Chapter 6

MOMENTUM ANALYSIS OF FLOW SYSTEMS

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 Objectives
• Most engineering problems can be analyzed using one of three basic approaches:
1. Differential: the problem is formulated accurately using differential quantities, but the
solution of the resulting differential equations is difficult, usually requiring the use of
numerical methods with extensive computer codes.
2. Experimental: complemented with dimensional analysis are highly accurate, but they are
typically time consuming and expensive.
3. Control volume: described in this chapter is remarkably fast and simple and usually gives
answers that are sufficiently accurate for most engineering purposes. Identify the various ki
nds of forces and moments acting on a control volume

• Use control volume analysis to determine the forces associated with fluid flow

• Use control volume analysis to determine the moments caused by fluid flow and
the torque transmitted

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 6-1 ■ NEWTON’S LAWS
Newton’s laws: Relations between motions of bodies and the forces acting on them.

Newton’s first law: A body at rest remains at rest, and a body in motion remains in motion at the
same velocity in a straight path when the net force acting on it is zero.

Therefore, a body tends to preserve its state of inertia. (관성의 법칙)

Newton’s second law: The acceleration of a body is proportional to the net force acting on it and is
inversely proportional to its mass.(운동량 보존법칙,conservation of moment)

Newton’s third law: When a body exerts a force on a second body, the second body exerts an equal
and opposite force on the first. (작용,반작용 법칙)

Therefore, the direction of an exposed reaction force depends on the body taken as the
system. → →
→ → 𝑑𝑉 𝑑(𝑚𝑉 )
Newton′ s second law: 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
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 6-1 ■ NEWTON’S LAWS
Linear momentum(선형운동량) or just the momentum of the body: The product of the mass and the
velocity of a body.
Newton’s second law is usually referred to as the linear momentum equation.

Conservation of momentum principle:

The momentum of a system remains
constant only when the net force acting
on it is zero.

Linear momentum is the product of

mass and velocity, and its direction is Newton’s second law is also expressed as
the direction of velocity. the rate of change of the momentum of a
body is equal to the net force acting on it.
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 6-1 ■ NEWTON’S LAWS
The counterpart of Newton’s second law for rotating rigid bodies is expressed as 𝑀 = 𝐼 𝛼Ԧ where 𝑀 is
the net moment or torque applied on the body, I is the moment of inertia of the body about the axis
of rotation, and 𝛼Ԧ is the angular acceleration. It can also be expressed in terms of the rate of change
of angular momentum(각운동량) 𝑑𝐻 Τ𝑑𝑡 as
→ → →
→ → 𝑑𝜔 𝑑(𝐼𝜔) 𝑑𝐻
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑀 = 𝐼𝛼 = 𝐼 = = (6 − 2)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜔𝑥 𝑑𝐻𝑥
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠: 𝑀𝑥 = 𝐼𝑥 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

The conservation of angular momentum Principle: (각운동량 보존법칙)

The total angular momentum of a rotating body remains constant when the
net torque acting on it is zero, and thus the angular momentum of such
The rate of change of the angular
systems is conserved. momentum of a body is equal to the net
torque acting on it.
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 6-2 ■ CHOOSING A CONTROL VOLUME
A control volume can be selected as any arbitrary region in
space through which fluid flows, and its bounding control
surface can be fixed, moving, and even deforming during
flow.

Many flow systems involve stationary hardware firmly fixed to

a stationary surface, and such systems are best analyzed Examples of
using fixed control volumes. (a) fixed, (b) moving, and
(c) deforming control volumes.
When analyzing flow systems that are moving or deforming,
it is usually more convenient to allow the control

volume to move or deform.

In deforming control volume, part of the control

surface moves relative to other parts.

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 6-3 ■ FORCES ACTING ON A CONTROL VOLUME
The forces acting on a control volume consist of
Body forces that act throughout the entire body of the control volume (such as gravity, electric,
and magnetic forces) and
Surface forces that act on the control surface (such as pressure and viscous forces and reaction
forces at points of contact).
Only external forces are considered in the analysis.
→ → →
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒: ෍ 𝐹 = ෍ 𝐹body + ෍ 𝐹surface

The total force acting on a control volume is composed of body forces and
surface forces; body force is shown on a differential volume element, and
surface force is shown on a differential surface element.

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 6-3 ■ FORCES ACTING ON A CONTROL VOLUME
The most common body force is that of gravity, which exerts a downward force on
every differential element of the control volume.
→ →
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑎 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡: 𝑑𝐹gravity = 𝑝𝑔𝑑V
→ →
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠: 𝑔 = −𝑔𝑘

→ → →
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒: ෍ 𝐹body = න 𝑝𝑔 𝑑V = 𝑚CV 𝑔
CV

The gravitational force acting on a differential volume element of

fluid is equal to its weight; the axes have been rotated so that the
gravity vector acts downward in the negative z-direction.

Surface forces are not as simple to analyze since they consist of both
normal and tangential components.
Normal stresses are composed of pressure (which always acts inwardly
normal) and viscous stresses.
Shear stresses are composed entirely of viscous stresses.

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 6-3 ■ FORCES ACTING ON A CONTROL VOLUME
Surface forces are not as simple to analyze since they consist of both normal and tangential components.
Furthermore, while the physical force acting on a surface is independent of orientation of the coordinate axes, the
description of the force in terms of its coordinate components changes with orientation (Fig. 6–7). In addition, we are
rarely fortunate enough to have each of the control surfaces aligned with one of the coordinate axes. While not
desiring to delve too deeply into tensor algebra, we are forced to define a second-order tensor called the stress
tensor 𝜎ij in order to adequately describe the surface stresses at a point in the flow,
Stress tensor in Cartesian coordinates:

The diagonal components of the stress tensor, 𝜎xx, 𝜎yy, and 𝜎zz, are called normal stresses; they are composed of
pressure (which always acts inwardly normal) and viscous stresses. Viscous stresses are discussed in more detail in
Chap. 9. The off-diagonal components, 𝜎xy, 𝜎zx, etc., are called shear stresses; since pressure can act only normal to
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a surface, shear stresses are composed entirely of viscous stresses.
 6-3 ■ FORCES ACTING ON A CONTROL VOLUME
→ →
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑎 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡: 𝑑𝐹surface = 𝜎𝑖𝑗 ⋅ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴

→ →
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒: ∑𝐹surface = න 𝜎𝑖𝑗 ⋅ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴
CS

→ → → → →
 F =  Fbody +  Fsurface =   g dV +   ij  n dA
CV CS

→ → → → →
Total force:  F =  Fgravity +  Fpressure +  Fviscous +  Fother
When coordinate axes are rotated (a) to (b), the
totalforce
body force surface forces components of the surface force change, even
though the force itself remains the same; only
two dimensions are shown here.
• The first term on the right-hand side of Eq. 6–12 is the body force weight, since gravity is the only body force we
are considering.
• The other three terms combine to form the net surface force; they are pressure forces, viscous forces, and “other”
forces acting on the control surface.
• All these surface forces arise as the control volume is isolated from its surroundings for analysis, and the effect of
any detached object is accounted for by a force at that location.
• This is similar to drawing a free-body diagram in your statics and dynamics classes.
• A well-chosen control volume exposes only the forces that are to be determined (such as reaction forces) and a
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minimum number of other forces. 10
 6-3 ■ FORCES ACTING ON A CONTROL VOLUME
• A common simplification in the application of Newton’s laws of motion is to subtract the
atmospheric pressure and work with gage pressures.
• This is because atmospheric pressure acts in all directions, and its effect cancels out in
every direction.
• This means we can also ignore the pressure forces at outlet sections where the fluid is
discharged to the atmosphere since the discharge pressure in such cases is very near
atmospheric pressure at subsonic velocities.

Atmospheric pressure acts in all directions, and thus Cross section through a faucet assembly, illustrating
it can be ignored when performing force balances the importance of choosing a control volume wisely;
since its effect cancels out in every direction. CV B is much easier to work with than CV A.

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 6-4 ■ THE LINEAR MOMENTUM EQUEATION
Newton’s second law for a system of mass m subjected to net force ∑ 𝐹Ԧ is expressed as
→
→ → 𝑑𝑉 𝑑 →
∑𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑉 (6 − 13)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
where 𝑚𝑉 is the linear momentum of the system. Noting that both the density and velocity may change
from point to point within the system, Newton’s second law can be expressed more generally as
→ 𝑑 →
∑𝐹 = න 𝑝𝑉 𝑑V (6 − 14)
𝑑𝑡 𝑠ys

Newton’s second law can be stated as

The sum of all external forces acting on a system =

The time rate of change of linear momentum of the system.

This statement is valid for a coordinate system that is at rest or moves with a constant velocity, called
an inertial coordinate system or inertial reference frame.

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 6-4 ■ THE LINEAR MOMENTUM EQUEATION
→ 𝑑 →
∑𝐹 = න 𝑝𝑉 𝑑V (6 − 14)
𝑑𝑡 𝑠ys

Equation 6–14 is for a given mass of a solid or fluid and is of limited use in fluid mechanics since
most flow systems are analyzed using control volumes.
The Reynolds transport theorem developed in Section 4–6 provides the necessary tools to shift from
the system formulation to the control volume formulation.

The linear momentum equation is obtained by replacing

B in the Reynolds transport theorem by the momentum
𝑚𝑉, and b by the momentum per unit mass 𝑉.

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 6-4 ■ THE LINEAR MOMENTUM EQUEATION
→
d (mV )sys d → → → →

dt
=
dt CV
pV dV + CS
pV (Vr  n ) dA
→ 𝑑 → → → →
General: ∑𝐹 = ‫𝑑 𝑉𝑝 ׬‬V + ‫׬‬CS 𝑝𝑉 (𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛 )𝑑𝐴 6-16
𝑑𝑡 CV

The sum of all The time rate of change The net flow rate of
external forces = of the linear momentum + linear momentum out of the
acting on a CV of the contents of the CV control surface by mass flow
→ → →
𝑉𝑟 = 𝑉 − 𝑉CS is the fluid velocity relative to the control surface (for use in mass flow rate calculations at all locations
→
where the fluid crosses the control surface), and 𝑉 is the fluid velocity as viewed from an inertial
→ →
reference frame. The product 𝜌(𝑉𝑟 ·𝑛 ) dA represents the mass flow rate through area element dA into or
out of the control volume.

→ → → 𝑑 → → → →
𝐹𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑉: 𝑉𝑟 = 𝑉 , ∑𝐹 = න 𝑝𝑉 𝑑V + න 𝑝𝑉 (𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛 )𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑡 CV CS

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 6-4 ■ THE LINEAR MOMENTUM EQUEATION

In most flow systems, the sum of forces ∑ 𝐹Ԧ consists of weights,

pressure forces, and reaction forces. Gage pressures are used
here since atmospheric pressure cancels out on all sides of the
control surface.

The momentum equation is commonly used to calculate the forces

(usually on support systems or connectors) induced by the flow.

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 6-4 ■ THE LINEAR MOMENTUM EQUEATION
⚫ Special Cases
Most momentum problems considered in this text are steady.
During steady flow, the amount of momentum within the control volume remains constant, and thus
the time rate of change of linear momentum of the contents of the control volume is zero.
→ 𝑑 → → → →
General: ∑𝐹 = ‫׬‬ 𝑝𝑉 𝑑V + ‫׬‬CS 𝑝𝑉 (𝑉 ⋅ 𝑛 )𝑑𝐴 6-16
𝑑𝑡 CV
→ → → →
𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤: ∑𝐹 = න 𝜌𝑉 (𝑉𝑟 ⋅ 𝑛 )𝑑𝐴
CS
→ →
Mass flow rate across an inlet or outlet: m =  (V  n ) dAc = Vavg Ac
Ac

Momentum flow rate across a uniform inlet or outlet:

→ → → → →
 Ac
 V (V  n ) dAc = Vavg Ac V avg = mV avg

In a typical engineering problem, the control volume may contain

many inlets and outlets; at each inlet or outlet we define the mass
flow rate and the average velocity.

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 6-4 ■ THE LINEAR MOMENTUM EQUEATION

Examples of inlets or outlets in which the uniform flow approximation is

reasonable:
(a) the well-rounded entrance to a pipe,
(b) the entrance to a wind tunnel test section, and
(c) a slice through a free water jet in air.

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 6-4 ■ THE LINEAR MOMENTUM EQUEATION
Momentum-Flux Correction Factor, 
The velocity across most inlets and outlets is not uniform.
The control surface integral of Eq. 6–17 may be converted into algebraic form using a dimensionless
correction factor , called the momentum-flux correction factor.
→ d → → → →
 F =   V dV +   V (V  n ) dA (6 - 17)
dt CV CS

→ 𝑑 → → →
∑𝐹 = න 𝜌𝑉 𝑑V + ∑ 𝛽𝑚𝑉
ሶ avg − ∑ 𝛽𝑚𝑉
ሶ avg
𝑑𝑡 CV out in
→ → → →
Momentum flux across an inlet or outlet:  Ac
 V (V  n ) dAc =  mV avg
→ → → →
 V (V  n ) dAc  V (V  n ) dAc  is always greater than or equal to 1.
= =
Ac Ac

mVavg Vavg AcVavg  is close to 1 for turbulent flow and not very close to 1 for
fully developed laminar flow.
2
1 𝑉
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 − 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟: 𝛽 = න 𝑑𝐴𝑐
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑐 𝑉avg
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 6-4 ■ THE LINEAR MOMENTUM EQUEATION
EXAMPLE 6-1: Momentum-Flux Correction Factor for Laminar Pipe Flow
Velocity profile over a cross section of a pipe in which the flow is fully developed and
laminar. 𝑟2
𝑉 = 2𝑉avg 1 − 2
𝑅
Calculate the momentum-flux correction factor through a cross section of the pipe for
the case in which the pipe flow represents an outlet of the control volume. For a given
velocity distribution, we are to calculate the momentum-flux correction factor.
Assumptions 1 The flow is incompressible and steady. 2 The control volume slices
through the pipe normal to the pipe axis, as sketched in Fig. 6–15.
Analysis We substitute the given velocity profile for V in Eq. 6–24 and integrate,
noting that dAc = 2𝜋r dr,
For turbulent flow β may have an insignificant 2 2
𝑅
effect at inlets and outlets, but for laminar flow β 1 𝑉 4 𝑟2
may be important and should not be neglected. It 𝛽= න 𝑑𝐴𝑐 = න 1− 2 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟
𝐴𝑐 𝑉avg 𝜋𝑅 2 0 𝑅
is wise to include β in all momentum control 𝐴𝑐
volume problems.
Defining a new integration variable y = 1 − r 2/R2 and thus dy = −2r dr/R2 (also,
y = 1 at r = 0, and y = 0 at r = R) and performing the integration, the momentum flux
correction factor for fully developed laminar flow becomes
0 0
2
𝑦3 4
Laminar flow: 𝛽 = −4 න 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = −4 =
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 6-4 ■ THE LINEAR MOMENTUM EQUEATION
⚫ Steady Flow
→ → →
𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: ∑𝐹 = ∑ 𝛽𝑚𝑉
ሶ − ∑ 𝛽𝑚𝑉
ሶ
out in
The net force acting on the control volume during steady flow is equal to the difference
between the rates of outgoing and incoming momentum flows.

The net force acting on the control volume during steady flow is equal to the difference
between the outgoing and the incoming momentum fluxes.
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 6-4 ■ THE LINEAR MOMENTUM EQUEATION
⚫ Steady Flow with One Inlet and One Outlet
→ → →
𝑂𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡: ∑𝐹 = 𝑚(𝛽
ሶ 2 𝑉2 − 𝛽1 𝑉1 ) 𝐴𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒: ∑𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚(𝛽
ሶ 2 𝑉2,𝑥 − 𝛽1 𝑉1,𝑥 )

A control volume with only one inlet The determination by vector addition of the
and one outlet. reaction force on the support caused by a
change of direction of water.
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 6-4 ■ THE LINEAR MOMENTUM EQUEATION
⚫ Flow with No External Forces
→
→ 𝑑 → → → 𝑑(𝑚𝑉 )CV → →
∑𝐹 = න 𝜌𝑉 𝑑V + ∑ 𝛽𝑚𝑉
ሶ avg − ∑ 𝛽𝑚𝑉
ሶ avg → 0 = + ∑ 𝛽𝑚𝑉
ሶ − ∑ 𝛽𝑚𝑉
ሶ
𝑑𝑡 CV out in 𝑑𝑡 out in

In the absence of external forces, the rate of change of the momentum of a control volume is
equal to the difference between the rates of incoming and outgoing momentum flow rates.

When the mass m of the control volume remains nearly constant, the
1st term of Eq. 6–28 becomes simply mass times acceleration,
→ →
d (mV )CV d VCV → →
= mCV = (m a )CV = mCV a
dt dt
Therefore, the control volume in this case can be treated as a solid
body (a fixed-mass system) with a net thrusting force (추진력,추력)

The thrust needed to lift the space shuttle is generated

by the rocket engines as a result of momentum change
of the fuel as it is accelerated from about zero to an exit
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 6-4 ■ THE LINEAR MOMENTUM EQUEATION
⚫ Flow with No External Forces

This Eq 6–29, fluid velocities are relative to an inertial reference

frame—that is, a coordinate system that is fixed in space or is
moving uniformly at constant velocity on a straight path. When
analyzing the motion of bodies moving at constant velocity on a
straight path, it is convenient to choose an inertial reference frame
that moves with the body at the same velocity on the same path.
In this case the velocities of fluid streams relative to the inertial
reference frame are identical to the velocities relative to the moving
body, which are much easier to apply.
Newton’s 3rd law of motion, which states that

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 6-4 ■ THE LINEAR MOMENTUM EQUEATION
EXAMPLE 6–2 The Force to Hold a Deflector Elbow in Place -1
A reducing elbow is used to deflect water flow at a rate of 14 kg/s in a
horizontal pipe upward 30° while accelerating it (Fig. 6–20). The elbow
discharges water into the atmosphere. The cross-sectional area of the
elbow is 113 cm2 at the inlet and 7 cm2 at the outlet. The elevation
difference between the centers of the outlet and the inlet is 30 cm. The
weight of the elbow and the water in it is considered to be negligible.
Determine (a) the gage pressure at the center of the inlet of the elbow and (b) the anchoring force needed to hold the
elbow in place.
SOLUTION A reducing elbow deflects water upward and discharges it to the atmosphere. The pressure at the inlet of
the elbow and the force needed to hold the elbow in place are to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady, and the frictional effects are negligible. 2 The weight of the elbow and the water in it
is negligible. 3 The water is discharged to the atmosphere, and thus the gage pressure at the outlet is zero. 4 The
flow is turbulent and fully developed at both the inlet and outlet of the control volume, and we take the momentum-flux
correction factor to be 𝛽 = 1.03 (as a conservative estimate) at both the inlet and the outlet.
Properties We take the density of water to be 1000 kg/m3.
Analysis (a) We take the elbow as the control volume and designate the inlet by 1 and the outlet by 2. We also take the
x- and z-coordinates as shown. The continuity equation for this one-inlet, one-outlet, steady-flow system is
14 kg/s. Noting that = 𝜌AV, the inlet and outlet velocities of water are

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 6-4 ■ THE LINEAR MOMENTUM EQUEATION
EXAMPLE 6–2 The Force to Hold a Deflector Elbow in Place -2
We use the Bernoulli equation (Chap. 5) as a first approximation to calculate the pressure. In Chap. 8 we will learn
how to account for frictional losses along the walls. Taking the center of the inlet cross section as the reference level
(z1 = 0) and noting that P2 = Patm, the Bernoulli equation for a streamline going through the center of the elbow is
expressed as

(b) The momentum equation for steady flow is

We let the x- and z-components of the anchoring force of the elbow be FRx and FRz, and assume them to be in the
positive direction. We also use gage pressure since the atmospheric pressure acts on the entire control surface. Then
Mobility the
Labmomentum equations along the x- scan,
Disclosure, and copy
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 6-4 ■ THE LINEAR MOMENTUM EQUEATION
EXAMPLE 6–2 The Force to Hold a Deflector Elbow in Place -3
(b) The momentum equation for steady flow is

We let the x- and z-components of the anchoring force of the elbow be FRx and FRz, and assume them to be in the
positive direction. We also use gage pressure since the atmospheric pressure acts on the entire control surface. Then
the momentum equations along the x- and z-axes become

where we have set 𝛽 = 𝛽1 = 𝛽2. Solving for FRx and FRz, and substituting the given values,

The negative result for FRx indicates that the assumed direction is wrong, and it should be reversed. Therefore, FRx acts
in the negative x-direction.
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 6-4 ■ THE LINEAR MOMENTUM EQUEATION
EXAMPLE 6–2 The Force to Hold a Deflector Elbow in Place -L

Discussion There is a nonzero pressure distribution along the inside walls of the elbow, but since the control volume is
outside the elbow, these pressures do not appear in our analysis. The weight of the elbow and the water in it could be

added to the vertical force for better accuracy. The actual value of P1, gage will be higher than that calculated here
because of frictional and other irreversible losses in the elbow.

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 6-4 ■ THE LINEAR MOMENTUM EQUEATION
EXAMPLE 6–3 The Force to Hold a Reversing Elbow in Place -1
The deflector elbow in Example 6–2 is replaced by a reversing elbow such that the fluid
makes a 180° U-turn before it is discharged, as shown in Fig. 6–21. The elevation
difference between the centers of the inlet and the exit sections is still 0.3 m. Determine
the anchoring force needed to hold the elbow in place.
SOLUTION The inlet and the outlet velocities and the pressure at the inlet of the elbow remain the same, but the
vertical component of the anchoring force at the connection of the elbow to the pipe is zero in this case (FRz = 0) since
there is no other force or momentum flux in the vertical direction (we are neglecting the weight of the elbow and the
water). The horizontal component of the anchoring force is determined from the momentum equation written in the x-
direction. Noting that the outlet velocity is negative since it is in the negative x-direction, we have

Solving for FRx and substituting the known values,

Therefore, the horizontal force on the flange is 2591 N acting in the negative x-direction (the elbow is trying to
separate from the pipe). This force is equivalent to the weight of about 260 kg mass, and thus the connectors
(such as bolts) used must be strong enough to withstand this force.
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 6-4 ■ THE LINEAR MOMENTUM EQUEATION
EXAMPLE 6–3 The Force to Hold a Reversing Elbow in Place -2
Discussion The reaction force in the x-direction is larger than that of Example 6–2
since the walls turn the water over a much greater angle. If the reversing elbow is
replaced by a straight nozzle (like one used by firefighters) such that water is
discharged in the positive x-direction, the momentum equation in the x-direction
becomes

since both V1 and V2 are in the positive x-direction. This shows the importance of
using the correct sign (positive if in the positive direction and negative if in the
opposite direction) for velocities and forces.

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 6-4 ■ THE LINEAR MOMENTUM EQUEATION
EXAMPLE 6–4 Water Jet Striking a Moving Cart-1
Water accelerated by a nozzle to 35 m/s strikes the vertical back surface of a
cart moving horizontally at a constant velocity of 10 m/s in the flow direction
(Fig. 6–22). The mass flow rate of water through the stationary nozzle is 30 kg/s.
After the strike, the water stream splatters off in all directions in the plane of
the back surface. (a) Determine the force that needs to be applied by the brakes of the cart to prevent it from
accelerating. (b) If this force were used to generate power instead of wasting it on the brakes, determine the
maximum amount of power that could ideally be generated. (c) If the mass of the cart is 400 kg and the brakes
fail, determine the acceleration of the cart when the water first strikes it. Assume the mass of water that wets the
back surface is negligible.
SOLUTION Water accelerated by a nozzle strikes the back surface of a cart moving horizontally at a constant
velocity. The braking force, the power wasted by the brakes, and the acceleration of the cart if the brakes fail are
to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The water splatters off the sides of the plate in all
directions in the plane of the back surface. 3 The water jet is exposed to the atmosphere, and thus the pressure
of the water jet and the splattered water is the atmospheric pressure which is disregarded since it acts on all
surfaces. 4 Fiction during motion is negligible. 5 The motions of the water jet and the cart are horizontal. 6 Jet
flow is nearly uniform and thus the effect of the momentum-flux correction factor is negligible, 𝛽 ≅ 1.

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 6-4 ■ THE LINEAR MOMENTUM EQUEATION
EXAMPLE 6–4 Water Jet Striking a Moving Cart-2
Analysis We take the cart as the control volume, and the direction of flow as the positive direction of x-axis. The
relative velocity between the cart and the jet is Vr = Vjet −Vcart = 35 − 10 = 25 m/s
Therefore, we can view the cart as being stationary and the jet moving with a velocity of 25 m/s. Noting that water
leaves the nozzle at 20 m/s and the corresponding mass flow rate relative to nozzle exit is 30 kg/s, the mass flow
rate of water striking the cart corresponding to a water jet velocity of 25 m/s relative to the cart is

The momentum equation for steady flow in the x (flow)-direction reduces in this case to

We note that the brake force acts in the opposite direction to flow, and we should not
forget the negative sign for forces and velocities in the negative x-direction. Substituting the given values,

The negative sign indicates that the braking force acts in the opposite direction to motion, as expected. Just as
the water jet here imparts a force to the cart, the air jet from a helicopter (downwash) imparts a force on the
surface of the water (Fig. 6–23). Noting that work is force times distance and the distance traveled by the cart per
unit time is the cart velocity, the power wasted by the brakes is

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 6-4 ■ THE LINEAR MOMENTUM EQUEATION
EXAMPLE 6–4 Water Jet Striking a Moving Cart-3
Note that the power wasted is equivalent to the maximum power that can be generated as the cart velocity is
maintained constant.
(c) When the brakes fail, the braking force will propel the cart forward, and the acceleration will be

Discussion This is the acceleration at the moment the brakes fail. The acceleration will decrease as the relative
velocity between the water jet and the cart (and thus the force) decreases.

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 6-4 ■ THE LINEAR MOMENTUM EQUEATION
EXAMPLE 6–7 Net Force on a Flange-1
Water flows at a rate of 70 L/min through a flanged faucet with a partially closed gate valve
spigot (Fig. 6–27). The inner diameter of the pipe at the location of the flange is 2 cm, and
the pressure at that location is measured to be 90 kPa (gage). The total weight of the faucet
assembly plus the water within it is 57 N. Calculate the net force on the flange.
SOLUTION Water flow through a flanged faucet is considered. The net force acting on the
flange is to be calculated.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The flow at the inlet and at the outlet is turbulent and fully
developed so that the momentum-flux correction factor is about 1.03. 3 The pipe diameter at the outlet of the faucet is
the same as that at the flange.
Properties The density of water at room temperature is 997 kg/m3.
Analysis We choose the faucet and its immediate surroundings as the control volume, as shown in Fig. 6–27 along with
all the forces acting on it. These forces include the weight of the water and the weight of the faucet assembly, the gage
pressure force at the inlet to the control volume, and the net force of the flange on the control volume, which we call FR.
We use gage pressure for convenience since the gage pressure on the rest of the control surface is zero (atmospheric
pressure). Note that the pressure through the outlet of the control volume is also atmospheric since we are assuming
incompressible flow; hence, the gage pressure is also zero through the outlet.

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 6-4 ■ THE LINEAR MOMENTUM EQUEATION
EXAMPLE 6–7 Net Force on a Flange-2
Analysis
We now apply the control volume conservation laws. Conservation of mass is trivial here since there is only one inlet
and one outlet; namely, the mass flow rate into the control volume is equal to the mass flow rate out of the control
volume. Also, the outflow and inflow average velocities are identical since the inner diameter is constant and the water is
incompressible, and are determined to be

Also,
= (997 kg/m3)(70 L/min)( 1 m3 1000 L )(1 min 60 s )= 1.163 k/s
Next we apply the momentum equation for steady flow, (1)

We let the x- and z-components of the force acting on the flange be FRx and FRz, and assume them to be in the positive
directions. The magnitude of the velocity in the x-direction is +V1 at the inlet, but zero at the outlet. The magnitude of the
velocity in the z-direction is zero at the inlet, but −V2 at the outlet. Also, the weight of the faucet assembly and the water
within it acts in the −z-direction as a body force. No pressure or viscous forces act on the chosen (wise) control volume
in the z-direction.
The components of Eq. 1 along the x- and z-directions become

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 6-4 ■ THE LINEAR MOMENTUM EQUEATION
EXAMPLE 6–7 Net Force on a Flange-2
Solving for FRx and FRz, and substituting the given values,

= −32.6 N

= −(1.163 kg/s)(3.714 m/s)(1 N/(1kg·m/s2 )) + 57 N = 52.7 N

Then the net force of the flange on the control volume is expressed in vector form as

From Newton’s third law, the force the faucet assembly exerts on the flange is

Discussion The faucet assembly pulls to the right and down; this agrees with our intuition. Namely, the water exerts
a high pressure at the inlet, but the outlet pressure is atmospheric. In addition, the momentum of the water at the
inlet in the x-direction is lost in the turn, causing an additional force to the right on the pipe walls. The faucet
assembly weighs much more than the momentum effect of the water, so we expect the force to be downward. Note
that labeling forces such as “faucet on flange” clarifies the direction of the force.

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 6-5 ■ REVIEW OF ROTATIONAL MOTION AND ANGULAR MOMENTUM

Analogy between corresponding linear

and angular quantities.

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 6-5 ■ REVIEW OF ROTATIONAL MOTION AND ANGULAR MOMENTUM

Rotational motion: A motion during which all points in the body move in circles
about the axis of rotation.

Rotational motion is described with angular quantities such as the angular

distance , angular velocity , and angular acceleration .

Angular velocity: The angular distance traveled per unit time.

Angular acceleration: The rate of change of angular velocity.

𝑙
𝑑𝜃 𝑑(𝑟) 1 𝑑𝑙 𝑉
𝜔= = = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑟 𝑑𝑡 𝑟

𝑑𝜔 𝑑2 𝜃 1 𝑑𝑉 𝑎𝑡
𝛼= = 2= =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑟 𝑑𝑡 𝑟
The relations between angular distance ,
𝑉 = 𝑟𝜔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑡 = 𝑟𝛼
angular velocity  , and linear velocity V.

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 6-5 ■ REVIEW OF ROTATIONAL MOTION AND ANGULAR MOMENTUM

Newton’s second law requires that there must be a force acting in the tangential direction to cause
angular acceleration.

The strength of the rotating effect, called the moment or torque, is proportional to the magnitude of
the force and its distance from the axis of rotation.
The perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to the line of action of the force is called the
moment arm, and the torque M acting on a point mass m at a normal distance r from the axis of
rotation is expressed as

𝑀 = 𝑟𝐹𝑡 = 𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡 = 𝑚𝑟 2 𝛼

𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒: 𝑀 = න 𝑟 2 𝛼𝛿𝑚 = න 𝑟 2 𝛿𝑚 𝛼 = 𝐼𝛼

mass mass

I is the moment of inertia of the body about the axis of rotation, which is a measure of the inertia of
a body against rotation.
Unlike mass, the rotational inertia of a body also depends on the distribution of the mass of the
body with respect to the axis of rotation.
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 6-5 ■ REVIEW OF ROTATIONAL MOTION AND ANGULAR MOMENTUM

𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚: 𝐻 = න 𝑟 2 𝜔𝛿𝑚 = න 𝑟 2 𝛿𝑚 𝜔 = 𝐼𝜔

mass mass

→ →
𝐻 = 𝐼𝜔
→ → →
→ 𝑑𝜔 𝑑(𝐼𝜔) 𝑑𝐻
→
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑀 = 𝐼𝛼 = 𝐼 = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Angular momentum of point mass m rotating at angular

velocity  at distance r from the axis of rotation.

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 6-5 ■ REVIEW OF ROTATIONAL MOTION AND ANGULAR MOMENTUM
2𝜋𝑛ሶ
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑢𝑠 𝑟𝑝𝑚: 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑛(rad/min)
ሶ = (rad/s)
60

𝑊ሶ shaft = 𝐹𝑉 = 𝐹𝑟𝜔 = 𝑀𝜔

𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟: 𝑊ሶ shaft = 𝜔𝑀 = 2𝜋𝑛𝑀

ሶ

1 2
𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦: KE𝑟 = 𝐼𝜔
2

The relations between angular velocity, rpm,

and the power transmitted through a shaft.

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 6-5 ■ REVIEW OF ROTATIONAL MOTION AND ANGULAR MOMENTUM
During rotational motion, the direction of velocity changes even when its magnitude remains
constant. Velocity is a vector quantity, and thus a change in direction constitutes a change in
velocity with time, and thus acceleration. This is called centripetal acceleration.

𝑉2
𝑎𝑟 = = 𝑟𝜔2
𝑟

Centripetal acceleration is directed toward the axis of rotation (opposite direction of radial
acceleration), and thus the radial acceleration is negative. Centripetal acceleration is the result of
a force acting on an element of the body toward the axis of rotation, known as the centripetal
force, whose magnitude is

𝐹𝑟 = 𝑚𝑉 2 /𝑟

Tangential and radial accelerations are perpendicular to each other, and the total linear acceleration
is determined by their vector sum:

→ → →
𝑎 = 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑎𝑟

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 6-6 ■ THE ANGULAR MOMENTUM EQUATION
Many engineering problems involve the moment of the linear
momentum of flow streams, and the rotational effects caused by them.
Such problems are best analyzed by the angular momentum equation,
also called the moment of momentum equation.
An important class of fluid devices, called turbomachines, which
include centrifugal pumps, turbines, and fans, is analyzed by the
angular momentum equation.
A force whose line of action passes through point O
produces zero moment about point O.

→ → →
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒: 𝑀 = 𝑟 × 𝐹

𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒: 𝑀 = 𝐹𝑟 sin 𝜃

The moment of a force 𝐹Ԧ about a point O is the

Ԧ
vector product of the position vector 𝑟Ԧ and 𝐹.

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 6-5 ■ REVIEW OF ROTATIONAL MOTION AND ANGULAR MOMENTUM
→ → →
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚: 𝐻 = 𝑟 × 𝑚𝑉
→ → →
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 (𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚): 𝐻sys = න (𝑟 × 𝑉 )𝜌𝑑V
sys
→
𝑑𝐻sys 𝑑 → →
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚: = න (𝑟 × 𝑉 )𝜌𝑑V
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 sys
→
→ 𝑑𝐻sys → → →
∑𝑀 = ∑𝑀 = ∑(𝑟 × 𝐹 )
𝑑𝑡
→
d H sys d → → → → → →
=  (r  V ) dV +  (r  V )(Vr  n ) dA
dt dt CV CS

→d → → → → → →
General:  M =  (r  V ) dV +  (r  V )(Vr  n ) dA
dt CV CS
The determination of the
The net flow rate of direction of the moment by
The sum of all The time rate of change
angular momentum the right-hand rule.
external moments = of the angular momentum +
out of the control
acting on a CV of the contents of the CV surface by massflow
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 6-5 ■ REVIEW OF ROTATIONAL MOTION AND ANGULAR MOMENTUM
→d → → → → → →
General:  M =  (r  V ) dV +  (r  V )(Vr  n ) dA
dt CV CS

The net flow rate of

The sum of all The time rate of change
angular momentum
external moments = of the angular momentum +
out of the control
acting on a CV of the contents of the CV surface by massflow
→ → →
𝑉𝑟 = 𝑉 − 𝑉CS

→ d → → → → → →
Fixed CV : M =
dt CV
( r  V ) dV + CS
( r  V ) (V  n ) dA

The forces acting on the control volume consist of body forces that act throughout the entire
body of the control volume such as gravity, and surface forces that act on the control surface
such as the pressure and reaction forces at points of contact.
The net torque consists of the moments of these forces as well as the torques applied
on the control volume.

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 6-5 ■ REVIEW OF ROTATIONAL MOTION AND ANGULAR MOMENTUM

The angular momentum equation is obtained by The linear momentum equation is obtained by replacing
replacing B in the Reynolds transport theorem by B in the Reynolds transport theorem by the momentum
the angular momentum 𝐻, and b by the angular 𝑚𝑉, and b by the momentum per unit mass 𝑉.
momentum per unit mass 𝑟Ԧ × 𝑉.

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 6-5 ■ REVIEW OF ROTATIONAL MOTION AND ANGULAR MOMENTUM
⚫ Special Cases
During steady flow, the amount of angular momentum within the control volume remains constant,
and thus the time rate of change of angular momentum of the contents of the control volume is zero.
→ → → → →
Steady flow:  M =  (r  V )(V  n ) dA r
CS

An approximate form of the angular momentum equation in terms of average properties at inlets
and outlets:
𝑑
→ → → → → → →
∑𝑀 ≅ න (𝑟 × 𝑉 ) 𝜌𝑑V + ∑ (𝑟 × 𝑚𝑉
ሶ ) − ∑ (𝑟 × 𝑚𝑉
ሶ )
𝑑𝑡 CV out in
→ → → → →
𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤: ∑𝑀 = ∑ (𝑟 × 𝑚𝑉
ሶ ) − ∑ (𝑟 × 𝑚𝑉
ሶ )
out in

The net torque acting on the control volume during steady flow is equal to the difference between
the outgoing and incoming angular momentum flow rates.

∑𝑀 = ∑ 𝑟𝑚𝑉
ሶ − ∑ 𝑟𝑚𝑉
ሶ
out in scalar form of angular momentum equation
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 6-5 ■ REVIEW OF ROTATIONAL MOTION AND ANGULAR MOMENTUM
⚫ Flow with No External Moments
→
𝑑𝐻CV → → → →
𝑁𝑜 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠: 0 = + ∑ (𝑟 × 𝑚𝑉
ሶ ) − ∑ (𝑟 × 𝑚𝑉
ሶ )
𝑑𝑡 out in

In the absence of external moments, the rate of change of the angular momentum of a control volume
is equal to the difference between the incoming and outgoing angular momentum fluxes.

When the moment of inertia I of the control volume remains constant, the first term on the right
side of the above equation becomes simply moment of inertia times angular acceleration.

Therefore, the control volume in this case can be treated as a solid body, with a net torque of
→ → → → → →
𝑀body = 𝐼body 𝛼 = ∑ (𝑟 × 𝑚𝑉
ሶ ) − ∑ (𝑟 × 𝑚𝑉
ሶ )
in out
This approach can be used to determine the angular acceleration of space vehicles and aircraft
when a rocket is fired in a direction different than the direction of motion.

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 6-5 ■ REVIEW OF ROTATIONAL MOTION AND ANGULAR MOMENTUM
⚫ Radial-Flow Devices
Radial-flow devices: Many rotary-flow devices such as centrifugal pumps and fans involve flow in
the radial direction normal to the axis of rotation.
Axial-flow devices are easily analyzed using the linear momentum equation.
Radial-flow devices involve large changes in angular momentum of the fluid and are best analyzed
with the help of the angular momentum equation.

Side and frontal views of a typical centrifugal pump.

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 6-5 ■ REVIEW OF ROTATIONAL MOTION AND ANGULAR MOMENTUM
The conservation of mass equation for steady incompressible flow

Vሶ 1 = Vሶ 2 = Vሶ → (2𝜋𝑟1 𝑏1 )𝑉1,𝑛 = (2𝜋𝑟2 𝑏2 )𝑉2,𝑛

Vሶ Vሶ : angular momentum equation
𝑉1,𝑛 = and 𝑉2,𝑛 = ∑𝑀 = ∑ 𝑟𝑚𝑉
ሶ − ∑ 𝑟𝑚𝑉
ሶ
2𝜋𝑟1 𝑏1 2𝜋𝑟2 𝑏2 out in

𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟′𝑠 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: Tshaft = 𝑚(𝑟

ሶ 2 𝑉2,𝑡 − 𝑟1 𝑉1,𝑡 )

Tshaft = 𝑚(𝑟
ሶ 2 𝑉2 sin 𝛼2 − 𝑟1 𝑉1 sin 𝛼1 )

When 𝑉1,𝑡 = 𝜔𝑟1 and𝑉2,𝑡 = 𝜔𝑟2

2 2
Tshaft,ideal = 𝑚𝜔(𝑟
ሶ 2 − 𝑟1 )

𝑊ሶ shaft = 𝜔Tshaft = 2𝜋𝑛T

ሶ shaft

𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑛ሶ
An annular control volume that encloses the
impeller section of a centrifugal pump.Disclosure, scan, copy or duplication without consent is prohibited.
Mobility Lab 49
 6-5 ■ REVIEW OF ROTATIONAL MOTION AND ANGULAR MOMENTUM

A rotating lawn sprinkler is a good example of

application of the angular momentum equation.
And have rotating heads to spread the water
over a large area

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50
 ■ SUMMARY
• Newton’s Laws
• Choosing a Control Volume
• Forces Acting on a Control Volume
• The Linear Momentum Equation
• Special Cases
• Momentum-Flux Correction Factor, 
• Steady Flow
• Flow with No External Forces
• Review of Rotational Motion and Angular
Momentum
• The Angular Momentum Equation
• Special Cases
• Flow with No External Moments
• Radial-Flow Devices

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51
 ■ Problems

• 6-1,2,3,5,6,7,8,19,22,28,31,34,37

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 Q&A

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