Computer Networks

UNIT 5

Application Layer
APPLICATION LAYER DESIGN ISSUES
APPLICATION LAYER DESIGN ISSUES
 DNS
• To identify an entity, the Internet uses the IP
address, which uniquely identifies the
connection of a host to the Internet. However,
people prefer to use names instead of
addresses. Therefore, we need a system that
can map a name to an address or an address
to a name.
 1. What is the IP
address of
PSIT.ac.in ?

It is 128.175.13.92

1. What is the
host name of
128.175.13.74

It is aktu.ac.in
 Design Principles of DNS
 The naming system on which DNS is based is a hierarchical and logical tree
structure called the domain namespace.

 An organization obtains authority for parts of the name space, and can add
additional layers of the hierarchy

 In practice, allocation of the domain names generally follows the allocation of IP

address, e.g.,
 All hosts with network prefix 128.143/16 have domain name suffix
virginia.edu
 All hosts on network 128.143.136/24 are in the Computer Science
Department of the University of Virginia
 NAME SPACE
• A name space that maps each address to a unique name can be
organized in two ways:
a. FLAT NAME SPACE
In this, a name is assigned to an address. A name in this
space is a sequence without structure.
Disadvantage: Cannot be used in large systems like
Internet because it must be centrally controlled to avoid
ambiguity and duplication.
. HIERARCHIAL NAME SPACE
• Each name is made of several parts.
• The first part can define the nature of organization, the second part
can define the name, the third part can define departments and so on.
• The authority to assign and control the name spaces can be
decentralized.
 DOMAIN NAME SPACE
• To have a hierarchical name space, Domain Name
Space was designed. In this design, the names are
defined in an inverted-tree structure with the root at
the top. The tree can have only 128 levels: level 0
(root) to level 127. Each level of the tree defines a
hierarchical level.
Organizational top-level domains
com Commercial organizations

edu Educational institutions

gov Government institutions

int International organizations

mil U.S. military institutions

net Networking organizations

org Non-profit organizations

 Domain name resolution
1. User program issues a request for
the IP address of a hostname Hostname (neon.tcpip-lab.edu)

2. Local resolver formulates a DNS HTTP IP address (128.143.71.21) Resolver

query to the name server of the

IP address (128.143.71.21)
host

(neon.tcpip-lab.edu)
3. Name server checks if it is

Hostname
authorized to answer the query.
a) If yes, it responds.
b) Otherwise, it will query
Name
other name servers, starting server
at the root tree
4. When the name server has the
answer it sends it to the resolver.
 Electronic Mail
• E-mail (electronic mail) is the exchange of computer-
stored messages by telecommunication.
• E-mail messages are usually encoded in ASCII text.
• At beginning email were short and text only, today
email much more complex.
• It allows a message to include text, audio, and video.
• It also allows one message to be sent to one or more
recipients
First scenario

When the sender and the receiver of an

email are on the same system, we need
only two user agents.
 Second scenario

When the sender and the receiver of an email

are on different systems, we need two UAs
and a pair of MTAs (client and server).
 Third scenario

When the sender is connected to the mail server via a LAN or a WAN,
we need two UAs and two pairs of MTAs (client and server).
 Fourth scenario

When both sender and receiver are connected to the mail server via a LAN or a
WAN, we need two UAs, two pairs of MTAs (client and server), and a pair of MAAs
(client and server). This is the most common situation today.
User agent
Format of an email
 Message Formats
Header Description

To: E-mail address(es) of the primary recipient(s).

CC: carbon copies E-mail address(es) of the secondary recipient(s).

BCC: E-mail address(es) which should receive blind carbon copies. This line is
deleted from all the copies sent to the primary and secondary recipients.
From: The mailbox from which the message is sent.

Sender: E-mail address of the sender.

Received: Line added by each MTA during the e-mail transfer.

Return- This field is added by the final MTA and is intended to inform you how to get
Path: back to the sender. In theory, this information can be gathered from all
the Received headers (except for the name of the sender’s mailbox).
Typically it just contains the sender’s address.
 Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions(MIME)
• MIME (Multi-Purpose Internet Mail Extensions) is an extension of the
original Internet e-mail protocol that lets people use the protocol to
exchange different kinds of data files on the Internet: audio, video,
images, application programs, and other kinds, as well as the ASCII text
handled in the original protocol, the Simple Mail Transport Protocol
(SMTP)
• In the early days, e-mail consisted exclusively of text messages written in
English and expressed in ASCII.
• For this environment, RFC 822 was sufficient; it defined the headers but
left the content entirely up to the users.
• Nowadays, on the Internet, this approach is no longer adequate. The
problems include sending and receiving:
– Messages written in languages containing accents and other special
characters (e.g. French, Spanish and German).
– Messages written in languages based on non-Latin alphabets (e.g.
Hebrew, Russian, Japanese).
– Messages containing audio, images or other non-ASCII information.
 Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions(MIME)
• Separator line gives information about specific encoding. MIME is extensible -
sender and receiver agree on encoding scheme
• MIME is compatible with existing mail systems. Everything encoded as ASCII
• Headers and separators ignored by non-MIME mail systems. MIME
encapsulates binary data in ASCII mail envelope

NVT - Network Virtual Terminal

 NETWORK VIRTUAL TERMINAL
(NVT CHARACTER SET)
The Network Virtual Terminal (NVT) is a representation of a basic terminal and provides a
standard that the computers on either end of a Telnet connection are assumed to follow. It
defines how data and commands are sent across the network. Thus, NVT allows
interoperability between Telnet and a variety of heterogeneous computers and
operating systems. It consists of a virtual keyboard that generates user-specified
characters and a printer that displays specific characters. Clients and servers can map
their local devices to the characteristics and handling conventions of an NVT and can assume
that other servers and clients are doing the same.
 EMAIL PROTOCOLS
• There are three E-mail protocols:

– SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)

– POP3 (Post Office Protocol)
– IMAP (Internet Mail Access Protocol)
 MESSAGE ACCESS AGENT:POP AND IMAP
• The third stage of mail delivery uses a message access agent;
the client must pull messages from the server.
• Currently two message access protocols are available: Post
Office Protocol, (POP3) and Internet Mail Access Protocol,
version 4.
• POP3
– The POP (Post Office Protocol 3) protocol provides a simple,
standardized way for users to access mailboxes and
download messages to their computers.
– Outlook, Eudora, Thunderbird
• IMAP4
– IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) – Is a standard
protocol for accessing e-mail from your local server.
– IMAP (the latest version is IMAP Version 4)
POP3
 HYPERTEXT TRANSFER PROTOCOL (HTTP)

• HTTP is implemented in two

programs: a client program and
a server program, executing on
different end systems, talk to
each other by exchanging HTTP
messages.
• The HTTP client first initiates a
TCP connection with the server.
Once the connection is
established, the browser and
the server processes access TCP
through their socket interfaces.
 Persistent and Non-persistent
Connections
• In non-persistent connection, each
request/response pair are sent over a
separate TCP connection.

• In persistent connections all of the

requests and their corresponding
responses are sent over the same TCP
connection.
29
 HTTP: A Stateless Protocol and cookies
• HTTP is a stateless protocol, because an HTTP server maintains no
information about the clients.
• If a particular client asks for the same object twice in a period of a few
seconds, the server does not respond by saying that it just served the
object to the client; instead, the server resends the object, as it has
completely forgotten what it did earlier.
• HTTP server being stateless, simplifies server design and has permitted
engineers to develop high-performance Web servers that can handle
thousands of simultaneous TCP connections.
• However, it is often desirable for a Web site to identify users, either
because the server wishes to restrict user access or because it wants to
serve content as a function of the user identity. For these purposes,
HTTP uses cookies. Cookies allow sites to keep track of users.
• The cookie technology has four components:
– a cookie header line in the HTTP response message
– a cookie header line in the HTTP request message
– a cookie file kept on the user’s end system and managed by the user’s
browser
– a back-end database at the Web site
 Proxy Server
(Web Caching)
• Proxy Server is a network
entity that satisfies HTTP
requests on the behalf of an
origin Web server.
• The Web cache has its own disk
storage and keeps copies of
recently requested objects in
this storage.
• A Web cache can substantially
reduce the response time for a
client request, particularly if
the bandwidth between the
client and the origin server is
much less than the bandwidth
between the client and the
cache.
• Web caches can substantially
reduce traffic
 HTTP Request Message
❑ The first line of an HTTP request
message is called the request
line;
❑ the subsequent lines are called
the header lines.
❑ The request line has three fields:
▪ the method field,
▪ the URL field,
▪ the HTTP version field
❑ The method field can take on
several different values, including
GET, POST, HEAD, PUT, and
DELETE etc.
❑ The great majority of HTTP
request messages use the GET
method. The GET method is used
when the browser requests an
object, with the requested object
identified in the URL field.
 Request methods
❑ GET: Retrieve Document identified in URL
❑ HEAD: Retrieve meta information about document
identified in URL
❑ DELETE: Delete specified URL
❑ OPTIONS: Request information about available options
❑ PUT: Store document under specified URL
❑ POST: Give information to server
❑ TRACE: Loopback request message
❑ CONNECT: For use by Proxies

33
 HTTP Response messages
• It has three sections:
• an initial status line,
• header lines, and
then
• the entity body.
• The entity body
contains the
requested object
itself.
• The status line has
three fields: the
protocol version field,
• a status code,
• and a corresponding
status message.

34
 Some common status codes and associated phrases
• Some common status codes and
associated phrases include:
– 200 OK: Request succeeded and the
information is returned in the
response.
– 301 Moved Permanently:
Requested object has been
permanently moved; the new URL is
specified in Location: header of the
response message. The client
software will automatically retrieve
the new URL.
– 400 Bad Request: This is a generic
error code indicating that the
request could not be understood by
the server.
– 404 Not Found: The requested
document does not exist on this
server.
– 505 HTTP Version Not Supported:
The requested HTTP protocol
version is not supported by the
server.
 FTP: the file transfer protocol
❑FTP is a TCP based service exclusively. There is no
UDP component to FTP.

❑FTP is an unusual service in that it utilizes two

ports, a 'data' port and a 'command' port (also
known as the control port).

❑Traditionally these are port 21 for the command

port and port 20 for the data port.
April 6, 2012 12 / 37
FTP overview
 FTP: separate control, data connections
• FTP client contacts FTP server at port 21, specifying TCP as
transport protocol
• Client obtains authorization over control connection
• Client browses remote directory by sending commands over
control connection
• When server receives a command for a file transfer, the server
opens a TCP data connection to client
• After transferring one file, server closes connection
• Server opens a second TCP data connection to transfer another
file. Control connection: out of band
• FTP server maintains state:
current directory, earlier authentication
April 6, 2012 17 / 37
 FTP: connections
FTP command channel and data channel
A typical FTP session operates using two channels: a command (or control)
channel and a data channel. As their names imply, the command channel is
used for transmitting commands as well as replies to those commands, while
the data channel is used for transferring data.
Unless you configure your FTP server differently, you will normally set your
command channel to use port 21. The port you'll use for the data channel, on
the other hand, can differ depending on which data transfer mode you choose.
If you choose active mode, then the data channel will normally be port 20. But
if you choose passive mode, then the port that will be used will be a random
port.

April 6, 2012
 Active mode FTP
Here's a simplified explanation on how an active mode connection is
carried out, summarized in two steps.
1) A client connects from a random port on a file transfer client to
port 21 on the server. It sends the PORT command, specifying
which client-side port the server should connect to. This port will
be used later on for the data channel and is different from the port
used in this step for the command channel.
2) The server connects from port 20 to the client port designated for
the data channel. Once connection is established, file transfers are
then made through these client and server ports.
 Passive mode FTP
In passive mode, the client still initiates a command channel connection to
the server. However, instead of sending the PORT command, it sends the
PASV command, which is basically a request for a server port to connect to
for data transmission. When the FTP server replies, it indicates what port
number it has opened for the ensuing data transfer.
Here's how passive mode works in a nutshell:
1) The client connects from a random port to port 21 on the server and
issues the PASV command. The server replies, indicating which (random)
port it has opened for data transfer.
2) The client connects from another random port to the random port
specified in the server's response. Once connection is established, data
transfers are made through these client and server ports.
Opening the control connection

April 6, 2012
Creating the data connection

April 6, 2012
 Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)
How TFTP works?
• Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) is a simple light weight file transfer protocol, used for
transferring files over the network. This protocol is similar to FTP but supports much lesser
features and hence comes with a smaller foot print.
TFTP provides faster file transfer, as it uses UDP as the transport layer protocol
– Lesser Code size or foot print
– Ascii and binary modes of file transfer
– What TFTP does not provide
– does not provide authentication
– does not support a rich set of user interface commands
Use of TFTP
• TFTP is mainly used during device bootstrap process for downloading device OS/firmware and
configuration files. It is typically used for copying bootstrap and configuration files between nodes
belonging to the same LAN.
• TFTP is used in situations where all the features of a full file transfer protocol like FTP are not
needed.
• It is used along with boot protocols like BOOTP and DHCP to initialize devices. Whenever an IP
enabled node boots up, it gets its IP address and other device and network related parameters
through BOOTP or DHCP. As part of these parameters, the client also receives the TFTP server
address, bootstrap file and configuration file details (file name and directory location). The client
then uses the TFTP protocol to download the bootstrap image and configuration files from the
TFTP server.
April 6, 2012 17 / 37
The Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP) is a computer networking
protocol used in Internet Protocol networks to
automatically assign an IP address to network devices
from a configuration server.

The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a

network management protocol used on TCP/IP networks
whereby a DHCPserver dynamically assigns an IP address
and other network configuration parameters to each
device on a network so they can communicate with other
IP networks.

April 6, 2012 17 / 37
 Remote Login: Telnet
❑ TELNET is a general-purpose client-server application
program
❑ TELNET enables the establishment of a connection to a
remote system in such a way that the local terminal appears
to be a terminal at the remote system.
How Telnet Works
Telnet uses software, installed on your computer, to create a connection
with the remote host. The Telnet client (software), at your command, will
send a request to the Telnet server (remote host). The server will reply
asking for a user name and password. If accepted, the Telnet client will
establish a connection to the host, thus making your computer a virtual
terminal and allowing you complete access to the host's computer.
Telnet requires the use of a user name and password, which means you
need to have previously set up an account on the remote computer. In some
cases, however, computers with Telnet will allow guests to log on with
restricted access.
April 6, 2012 18 / 37
Remote login

April 6, 2012
Simple Network Management Protocol
(SNMP)
❑ SNMP is a framework for managing
devices in an internet using the
TCP/IP protocol suit
❑ The manager is a host that runs the
SNMP client program.
❑ The agent is a router or host that
runs the SNMP server program
April 6, 2012 30 / 37
Simple Network Management Protocol
(SNMP)
❑ Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is an
application–layer protocol defined by the Internet
Architecture Board (IAB) in RFC1157 for exchanging
management information between network devices. It is a
part of TCP⁄IP protocol suite.
❑ SNMP is one of the widely accepted protocols to manage
and monitor network elements. Most of the professional–
grade network elements come with bundled SNMP agent.
These agents have to be enabled and configured to
communicate with the network management system (NMS).

April 6, 2012 30 / 37
April 6, 2012 30 / 37
 Components of SNMP
❑ SNMP Manager
❑ Managed devices
❑ SNMP agent
❑ Management Information Base (MIB)
SNMP Manager:
A manager or management system is a separate entity that is
responsible to communicate with the SNMP agent implemented
network devices. This is typically a computer that is used to run one
or more network management systems.
SNMP Manager’s key functions
•Queries agents
•Gets responses from agents
•Sets variables in agents
•Acknowledges asynchronous events from agents

Managed Devices:
A managed device or the network element is a part of the network that requires
some form of monitoring and management e.g. routers, switches, servers,
workstations, printers, UPSs, etc...
April 6, 2012 32 / 37
 Components of SNMP
❑ SNMP Manager
❑ Managed devices
❑ SNMP agent
❑ Management Information Base (MIB)
SNMP Agent:
The agent is a program that is packaged within the network element.
Enabling the agent allows it to collect the management information
database from the device locally and makes it available to the SNMP
manager, when it is queried for. These agents could be standard (e.g. Net-
SNMP) or specific to a vendor (e.g. HP insight agent).

SNMP agent’s key functions

Collects management information about its local environment
Stores and retrieves management information as defined in the MIB.
Signals an event to the manager.
Acts as a proxy for some non–SNMP manageable network node.

April 6, 2012 32 / 37
April 6, 2012 32 / 37
Management Information Base (MIB)
❑ Management Information database or Management Information
Base (MIB)
❑ Every SNMP agent maintains an information database describing the
managed device parameters. The SNMP manager uses this database
to request the agent for specific information and further translates the
information as needed for the Network Management System (NMS).
This commonly shared database between the Agent and the
Manager is called Management Information Base (MIB).
❑ Typically these MIB contains standard set of statistical and control
values defined for hardware nodes on a network. SNMP also allows
the extension of these standard values with values specific to a
particular agent through the use of private MIBs.
❑ In short, MIB files are the set of questions that a SNMP Manager can
ask the agent. Agent collects these data locally and stores it, as defined
in the MIB. So, the SNMP Manager should be aware of these standard
and private questions for every type of agent.
April 6, 2012 33 / 37
Management Information Base version 2 (MIB2)

April 6, 2012
 X.25
X.25 was a standard suite of protocols used for packet-switched
communications over a wide area network—a WAN. A protocol is an
agreed-upon set of procedures and rules. Two devices that follow the same
protocols can understand each other and exchange data.

X.25 was developed in the 1970s to carry voice over analog telephone
lines—dial-up networks—and is one of the oldest packet-switched services.

Typical applications of X.25 included automatic teller machine networks and

credit card verification networks. X.25 also supported a variety of
mainframe terminal and server applications. The 1980s were the heydays of
X-25 technology when it was used by public data networks Compuserve,
Tymnet, Telenet, and others. In the early '90s, many X.25 networks were
replaced by Frame Relay in the U.S. Some older public networks outside the
U.S. continued to use X.25 until recently. Most networks that once required
X.25 now use the less complex Internet Protocol. X-25 is still used in some
ATMs and credit card verification networks.
X-25 Structure X.25
Each X.25 packet contained up to 128 bytes of data. The X.25 network handled
packet assembly at the source device, the delivery, and the reassembly at the
destination. X.25 packet delivery technology included not only switching and
network-layer routing but also error checking and retransmission logic should a
delivery failure occur.

X.25 supported multiple simultaneous conversations by multiplexing packets and

using virtual communication channels.

X-25 offered three basic layers of protocols:

1. Physical layer
2. Data link layer
3. Packet layer
X-25 comes before the OSI Reference Model, but the X-25 layers are analogous to
the physical layer, data link layer and network layer of the standard OSI model.

With the widespread acceptance of Internet Protocol (IP) as a standard for

corporate networks, X.25 applications migrated to cheaper solutions using IP as the
network layer protocol and replacing the lower layers of X.25 with Ethernet or with
new ATM hardware.
X.25 Layers in Relation to the OSI Layers
 Frame Relay
Frame relay is a packet-switching telecommunication service designed for cost-efficient
data transmission for intermittent traffic between local area networks (LANs) and
between endpoints in wide area networks (WANs). The service, once widely available and
implemented, is in the process of being discontinued by major Internet service providers.
Sprint ended its frame relay service in 2007, while Verizon said it plans to phase out the
service in 2015. AT&T stopped offering frame relay in 2012 but said it would support
existing customers until 2016
Frame relay puts data in a variable-size unit called a frame and leaves any necessary error
correction (retransmission of data) up to the endpoints, which speeds up overall data
transmission. For most services, the network provides a permanent virtual circuit (PVC),
which means that the customer sees a continuous, dedicated connection without having
to pay for a full-time leased line, while the service provider figures out the route each
frame travels to its destination and can charge based on usage. Switched virtual circuits
(SVC), by contrast, are temporary connections that are destroyed after a specific data
transfer is completed.
An enterprise can select a level of service quality, prioritizing some frames and making
others less important. A number of service providers, including AT&T, offer frame relay,
and it's available on fractional T-1 or full T-carrier system carriers. Frame relay
complements and provides a mid-range service between ISDN, which offers bandwidth at
128 Kbps, and Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), which operates in somewhat similar
fashion to frame relay but at speeds of 155.520 Mbps or 622.080 Mbps.
Frame Relay

DTE Data Terminal Equipment

DCE Data Circuit-Terminating Equipment
 ATM Protocol
❑ ATM is an acronym for Asynchronous Transfer Mode. It's a high-
speed networking standard designed to support voice, video and
data communications, and to improve utilization and quality of
service (QoS) on high-traffic networks.

❑ ATM is normally utilized by internet service providers on their

private long-distance networks. ATM operates at the data link layer
(Layer 2 in the OSI model) over either fiber or twisted-pair cable.

❑ Although it's fading in favor of the NGN (next generation network),

this protocol is critical to the SONET/SDH backbone, the PSTN (public
switched telephone network) and ISDN (Integrated Services Digital
Network).
How ATM Networks Work
ATM differs from more common data link technologies like Ethernet in several ways.
For one, ATM uses zero routing. Instead of using software, dedicated hardware devices
known as ATM switches establish point-to-point connections between endpoints and
data flows directly from source to destination.

Additionally, instead of using variable-length packets like Ethernet and Internet Protocol
does, ATM utilizes fixed-sized cells to encode data. These ATM cells are 53 bytes in
length, that include 48 bytes of data and five bytes of header information.

Each cell is processed at their own time. When one is finished, the procedure then calls
for the next cell to process. This is why it's called asynchronous; none of them go off at
the same time relative to the other cells. The connection can be preconfigured by the
service provider to make a dedicated/permanent circuit or be switched/set up on
demand and then terminated at the end of its use. Four data bit rates are usually
available for ATM services: Available Bit Rate, Constant Bit Rate, Unspecified Bit Rate and
Variable Bit Rate (VBR).

Without routing and with fixed-size cells, networks can much more easily manage
bandwidth under ATM than other technologies like Ethernet. The high cost of ATM
relative to Ethernet is one factor that has limited its adoption to the backbone and other
high-performance, specialized networks.
ATM Protocol Architecture
 Example Networks
National Science Foundation Network (NSFNet)
The National Science Foundation Network (NSFNet) is a wide area network that was
developed by the National Science Foundation to replace ARPANET as the main
network linking government and research facilities.
NSFNet was a major force in the development of computing infrastructure and
enhanced network services. By making high-speed networking available to national
computer centers and inter-linked regional networks, NSFNet created a network of
networks, which laid the foundation for today's Internet.
NSFNet was dismantled in 1995 and replaced with a commercial Internet backbone.
 Example Networks
USENET
Usenet is a worldwide system for Internet discussion that consists of a set of
newsgroups that are organized by subject. Users post articles or messages to these
newsgroups. The articles are then broadcast to other computer systems, most of
which now connect via the Internet. Usenet was conceived in 1979, making it one of
the oldest network communications systems still in use today. It is also the
predecessor of many of the forums online today.

Usenet got its name from Unix-to-Unix Copy (UUCP), a protocol suite for sending
data, usually over a dial-up network. Initially, this was the dominant mode of
transmission for Usenet, but it has since come to rely on the Internet.

Some newsgroups are moderated, which means that posts are sent to a moderator
for approval before being distributed to the group. Usenet users exchange articles by
tagging them with universally recognized labels. Many Internet service providers and
Internet sites provide news servers, which allow their users to handle Usenet
articles. Although Usenet is still used, it has become less important in the face of
online forums, blogs and mailing lists.
 Example Networks
NICNET
NICNET(National Informatics Centre NETwork – NIC network)
❑ Conceived in 1973 & commissioned in 1977
❑ NIC (National Informatics Centre) is an organization set up by the Govt. of
India in 1977
❑ NIC has set up a satellite-based nation-wide computer-communication
network, called NICNET
❑ The world's largest Satellite based Computer communication network.
❑ Providing information exchange services – b/w Government and
Corporate sector organizations,
❑ NICNET services include File Transfer, Electronic Mail, Remote Database
Access, Data broadcast and EDI
❑ NICNET has served as the basic message communication facility in the
calamity-affected areas
 Example Networks
ERNET
ERNET (Education and Research NETwork)
Initiated in 1986 by the Department of Electronics (DoE)
With funding support from the Government of India and United
Nations Development Program (UNDP)
Involving eight premier institutions as participating agencies
-- NCST (National Centre for Software Technology) Bombay,
-- IISc (Indian Institute of Science) Bangalore,
-- IITs (Indian Institutes of Technology)
-- and the DoE, New Delhi
Objective: The objective was to create expertise R&D and education in the
country in the area of networking and Internet in the country”
ERNET India in partnership with University Grants Commission is setting up
UGC-Info net.
MOU with AICTE to provide connectivity to AICTE Recognized Colleges
and Regional Centers..
Indian Council for Agriculture Research-Net
A VPN (Virtual Private Network) is a service that creates a private, secure
network over a public one – like the one you’re using right now, for instance.
Once you connect through a VPN, all your traffic becomes encrypted and your
IP (Internet Protocol) address gets replaced with the address of the VPN server.
Basically, nobody will manage to track your online traffic.
As a result, your personal information and online activities remain private and
secure. Plus, using a VPN also means that:
•You can overcome geo-restrictions
•You can enjoy true online anonymity
•You can freely speak your mind online