclear reactions.
Instructional Background Information:

In this unit students will study the nature of the atom and the reactions that occur within
the nucleus. Since the nucleus of an atom is extremely small and nuclear reactions
cannot be easily observed in a laboratory, the vast majority of the activities in this unit
are simulations of atomic interactions. Emphasis must be put on the correlations between
the simulations done in the laboratory and the true nature of the atomic interactions, with
an emphasis on the limitations of the simulations.

Atoms are comprised of three primary subatomic particles: protons, neutrons and
electrons. Protons are positively charge particles in the nucleus of the atom, neutrons are
neutrally charged particles in the nucleus, and electrons are negatively charged particles
found in areas around the nucleus. The electric charges of these particles are essential for
student understanding as they are the basis for explaining the overall neutral charge of
atoms and the strong nuclear force that is present. The structure of the atom consists of a
massive nucleus surrounded by mainly empty space. The gold foil experiment of Ernest
Rutherford is important proof that the structure of atoms is comprised in this way.

Changes in atomic nuclei occur through fission, fusion or radioactive decay. Fission is
the splitting of a large nucleus into smaller nuclei, while fusion is the combining of
smaller nuclei into a single nucleus. Both fission and fusion produce a large amount of
energy. Radioactive decay occurs naturally as a nucleus changes while releasing
radiation. The radiation released is in the form of alpha particles (helium nucleus), beta
particles (electron) or gamma rays (energy). Prolonged exposure to radiation above the
recommended levels can lead to cancer, tumors and genetic damage. Source: Wikipedia.

The changes in atomic nuclei all have useful, peaceful applications to society. Controlled
fission chain reactions are used at the core of nuclear reactors. Fusion is the source of
energy from the Sun and other stars. Radioactive decay models can lead to the
determination of a half-life, the point at which half of the nuclei in a sample have
decayed, which can be used for dating of materials.

In nuclear reactions, small amounts of matter are converted to large amounts of energy.
This relationship is given by the famous equation E = mc2, where c is the speed of light.
The amount mass change in a given equation must be considered when calculating the
energy before and after a nuclear reaction.
Terms and Concepts
Fission Fusion Radioactive Decay

E = mc2 Proton Neutron

Electron Alpha Decay Beta Decay
Quanta Wave-particle duality Half life
Instructional Resources
The national museum of nuclear science and history website – historical look at the
use of nuclear science
http://www.nuclearmuseum.org/teachers-parents/teacher-resources/

PhET website – Simulations in a variety of different areas

http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/index.php?cat=Quantum_Phenomena

Physics 2000 Website – Applets and useful background information

http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/index.pl

CERN website – look at the uses of nuclear physics in modern technology

http://public.web.cern.ch/public/

American Nuclear Society website – Information on nuclear power and jobs in the
field
http://www.ans.org/pubs/pi/

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission website – Information on nuclear reactors,

nuclear materials, radioactive waste and nuclear security
http://www.nrc.gov/

World Nuclear Association Website – Information on nuclear power

http://www.world-nuclear.org/

Fusion Information - http://fusioned.gat.com/images/pdf/Workbook.pdf

The following links are for the activities that are listed below

http://www.westminster.edu/acad/sim/documents/SHalf-LifeSimulation.MMs.pdf

http://facweb.eths.k12.il.us/chand/Atomic%20Structure/Nuclear-M&M%20Half-
Life%20Simulation.doc

http://phet.colorado.edu/teacher_ideas/view-contribution.php?contribution_id=656

http://phys.udallas.edu

http://phet.colorado.edu/teacher_ideas/view-contribution.php?contribution_id=551

www.ans.org

http://molo.concord.org/database/activities/309.html
 THE ATOM & NUCLEAR ENERGY
Activity #1 – M&M Half Life Investigation
Questions to be investigated
How is the half-life of an object determined?
How can the half-life of an object be used to determine the age of an object (i.e. carbon
dating)?

Objectives
• To determine the half life of an object
• To predict the age of an object based on its half life

Materials
M&M’s (100 per group), Plastic cup, Paper plate or paper towel, graph paper

Safety Concerns
None

Real-World Connections
Carbon dating

Teacher Notes
Two versions of this activity appear below. The first version is more appropriate in a
capstone course while the second is more appropriate for a foundational or conceptual
course.

This activity can also be done with pennies, skittles, or any other object that has two
distinct sides.

Procedure/Description of Lesson
Students will be using M&M’s to model radioactive decay. All of the M&M’s will be
placed in a plastic cup where they will be shaken. The students will spill the candy out
onto a paper plate or paper towel. Once the M&M’s are spilled onto the plate, the
students will count the number of M&M’s that land with the M side up and count these
M&M’s as decayed nuclei. These decayed nuclei will be removed from the plate and set
aside. The undecayed nuclei are returned to the cup where the process is repeated until
there is one M&M remaining. Students will then make a graph of their data and answer
questions from their graph.
Assessment Ideas:
- Use the half life of carbon-14 (5730 yrs.), calcium-41 (1.3 x 105 yrs.) and iodine-
123 (13.2 hours) to determine the age of objects.

Half Life Curve of Carbon-14

Image from http://www.conservapedia.com/images/d/dd/C-14decay.JPG

- Essay response to the following taken from

http://www.sciencenetlinks.com/lessons.php?DocID=178
o Strontium is chemically similar to calcium. If you lived in a city where
there had been a nuclear accident, you and your family might be exposed
to strontium-90, which is the principal health hazard in radioactive fallout
because it can easily get into the water supply or milk and then be ingested
by people. Write about how the strontium-90 might accumulate in your
body (teeth and bones) and how it might affect you. Include your ideas
about how its half-life of 28.8 years would be important. Suggest ways
that government agencies, such as your state's department of health, might
test for strontium-90. Where in your environment might scientists look for
large concentrations of strontium?
HALF-LIFE SIMULATION WITH M&MS
LAB NR 7 Westminster College SIM NR7-3 Half-Life Simulation with M&Ms
INTRODUCTION
Half-life, t , is the time required for the number of radioactive nuclei in a sample to drop
1/2
to one-half the initial value. For example, the half-life of phosphorus-32, a radioisotope
used in leukemia therapy, is 14.28 days. If today you have 1.000 grams of phosphorus-
32, 14.28 days from now only 0.500 grams of phosphorus-32 will be left because one-
half of the sample will have decayed by beta emission, yielding 0.500 grams of sulfur-32.
After another 14.28 days have passed, only 0.250 grams of phosphorus-32 will remain,
and so on. Each passage of a half-life causes the decay of one-half of whatever sample
remains.

The half-life of a radioisotope is a constant - no matter the size of the sample, the
temperature or any other external conditions. There is no way to speed up or slow down
this natural process. Half-lives range from fractions of a second to billions of years.
Radioisotopes used internally in medical applications have fairly short half-lives so that
they decay rapidly and cause no long term health hazards.

PURPOSE
The purpose of this experiment is to simulate the process of radioactive decay and
determine the “half-life” for the process.

SAFETY
Consideration must be given to cleanliness and dietary issues, such as diabetics.

MATERIALS
plastic sandwich bag of M&Ms
paper plate

PROCEDURE
Each M & M will represent at atom of a radioisotope. The M & Ms in the baggie are
thoroughly mixed and poured out onto the paper plate. Those M & Ms with letters showing
are still "radioactive". The others have "decayed" and should be removed. Count the
numbers of "atoms" removed and record the values in the data table. Return those M & Ms
which have the letters showing to the bag, shake, and pour onto the paper plate. Again,
count the number of M & Ms with no letters showing. Record and continue. When the data
has been collected, plot the data (atoms left vs. trial number) and draw a smooth curve
through the points.
The value for the half-life is obtained as follows:
1. Select two values on the y-axis. One value should be twice as large as the other
(60 & 30 for example).
2. Draw lines from these points to your line.
Westminster College SIM NR7-3 Half-Life Simulation with M&Ms
 3. Next, vertical lines should be drawn from where these lines intersect your lines to
the x-axis. The space between these lines on the x-axis is the half-life. What these
lines tell us is that half of the radioisotope has decayed and this is the amount of
time that is required for it to happen.

DATA SHEET Name ________________________

Name ________________________
Period _______ Class ___________
Date ___________

HALF-LIFE SIMULATION WITH M&MS

DATA TABLE
Original Number of Atoms _______________
Trial Atoms Decayed Atoms Left
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

ANALYSIS
1. Write a balanced nuclear equation for beta emission from phosphorus-32.

2. Use your graph and the definition of half-life to determine the half-life of the
"M&M" radioisotope. Show your work on your graph.
Westminster College SIM NR7-3 Half-Life Simulation with M&Ms

3. The decay constant, k, for a radioisotope is related to its half-life:

k = 0.693 / t
1/2
Use this relationship to determine the decay constant for the M&Ms.

4. The equation in question 2 can be obtained from the integrated rate law

ln (N/N ) = -kt
0
where N is the number of radioactive nuclei originally present in the sample and N is the
0
number remaining at time t. Show how this is done.

5. How long (many turns) would it take to complete this simulation - until 1 M&M
remains - if you had started with 10,000 M&Ms? Show your work.
 M & M HALF-LIFE INQUIRY
Introduction:
Half-life is the time required for one half of a radioactive material to decay or change into
something else. Radioactive atoms have nuclei that are unstable. These nuclei become more
stable by emitting particles or rays. The half-life of an isotope is characteristic of that isotope.
The value can be from fractions of a second to billions of years. Half-life values are constant -
there is no way to speed up or slow down this natural process.

Purpose:
The purpose of this experiment is to simulate the process of radioactive decay and determine the
“half-life” for the process.

Equipment and Materials:

plastic cup of M & Ms paper plate
graph paper

Procedure:
Each M & M will represent at atom of a radioisotope.
The M & Ms in the cup are thoroughly mixed and poured out onto the paper plate.
Count the total number of atoms (M & Ms) and record on your data sheet.
Those atoms (M & Ms) with letters showing are still "radioactive". The others have "decayed" and
should be removed (eaten). Count the number of "radioactive atoms" that remain, and record the
values in the data table.
Return those M & Ms which have the letters showing to the cup, shake, and pour onto the paper
plate.
Again, remove & eat the decayed atoms (M & Ms), then count the number of radioactive atoms (M
& Ms) with letters still showing. Record and continue.
Data:

Original Number of Atoms _______________

Trial Atoms Left

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

On a separate piece of graph paper, plot the data (atoms left vs. trial number) and draw a smooth
curve through the points.

The value for the half-life is obtained as follows:

1. Select two values on the y-axis. One value should be twice as large as the other (60 & 30
for example).

2. Draw lines from these points to your line.

3. Next, vertical lines should be drawn from where these lines intersect your lines to the x-axis.
The space between these lines on the x-axis is the half-life. What these lines tell us is that
half of the radioisotope has decayed and this is the amount of time that is required for it to
happen.
Activity #2 – Nuclear Fission Simulation
Questions to be investigated
What is nuclear fission?
What is a chain reaction?
How is a chain reaction used to produce energy in a nuclear reactor?

Objectives
• Describe the process of nuclear fission
• Explain how a controlled chain reaction can be used to produce energy in a nuclear
reactor

Materials
Computer

Safety Concerns
None

Real-World Connections
Nuclear Reactors

Teacher Notes
The first version of the nuclear fission simulation below is for use in a foundational physics
course. The second version is appropriate for a capstone physics course.

The graph of energy that goes with the single atom undergoing fission can be difficult for
students to understand so it may be necessary to go through the graph as a group.

Procedure/Description of Lesson
The simulator of nuclear fission walks students through three scenarios for nuclear fission. The
first simulation is of one atom going through fission. The simulator provides a graph of total and
potential energy during the fission of the atom.

The students then view an uncontrolled chain reaction followed by the chain reaction in a nuclear
reactor.

Assessment Ideas:
- Explain how a nuclear reactor is able to control a chain reaction, whereas a bomb does not.
- The world is expected to run out of oil sometime in the next century. Describe some of the
energy sources which will be used to compensate from the loss of this resource. Explain the
advantages and disadvantages of each source.
Source: http://fusioned.gat.com/images/pdf/Workbook.pdf
 PhET Simulation: Nuclear Fission
Worksheet by K. Gates, Norfolk Public Schools. Accessed from
http://phet.colorado.edu/teacher_ideas/view-contribution.php?contribution_id=656
Learning Goals:
After completing this activity, you will be able to explain the concept of a “chain reaction” and
how it applies to nuclear fission of Uranium. You will also be able to explain the purpose of the
control rods in a nuclear reactor.

Directions:
• Go to the website: http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations .
• Click on “Work, Energy, and Power” on the left hand side
• Choose the simulation titled: Nuclear Fission and then select: “Run Now”.

Fission: One Nucleus:

Select the “Fission: One Nucleus” tab at the top left. Experiment with shooting the neutron gun
and watching what happens. Then answer the questions below.
1) What happens when the U-235 nucleus is “hit” with a neutron? There are two steps here-
describe them both in as much detail as you can.

Chain Reaction:
Select the “Chain Reaction” tab at the top. Experiment with changing the settings and shooting
the neutron gun and watch what happens. Then answer the questions below.
2) Set the initial number of U-235 nuclei to 100. What happens when you fire the neutron
gun?

3) Explain what makes this a “chain reaction”.

4) Set the initial number of U-238 nuclei to 100. Explain what happens when you fire the
gun and if this is a chain reaction or not.
 5) Set the initial numbers of U-235 nuclei and U-238 nuclei to the numbers in the table
below. Record your results.

U-235 100 70 50 30 0
U-238 0 30 50 70 100
235
% of U fissioned
after 1 firing
# firings required to
N/A
fission all 235U

6) What happens to the reaction as the proportion of U-238 nuclei increases?

7) If you were trying to design the most efficient fission reactor possible, what ratio of U-
235 to U-238 would you want? Explain why.

Nuclear Reactor:
Select the “Nuclear Reactor” tab at the top. Experiment with changing the settings and firing the
neutrons and watch what happens. Then answer the questions below.
8) The bar graphs on the right of the display show the “Power Output” and the “Energy
Produced”. What is the difference between these two quantities?

9) Watch very closely to the fission reactions as they happen. Specifically watch happens to
the loose neutrons after the reaction.
a) What happens if the neutrons hit another nucleus?

b) What happens if the neutrons hit a control rod?

10) Compare the chain reaction that occurs when the control rods are inserted further into the
reactor versus when they are pulled all/mostly out of the reactor.

11) If the purpose of a nuclear reactor in a power plant is to produce energy, why are there
control rods?
Modern Physics: Radioactive Decay, Names:

Fission, and Chain Reactions

Worksheet by Debra Krause Dandaneau, University of Tennessee. Accessed from

http://phet.colorado.edu/teacher_ideas/view-contribution.php?contribution_id=713

Find and open the PhET simulation “Alpha Decay”:

http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Alpha_Decay
Radioactive Decay in a single atom:
Open the “Alpha Decay” sim and go to the SECOND tab (single atom).
What is an alpha particle?

The simulation shows an atom’s nucleus: In this representation, are all the nucleons (protons and
neutrons) in a center “nuclear ball,” or is the nucleus distributed in scattered sections? Explain
the structure.

The force keeping the protons and neutrons together is known as the nuclear force. Just like the
basis for interplanetary forces is the fundamental force “gravity,” the basis of the nuclear force is
this fundamental force:

_____________________. It gives structure to both nuclei and nucleons.

In the simulation, a diagram of the potential energy “terrain” created by the nuclear force is
shown in blue. The alpha particles are located in the diagram also… and they have a fixed total
energy (shown in red). Based on classical mechanics, would the alpha particles be able to get
out of the nucleus?

In this representation, do the alpha particles stay in the “potential well” of the nucleus, or do they
move into the barrier?

Define “tunneling”:

Define “atomic number”:

When an alpha particle tunnels out of the nucleus, is the atom still an atom of the element
“polonium” (atomic number 84), or has the atom changed to a new element? If so, what
element?
The simulation labels the atoms according to the “mass number” (not atomic number). Define
“mass number”:

How many protons are in the original atom (polonium-211)? How many neutrons?

How many protons are in the atom after it decays to lead-207? How many neutrons?

What is the difference, and what does that make up?

The simulation has a reset button. When you reset it (many times to check well), is the time is
takes the new nucleus to decay the same, or about the same as the old time or is it random?

Radioactive Decay in a sample of atoms:

While the atomic decay is random, for larger amounts of radioactive material, the overall decay
of the population of atoms can be characterized by a constant known as the “half-life” (the time
is takes for about half of the amount to decay).

Now go to the FIRST tab (multiple atoms) and keep adding 10 atoms until the entire bucket is
empty (there are 99 total atoms). Because the simulation starts automatically, you’ll need to
“Reset all Nuclei” before you take data. Every ½ second, pause the simulation and note the
number of polonium atoms. Plot below:
Number of Polonium atoms remai

100

75

50

25

0 1 2 3
Time elasped (seconds)
What is the mathematical shape of the graph (linear, parabolic, etc.)?
Practice:
Say material “X” decays radioactively into material “Y” with a characteristic half life of two
days. Assume you start with 100 kg of X. In the graph below, plot the amount of material of
“X” that remains after 2 days, 4 days, 6 days, and 10 days:

100
Mass of X remaining (kg)

75

50

25

0 5 10
Time elasped since X first measured at
100 kg (days)

Say X has a safe level of 5 kg (for the given area it is located in). How long does it take to reach
a safe level?

If the original level is 50 kgs (half the original size), does it take half the time to reach a safe
level? Explain. (You may want to add a plot of this sample to your graph to help you, though it
isn’t required.)

Add a plot for the decay of 100 kg of material “Z,” which has a half-life of 1 day. Label this
line. Then answer this question: how long does it take material z to reach a safe level of 5 kg?
How does this compare to the time it took material X to decay to this level?

What happens to the mass lost by X in the radioactive decay? Is mass conserved, and if so, how?
Fission:
Open the “Nuclear Fission” sim:
http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Nuclear_Fission
Start at the tab “Fission: One Nucleus”
Define fission:

Run the simulation. Before the gun is fired, is the material stable, or does it seem likely to
radioactively decay?

When you operate the gun, what type of particle does it fire?

If the gun fires and “hits” the nucleus, what happens?

Switch the tab to “chain reaction” and add some uranium-238. The atom used in the previous tab
was uranium-235. Is uranium-238 “fissionable”? How does firing the gun on a uranium-238
atom change it? (Note you can aim the gun.)

Chain reaction:
Switch to the tab “Chain Reaction”.
Reset the sim (using the button) and add lots of fissionable uranium-235. What happens and
why?

Normal levels of the uranium-235 isotope are about 0.72%, with the majority being uranium-
238. Round the level up to 1% (in the favor of uranium-238), to one atom of uranium-235 and
99 atoms of uranium 238. Use the simulation to discover if naturally-derived uranium can start a
chain reaction (and therefore be useful in either nuclear weapons or nuclear power plants): Is
naturally derived uranium able to start a chain reaction, or must the sample be “enriched”?

Use the simulation to find a minimum ratio of uranium-235 to uranium-238 (keep your total of
atoms always at 100); what is the smallest percentage that still starts a chain reaction?

How does the above compare to “weapons-grade” enriched uranium (about 80-85%)?
Use the simulation to make a nuclear weapon. What conditions are needed? (Hint - you’ll need a
containment vessel, and a certain level of enrichment that you must determine.)

What is a “dirty-bomb” (you may have to look it up online)? Is a high grade of uranium needed
for a dirty-bomb to explode?

Nuclear power plants:

Switch to the “Nuclear Reactor” tab.
What is needed to start the nuclear reactor?

What does adjusting the control rods do?

Without the control rods in position, what happens?

Homer Simpson is asleep at the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant

(where he’s known to occasionally work... although mostly he’s
asleep at the controls). When the power plant sounds an alarm
(d’oh!), what is happening, and what must Homer do to save the day?
http://www.yoest.org/archives/homer_simpson_nnuclear_power_plant.jpg
Activity #3 – Nuclear Fusion Demonstration 1
Demonstration modeled after the Nuclear Fusion Simulation in Why toast lands jelly-side down
by Robert Ehrlich. 1997. Princeton University Press. p. 180-181.
Questions to be investigated
What is fusion?
Why is it necessary for fusion to take place at high temperatures?

Objectives
• Explain why it is necessary for fusion to take place at high temperatures

Materials
A plastic grooved ruler, two magnetic marbles, and a piece of a folded index card

Safety Concerns
None

Real-World Connections
Fusion occurs in all stars and is the reason for the heat and light we see and feel on Earth.

Teacher Notes
The marbles should stick together only when they come together at a high speed. The card in the
demonstration represents the repulsive Coulomb barrier between the colliding particles.

The longer the folded piece of card the better as repulsion will begin when the marbles are
relatively far apart. It may also be necessary to experiment with the position of the folded card
before the demonstration.

Procedure/Description of Lesson
Place the two magnetic marbles in the groove on opposite ends of the ruler. Place the folded
piece of index card in between the two marbles. The card should be folded width wise and
placed perpendicular to the ruler. Do several trials of rolling the two marbles at the folded card.
Start slow and work your way to fast. Have students record their observations after each trial.

Assessment Ideas:
- In 1989 Fleischmann and Pons claimed to have conducted a “cold fusion” experiment
successfully. “Cold fusion” refers to fusion being done at temperatures less than the
millions of degrees necessary for thermonuclear fusion. Based on the results of this
demonstration, explain why it is currently not possible for “cold fusion” to take place?
Be sure to reference specific portions of the demonstration.
Activity #4 – Nuclear Fusion Demonstration 2
Demonstration modeled after the Magnetic Nuclei demonstration from C3P
(http://phys.udallas.edu). Sheets Ma071A and Ma071B.

Questions to be investigated
What is fusion?
How does the speed and direction of collision influence the product(s) of fusion?

Objectives
• Explain how the speed and direction of a collision can change the products of fusion

Materials
5 magnetic marbles

Safety Concerns
None

Real-World Connections
Fusion occurs in all stars and is the reason for the heat and light we see and feel on Earth.

Teacher Notes
The demonstration represents the fusion of deuterium and tritium nuclei into a helium nucleus.
The most effective results are achieved when the three magnetic marbles are placed in a pyramid
form. If the collision is not fast enough or not directly head-on then the product of the fusion
will not be the helium nucleus and neutron that is expected.

Procedure/Description of Lesson
Quickly roll a nucleus of two marbles toward a nucleus made of three marbles. Repeat the
collision several times and have students record their observations after each trial.

Assessment Ideas:

- In 1989 Fleischmann and Pons claimed to have conducted a “cold fusion” experiment
successfully. “Cold fusion” refers to fusion being done at temperatures less than the
millions of degrees necessary for thermonuclear fusion. Based on the results of this
demonstration, explain why it is currently not possible for “cold fusion” to take place?
Be sure to reference specific portions of the demonstration.
Activity #5 – Randomness of Particles during Alpha Decay

Questions to be investigated
How is it possible to predict the behavior of a large group of particles when each individual
particle behaves randomly?

Objectives
• Describe how to predict the behavior of a large group of particles
• Describe how alpha decay can be used to determine half life

Materials
Dice, computer

Safety Concerns
None

Real-World Connections
The predictable nature of alpha decay allows scientists to be able to determine half life for use in
dating objects.

Teacher Notes
This activity is appropriate for a capstone level physics course. The students may have to do
some research using the internet to get answers on the second page to questions about Einstein
and the Copenhagen Interpretation.

Procedure/Description of Lesson
The procedure is in the attached documents.

Assessment Ideas:

- Radioactive decay is used to date fossils, rocks etc. They measure the ratio of decayed
nuclei to undecayed nuclei. However, for this information to be useful, you need to know
what the starting value was. Do research to find out how this is done for two different
techniques.
 Radioactivity Activities
Worksheet by Roberta Tevlin of the Toronto District School Board. Accessed at
http://phet.colorado.edu/teacher_ideas/view-contribution.php?contribution_id=551

A) Introduction

Processes governed by quantum mechanics are intrinsically random. For example, we can’t
know where the next particle will land in the two-slit experiment. We can only predict the

Another clear example of this intrinsic randomness is radioactive decay.

B) Decay Simulation with Dice

1) Each person will represent an atom that may decay. Whether you decay or not, depends on the
roll of a die. If you roll a one, you have decayed. What will a graph of the number of undecayed
atoms vs. roll number look like? Graph the expected curve on the grid below.

2) Plot the results of the experiment on the graph above. How and why did the results differ from
your prediction?

3) Which description best describes the results of the roll of a die?

a) The results are only pseudo random. They depend in a strict causal way on properties
of the die and how it is released.
b) The results are intrinsically random. There is no cause and effect.
 Explain your choice:

C) PhET Simulation of Nuclear Decay

Go the PhET simulations at http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/ and choose Quantum
Phenomena, Alpha Decay. Hit the reset button a few times.

4) Label the diagram above locating the

a) total energy of the alpha particle
b) potential energy of an alpha particle due to Coulomb repulsion
c) potential energy of an alpha particle due to the strong nuclear force
d) the classical limit of how far the electron can go from the centre of the nucleus
e) the quantum limit of how far the electron must go, to be able to escape

5) How is the movement of the alpha particle different from a classical particle?

6) A particle that appears beyond the quantum limit and then repelled, is said to have ‘tunneled’
through the barrier. How is this different from classical tunneling?

7) Why won’t a second alpha particle escape?

8) How long will it take until the next decay?

9) Is the PhET simulation intrinsically random or just pseudo random?

D) Real Radioactive Decay

10) Is atomic decay truly intrinsically random?
i) What did Einstein think?

ii) What is the Copenhagen Interpretation?

iii) Who is right?

E) Half-Life

10) The half-life of a nucleus is the time needed until there is a 50% chance that it will have
decayed. It can be found by taking a large sample and measuring how long until half of them
have decayed. Using the dice model
a) How many rolls is one half-life? Explain how you get this answer.

b) Do an experiment with many dice. What was the half-life?

c) Why were these answers different?

d) Calculate the percentage difference of your two answers.

e) What would you need to do to get them exactly the same?

f) What is the whole-life? How long will it be until all the dice have decayed?

g) Suppose you came in late and there were 15 students in the class still undecayed. How
many rounds do you think occurred while you were out? Explain how you got your
answer.

11) Go to the PhET simulations at http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/ and choose Quantum

Phenomena, Alpha Decay.
 a) Measure the decay times for 25 events.

b) What was the have-life for these 25 nuclei? Explain how you calculated this.

c) Compare your answer to someone else’s. How different is it? Why is it different?

d) To three digits, the half-life of Po-111 is 520 ns according to Fred Noel Spiess in Physics
Review 94, 1292-1299 (1954). How many rolls would you need to be certain to have two
significant digits?

12) Radioactive decay is used to date fossils, rocks etc. They measure the ratio of decayed nuclei
to undecayed nuclei. However, for this information to be useful, you need to know what the
starting value was. Do research to find out how this is done for two different techniques.
 Radioactivity Activities – Teacher’s Guide
This lesson is set up to explore one of the key concepts in quantum mechanics – intrinsic
randomness – through an examination of alpha decay.

It assumes that students are familiar with what happens when quantum particles - not
waves -go through a double slit. It also assumes that they are familiar with the nuclear
model of matter, alpha particles and isotopes.

The lesson is best done in pairs or small groups with whiteboards. Give the students lots of
time to explore the ideas fully. The graphing can be made clearer if there is a transparency
with a grid clipped onto it. The whiteboard markers work fine with these. Make sure you
have them ink-side down or the grid may get erased along with the marker. The student
sheet is identical to this one, but with the answers - in bold - removed.

Section E can be left as a student homework exercise.

A) Introduction
Processes governed by quantum mechanics are intrinsically random. For example, we can’t
know where the next particle will land in the two-slit experiment. We can only predict the
pattern we will get if there are many, many particles.

Another clear example of this intrinsic randomness is radioactive decay.

B) Decay Simulation with Dice

1) Each person will represent an atom that may decay. Whether you decay or not, depends on the
roll of a die. If you roll a one, you have decayed. What will a graph of the number of undecayed
atoms vs. roll number look like? Graph the expected curve on the grid below.

The actual values will depend on how many people are in the class. A dice was chosen
rather than a coin, because the statistics are less obvious and because the actual results will
stray more noticeably from the predicted curve.
2) Plot the results of the experiment on the graph above. How and why did the results differ from
your prediction?

The results should show a similar downward curve, but the values will lie noticeably above
and below the predicted curve because the results are random and the sample is not very
big. You can predict the statistical results of many die, but not a few.

3) Which description best describes the results of the roll of a die?

c) The results are only pseudo random. They depend in a strict causal way on properties
of the die and how it is released.
d) The results are intrinsically random. There is no cause and effect.

If we had a high-speed camera and computer, we could monitor the position and speed of a
die and predict how it will land. If everything is the same at the start, the results will be the
same. The more closely it is measured, the better your predictions will be.

C) PhET Simulation of Nuclear Decay

Go the PhET simulations at http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/ and choose Quantum
Phenomena, Alpha Decay. Hit the reset button a few times.
The quantum limit The classical limit

Energy of alpha
particle

Strong force Coulomb repulsion

4) Label the diagram above locating the
f) total energy of the alpha particle
g) potential energy of an alpha particle due to Coulomb repulsion
h) potential energy of an alpha particle due to the strong nuclear force
i) the classical limit of how far the electron can go from the centre of the nucleus
j) the quantum limit of how far the electron must go, to be able to escape

5) How is the movement of the alpha particle different from a classical particle?
The alpha particles appear in random locations much like an electron does in an atomic
orbital. They do not move classically from place to place, but appear and disappear.

6) A particle that appears beyond the quantum limit and then repelled, is said to have ‘tunneled’
through the barrier. How is this different from classical tunneling?
The alpha particle does not go from the inside to the outside by a continuous path. It just
appears outside. At this point, it does not have enough energy to climb back in and it is
repelled away from the nucleus. It has decayed. Tunnelling is the only way for alpha decay
to occur in an atom and for fusion to occur in the sun. In both cases, there is not enough
energy and according to classical but not quantum physics it won’t occur.

7) Why won’t a second alpha particle escape?

The first alpha particle took energy with it that is no longer available to the other alpha
particles. The total energy of the alpha particles is now below the potential barrier
everywhere.

8) How long will it take until the next decay?

You can’t know what the next decay time will be however there are more examples
between 1 and 500 ms than between 500 and 1000 ms. This should be apparent even after
watching a few decays. (The half-life is 520.) Your best bet would be to choose a number
close to 500. Your odds of winning – making the closest guess – are 1 : the class size, if
everyone is as observant as you.

Ordered Decay Times for the PhET Simulation

of 51 Alpha Decays of Po-111

5000
4500
4000
Decay time (ms)

3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37 40 43 46 49

9) Is the PhET simulation intrinsically random or just pseudo random?

Pseudo random because, random number generators for computers start with a ‘seed’
number – like the present time and then apply a number of mathematical calculations.
There is a strict deterministic path. With enough time and technical skill, the details could
be found and the next decay time predicted.
D) Real Radioactive Decay
10) Is atomic decay truly intrinsically random?
iv) What did Einstein think?
It can’t be intrinsically random. God does not play dice. There must be an underlying
cause as to why one atom decays and not another. We may never be able to measure these
variables, but they must be there.
v) What is the Copenhagen Interpretation?
There is no internal clockwork that causes the decay. Furthermore if something can’t be
measured - no matter how good technologies can get - then it doesn’t exist.
vi) Who is right?
Experiments examining the difference between these two interpretations, seem to support
intrinsic randomness – no cause and effect. (See: Bell’s theorem and Alain Aspect’s
experiments.) Physicists are still debating what the results of QM mean. Businesses seem to
consider QM events to be more fundamentally random than other processes. A Swiss
company, id Quantique, markets a random number generator that uses photons heading
towards a partially transparent mirror.

For more information see http://www.idquantique.com

NEW! id Quantique has released a USB 2.0 version!

Read the press release.

Although random numbers are required in many applications, their generation is often overlooked.
Being deterministic, computers are not capable of producing random numbers. A physical source of
randomness is necessary. Quantum physics being intrinsically random, it is natural to exploit a
quantum process for such a source. Quantum random number generators (QRNG) have the advantage
over conventional randomness sources of being invulnerable to environmental perturbations and of
allowing live status verification.

Quantis is a physical random number generator exploiting an elementary quantum optics process.
Photons - light particles - are sent one by one onto a semi-transparent mirror and detected. The
exclusive events (reflection - transmission) are associated to "0" - "1" bit values. The operation of
Quantis is continuously monitored to ensure immediate detection of a failure and disabling of the
random bit stream.

E) Half-Life
10) The half-life of a nucleus is the time needed until there is a 50% chance that it will have
decayed. It can be found by taking a large sample and measuring how long until half of them
have decayed. Using the dice model
h) How many rolls is one half-life? Explain how you get this answer.
The population is half just before 4 rolls. After one roll it is 5/6. Then it is 25/36 = 69%,
58% and then 48%. To two digits it is 3.8.

i) Do an experiment with many dice. What was the half-life?

If the student only has a dozen dice, the answer will probably be between 2 and 10 rolls.
More dice, will narrow these numbers.

j) Why were these answers different?

k) Calculate the percentage difference of your two answers.

l) What would you need to do to get them exactly the same?

You can’t have 3.8 roles, so it can’t be done. However, you can get the answer to one digit if
you have a small sample and are lucky or if you have a very large sample.

m) What is the whole-life? How long will it be until all the dice have decayed?
In two half-lives, three quarters will have decayed. In three half-lives seven eights will have
decayed. This theoretical trend never gets to zero. Experimentally, they will all die but as
the numbers get smaller the behaviour becomes more impossible to predict.

n) Suppose you came in late and there were 15 students in the class still undecayed. How
many rounds do you think occurred while you were out? Explain how you got your
answer.

This can be done by looking at the graph - if it was graphed this far - or by taking the
starting number and repeatedly multiplying by 5/6. If you start with 30 students it occurs
closest to the fourth roll. The numbers are 30, 25, 21, 17 and 14.5. However, it could easily
have occurred on the third or fifth roll.

11) Go to the PhET simulations at http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/ and choose Quantum

Phenomena, Alpha Decay.
e) Measure the decay times for 25 events.
f) What was the have-life for these 25 nuclei? Explain how you calculated this.
The students can’t take the decay times and average them – though some will. They need to
arrange the times from greatest to least and then select the middle one.
g) Compare your answer to someone else’s. How different is it? Why is it different?
h) To three digits, the half-life of Po-111 is 520 ns according to Fred Noel Spiess in Physics
Review 94, 1292-1299 (1954). How many rolls would you need to be certain to have two
significant digits?

For 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 times the middle values were (in ms) 172, 462, 426, 525, and 489 so
we are getting one digit of accuracy with 50 data points. The next digit will take a hundred?
12) Radioactive decay is used to date fossils, rocks etc. They measure the ratio of decayed nuclei
to undecayed nuclei. However, for this information to be useful, you need to know what the
starting value was. Do research to find out how this is done for two different techniques.

Carbon-14 is formed in the atmosphere by cosmic ray collisions. Living organisms

incorporate into their bodies, the same ratio of C-14 to regular C-12 that is in the
atmosphere. However, once they die the ratio decreases as the C-14 decays with a half-life
of 5730 years. Wood that is cut down and made into an artifact or burnt and left behind in
the coals can be dated from the time the tree was chopped down. It is used to date artifacts
up to 60,000 years old.

The radioactive isotope 40K decays to 40Ar and 40Ca with a half-life of 1.26x109 years. 40Ca
is the most common form of Ca, however, so the increase in abundance due to K decay
results in a negligible increase in total abundance. The 40Ar isotope is much less abundant,
and is therefore a more useful isotope. Because argon is a gas, it is able to escape from
molten rock. However, after the rock has solidified, the 40Ar produced by potassium decay
will begin to accumulate in the crystal lattices. In order to determine the 40Ar content of a
rock, it must be melted and composition of the released gas measured using mass
spectrometry. The ratio between the 40Ar and the 40K is related to the time elapsed since
the rock was cool enough to trap the Ar. Due to the long half-life, the technique is most
applicable for dating minerals and rocks more than 100,000 years old. Although it finds the
most utility in geological applications, it plays an important role in archaeology. Source:
Wikipedia

Uranium-lead is one of the oldest and most refined dating schemes, with an age range of
about 1 million years to over 4.5 billion years, and with precisions in the 0.1 - 1 percent
range. The method relies on the decay of 238U to 206Pb, with a half-life of 4.47 billion years
and 235U to 207Pb, with a half-life of 704 million years. This decay occurs through a series of
alpha decays, of which 238 U undergoes seven total alpha decays whereas 235U only
experiences six alpha decays. Uranium-lead dating is usually performed on the mineral
zircon which incorporates uranium and thorium atoms into its crystalline structure, but
strongly rejects lead. Source: Wikipedia.
Activity #6 – Personal Radiation Dose Activity
This activity is based off of work from the American Nuclear Society – www.ans.org

Questions to be investigated
How much radiation are we exposed to on a daily basis?
What are the possible problems with exposure to radioactivity?

Objectives
• The students will understand and evaluate the radiation in their home, life, and
community

Materials
Worksheet, Computers if needed for more research

Safety Concerns
None

Real-World Connections
Knowledge of the sources of exposure to radioactive decay helps students to understand what
can be done to minimize their exposure and possible problems.

Teacher Notes
This activity can be used in either a foundational or capstone course. At the foundational level it
may be necessary to guide the students through the exposure sheet, while the capstone students
may be able to fill it out themselves. The emphasis throughout the lesson is on the fact that they
are always exposed to radiation and that radiation can be used for beneficial purposes. Separate
questions about the problems that occur due to exposure to radioactivity are also important to
cover during the lesson.

As you review answers to these questions and discuss the worksheet, point out to students
that:
Natural background radiation exists wherever you live
The amount of natural background radiation varies from place to place.
Radiation comes from man-made sources, too.
Most exposures from man-made sources are smaller than what people get from natural
background radiation.
Medical diagnostic procedures are the largest single source of man-made radiation to which most
people are ever exposed.
Source: American Nuclear Society, www.ans.org
Procedure/Description of Lesson
The students will fill out the exposure sheet first. It may be necessary to walk through this sheet
with the students if they are struggling to get it done. Once the students have filled out their
exposure sheet, they should be given the questions about their exposure.

Assessment Ideas:

http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/chernobyl/inf07.htm

- Using the above website as a source, or a source about a different nuclear accident,
answer the following:
o When a nuclear accident occurs, the amount of radiation in a given area
dramatically increases. Using the website above, explain what potential
problems, both short and long term, that arise from the increased radiation in an
area. Be sure to include what can be done to minimize the amount of exposure to
radiation for people living in a contaminated area.
 Estimate Your Personal Radiation Dose
We live in radioactive world – humans always have. Radiation is part of our natural environment. We are exposed to radiation from materials in
the earth itself, from naturally occurring radon in the air, from outer space, and from inside our own bodies (as a result of the food and water we
consume). This radiation is measured in units called millirems (mrems). The average does per person from all sources is about 360 mrems per
year. It is not however uncommon for any of us to receive far more than that in a given year (largely due to medical procedures we may
undergo). International Standards allow exposure to as much as 5000 mrems a year for those who work with and around radioactive material.

Factors Common Sources of Radiation Your

Annual Dose
(mrems)
Where Cosmic radiation (from outer space)
you live Exposure depends on your elevation (how much air is above you to block radiation).
Amounts are listed in mrem (per year)
At sea level………….. 26 mrem 4-5000 ft……………….47
_____ mrem
0-1000 ft……………….28 5-6000 ft……………….52
1-2000 ft…………….....31 6-7000 ft……………….66
2-3000 ft…………….…35 7-8000 ft……………….79
3-4000 ft……………….41 8-9000 ft……………….96
(Elevation of cities (in feet): Atlanta 1050; Chicago 595; Dallas 435; Denver 5280; Detroit
581; Las Vegas 2000; Minneapolis 815; Pittsburgh 1200; St. Louis 455; Salt Lake City
4400; Spokane 1890)
Terrestrial (from the ground)
If you live in a state that border the Gulf or Atlantic Coasts, add 16 mrem.
If you live in the Colorado Plateau area (around Denver), add 63 mrem.
If you live anywhere else in the continental US, add 30 mrem. _____ mrem
House Construction
If you live in a stone, adobe, brick or concrete building, add 7mrem.
Power Plants _____ mrem
If you live within 50 miles of a nuclear power plant, add 0.009 mrem.
If you live within 50 miles of a coal-fired power plant, add 0.03 mrem. _____ mrem
Food Internal Radiation ***
Water From food (Carbon-14 and Potassium-40) __40_ mrem
From water (radon dissolved in water)
Air From air (radon) _200_ mrem
How Weapons test fallout (less than 1)* ………………………….1 mrem _____ mrem
You Jet Plane Travel ……………..…………0.5 mrem per hour in the air _____ mrem
If you have porcelain crowns or false teeth **…………...0.07 mrem _____ mrem
Live If you wear a luminous wristwatch ………………………0.06 mrem _____ mrem
If you go through luggage inspection at airport ………...0.002 mrem _____ mrem
If you watch TV* ……………………………………………1 mrem _____ mrem
If you use video display terminal (computer screen) *………1 mrem _____ mrem
If you have a smoke detector …………………………...0.008 mrem _____ mrem
If you use a gas camping lantern ………………………….0.2 mrem _____ mrem
If you wear a plutonium-powered pacemaker ……………100 mrem _____ mrem
Medical Medical Diagnostic Tests – Number of millirems per procedure
Tests X-Rays: Extremity (arm, hand, foot, or leg)….1 Dental…..1
Chest …..6 pelvis/hip …..65 skull/neck …..20
Barium enema …..405 Upper GI …..245 _____ mrem
CAT Scan (head and body) ……110
Nuclear Medicine (e.g., thyroid scan) …..14
Your Estimated Annual Radiation Dose
* The value is less than 1, but adding a value of 1 would be reasonable.
** Some of the radiation sources listed in this chart result in an exposure to only part of the body. For example, false teeth or crowns
result in a radiation does to the mouth. The annual dose numbers given here represent the “effective dose” to the whole body.
*** Average values.

Source: American Nuclear Society; www.ans.org

 Classroom Activity “Estimate Your Personal Radiation Dose”
Objectives: Build student’s ability to read and interpret information on the worksheet.
Develop understanding of natural background radiation vs. man-made radiation.
Facilitate discussion of how we assess what is acceptable radiation exposure.

Comparing the Effects of where you live and how you live

1. A family moves from a wood-frame home in Dallas to a brick home in Denver. How will this change
affect each person’s annual radiation dose?

2. Lucinda moves from a wood-frame home in Chicago to a wood frame home in Dallas. How does her
annual radiation dose change?

3. John likes to watch TV, play video games on his computer, and go camping (where he uses a gas lantern).
After realizing that these activities expose him to radiation, he gives up all three. How much has he
reduced his annual radiation does? How does this compare to the average annual dose?

4. Sam lives in a suburb of a large city. His house is 55 miles from a nuclear power plant and 20 miles from a
coal-fired electrical plant. His family buys a new house in another suburb on the other side of the same
city. It is 20 miles from a nuclear plant and 60 miles from a coal-fired electric plant. What is the change in
his annual radiation exposure? Do you think it is a significant amount?

5. Mary and her mother were in a serious automobile accident that resulted in broken bones and internal
injuries. Mary’s mother had a neck x-ray, a CAT scan, and an x-ray of her pelvis. A week later doctors
needed to conduct an x-ray of her upper GI tract. How much radiation did Mary’s mother receive from
medical tests as a result of the accident?

How did this radiation compare to her average annual dose?

Why is this acceptable?

Activity #7 – Newton’s Laws at the Atomic Level
Activity available at http://molo.concord.org/database/activities/309.html

Questions to be investigated
How do atoms and molecules follow Newton’s Laws of Motion?

Objectives
• Describe how Newton’s Laws of motion apply to the movement and behavior of
atoms and molecules

Materials
Computer

Safety Concerns
None

Real-World Connections
Interactions at the atomic level are the most common type of interactions on a day to day
basis. Understanding that the observations made of Newton’s Laws on a macro scale
apply to the micro scale provides students with an opportunity to connect atomic
structure with an easier to see phenomena.

Teacher Notes
When students click the go to activity link on the website above, the Molecular
Workbench program that the simulation runs out of will load. If this is the first time that
a computer has accessed the site it may take several minutes to load the program. After
the first time the simulation should load up fairly quickly.

The activity should take about two days to complete. Students are able to print out their
work at the end of an hour and submit it to the teacher. This will allow them to start up at
the same point the next day as no data can be saved on the simulation.

At the end of the simulation there is a summative assessment. The questions from this
assessment are listed below under the assessment heading.

Procedure/Description of Lesson
This simulation walks students through the interactions of atoms and molecules.
Students are able to “ride” on an atom to have an eyewitness to the motion of particles.
The simulation then talks about Brownian motion before going into specific examples of
the three laws of motion as they relate to atoms.
Assessment Ideas:
1. You release two perfumes at opposite ends of a room, but one perfume is made from
heavy molecules and one from light molecules. Which one would reach your nose first if
you were standing in the center of the room? Explain your reasoning.

2. Use Newton's second law to predict how the motion of these two atoms will change
after colliding. (Note: the bigger atom has a larger mass.)

3. Give one example of an object that you can observe with your eyes that comes close to
having the same characteristics of motion as an atom. Explain why.

4. Another way to apply a force to a charged atom is to pass it through a magnetic field.
If the field is oriented properly you will apply a force that is perpendicular to the motion
of the atom, causing the atom to deflect from its previously straight line path. The amount
of force depends on the charge of the atom and strength of the magnetic field.

5. If you had two atoms moving at the same speed with the same charge, but one atom
had more mass than another, what would you expect to happen when they both enter the
magnetic field?
Assessment Task for Unit

Fossil fuels are a non-renewable resource that is a primary source of energy for many
people on the planet. Since it is inevitable that fossil fuels will run out, scientists have
begun to look into alternative sources of energy.

Two possible solutions for energy production are nuclear fusion reactors and nuclear
fission reactors.

For this assignment you will be playing the role of a nuclear scientist. Your job is to
present information to the World Energy Council on both nuclear fission and fusion
reactors and to make a recommendation as to which is a more viable source of energy in
the long run.

The World Energy Council has asked that you provide information on the following:
1. The resources necessary for nuclear fission and fusion and the availability of
these resources, including the cost.
2. The projected amount of energy produced through each type of reactor
including how long the material used can produce energy
3. The possible problems that could arise including the amount and type of
radiation produced, the length of time (with half life) that the radiation will
exist, how the radioactive waste produced can be disposed of, and the
potential for a meltdown with each type of reactor.

The Council has asked that you report your findings in memo format that can be
distributed to all Council members.
Scoring Rubric for Assessment Task
Comparing Nuclear Fission and Fusion

Objectives Performance Indicators

Wghtng: Full Pnts: 1 Pnts: 2 Pnts: 3 Pnts: 4

Identify the Properly identifies Properly identifies Properly identifies Properly identifies
source of the material(s) the material(s) the material(s) the material(s)
needed to produce needed to produce needed to produce needed to produce
energy in either a fission or a fission and fusion a fission and fusion a fission and fusion
nuclear fission fusion reactor reactor reactor including reactor including
and fusion the availability of the availability of
reactions these materials these materials
and the expected
cost

Wghtng: Full Pnts: 1 Pnts: 2 Pnts: 3 Pnts: 4

Identify the Includes a Includes the Includes the Includes the

possible energy predicted amount predicted amount predicted amount predicted amount
of energy but does of energy for either of energy for a of energy for a
production for not include the a nuclear fission or nuclear fission and nuclear fission and
a nuclear type of reactor fusion reactor fusion reactor fusion reactor
fission and along with the
fusion reactor viability of this
option

Wghtng: Full Pnts: 1 Pnts: 2 Pnts: 3 Pnts: 4

Describe the Includes the Includes the Includes the Includes the
possible relative amount of relative amount of relative amount of relative amount of
radiation radiation produced, radiation produced, radiation
problems that produced, time time period time period produced, time
could arise period radiation radiation will be radiation will be period radiation
from radiation will be around around without half around without will be around with
produced by a without half life, life, or the potential half life, how the half life, how the
fission or fusion how the material for a meltdown for material can be material can be
can be disposed of both types of disposed of and disposed of and
reactor and the potential reactor. This group the potential for a the potential for a
for a meltdown for will be missing meltdown for both meltdown for both
one reactor information types of reactor types of reactor