Polymer

• A polymer is a large molecule composed of repeating subunits called

monomers, which are chemically bonded together in a chain-like
structure.
• Polymerization is a chemical process through which a large number of
monomer molecules react together to form a polymer.
• Examples of polymers- Polystyrenes, Polyethelene, Polyvinyls, Polyesters
Polymer Matrix Composite (PMC)
• A polymer matrix composite (PMC) is a composite material composed
of a variety of short or continuous fibers bound together by a matrix
of organic polymers.
• The function of the matrix in PMCs is to bond the fibers together and
transfer loads between them.
• Polymers make ideal materials as they can be processed easily,
possess lightweight, and desirable mechanical properties.
• Some of the advantages with PMCs include their light weight, high
resistance to abrasion and corrosion, and high stiffness and strength
along the direction of their reinforcements.
Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC) characterized by the following
properties:
• High tensile strength;
• High stiffness.
• High Fracture Toughness.
• Good abrasion resistance.
• Good puncture resistance.
• Good corrosion resistance.
• Low cost.
The main disadvantages of Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC) are:
• Decomposes at high temperatures, thereby limiting the service
temperature
• Sensitive to moisture
• A thermal mismatch between polymer and fibre may cause cracking or
debonding at the interface.
Applications of Polymer Matrix Composites.
• Aerospace and aviation: PMCs are widely used in the aerospace and aviation industry to
manufacture structural components for aircraft and spacecraft. They are used to make parts like
wings, fuselage, engine parts, and rotor blades due to their high strength-to-weight ratio and
fatigue resistance.
• Automotive industry: The automotive industry uses PMCs for various applications, including
structural components, body panels, and interior parts. PMCs offer weight reduction, high
strength, and good impact resistance, making them suitable for vehicle use.
• Sports equipment: PMCs manufacture sports equipment such as golf clubs, tennis rackets, and
bicycles. They offer high strength, stiffness, and impact resistance, essential properties for sports
equipment.
• Construction industry: PMCs are used as reinforcing materials in concrete structures to enhance
their strength and durability. They are also used to build, bridges, and other structural
applications.
• Marine industry: PMCs are widely used in the marine industry for making boat hulls and other
watercraft parts. They offer weight reduction, corrosion resistance, and a high strength-to-weight
ratio, making them suitable for harsh marine environments.
• Electrical and electronics: PMCs are used in electrical and electronic components due to their
excellent electrical and thermal insulation properties.
• Medical applications: PMCs are used in medical applications such as prosthetic limbs and dental
implants due to their biocompatibility, high strength, and good fatigue resistance.
Classification of polymer matrix composites
Following are the various types of polymer matrix composites:
1. Thermoplastic
2. Thermoset
3. Elastomeric Polymers
Thermoplastics .
• Thermoplastic polymers have linear and branched structures, they
soften (i.e., liquidity) when heated and harden when cooled
• Thermoplastics may be solidified and reheated as many time as
desired. But their characteristics remain the same.
• Thermoplasts are relatively soft and ductile.
• Since thermoplasts have low melting temperatures and can be
repeatedly moulded and remoulded to the desired shape, they have a
good resale/scrap value
Examples of Thermoplastics
• Acrylic
• Acrylic is rigid with strong impact resistance. Acrylic sheeting can often be used as an
alternative to glass in applications such as, windows, motorcycle helmet visors etc. Other
uses include shop signage and automotive lighting, due to its high resistance to adverse
weather conditions and ease of cleaning and maintenance.
• Polyamide
• It is extremely tough and resistant to wear and tear. It is used in a wide range of applications,
including, sports equipment, footwear, industrial components.
• Polythene
• This thermoplastic can be classified as either high-density polyethene (HDPE) or low-density
polyethene (LDPE). Higher density versions are used for, bottles food containers etc, while
the lower density alternative tends to be used more for, plastic bags
• Polycarbonate
• Polycarbonate is easily worked, moulded and thermoformed, making it a popular material in
the construction industry. They are ideal for, greenhouse panels, conservatory roofing.
Mechanism:
• Most of the thermoplastics are formed by addition polymerization.
• Addition polymerization produces only linear polymers i.e., chain
molecules or linear molecules
• Therefore thermoplastics can be mechanically deformed and
softened at high temperature. Also they can be easily moulded due to
the absence of cross links.
• On cooling, they are hardened and they regain their original low
temperature properties.
Advantages of thermoplastics
• Readily recyclable
• Wide range of mechanical properties
• Light weight compared to metals
• Aesthetically-superior surface finish compared to thermosets
• Good chemical resistance
• Energy efficient processing
Disadvantages
• Due to their low melting point compared to metals, thermoplastics are
inappropriate for use on some high temperature applications.
• Thermoplastics are susceptible to creep when exposed to long-term stress
loads.
• Many thermoplastics materials have poor resistance to organic solvents.
Thermosetting Plastics
• A thermosetting polymer which is also known as a thermoset is a polymer consisting of cross-
linked structure or heavily branched molecules.
• Thermoset, is obtained by irreversibly hardening ("curing") a soft solid or viscous
liquid (resin). Curing is induced by heat and may be promoted by high pressure or mixing with
a catalyst. Heat is not necessarily applied externally, and is often generated by the reaction of the
resin with a curing agent (catalyst). Curing results in chemical reactions that create
extensive cross-linking between polymer chains
• Once cured, a thermosetting plastic cannot be re-melted.
• That is, thermosetting plastics once set cannot be soften on heating. Thus they cannot be
remoulded/reshaped again and again. That's why they do not have a resale/scrap value
• The thermosetting plastics are generally stronger, harder, more brittle, more resistant to heat and
solvents than thermoplastics.
Examples of Thermoset polymer
1.Bakelite
• Bakelite has a wide application in the electrical industries for making switches,
boards, sockets, because of its electrical insulation properties. The application of
Bakelite is also found in various kitchenware products due to its low thermal
conductivity and thermal resistance.
2. Epoxy resins
• Epoxy resins are widely used in aerospace industries because of their heat and
corrosion-resistant properties. These resins also find use in structural adhesives,
metal coatings etc.
3. Polyurethane
• Polyurethane has a rigid foam structure, and they are used as insulation for various
buildings. Also finds applications in making gaskets, door panels, and other
automotive and electrical components.
4. Urea formaldehyde
• They have wide applications in wood product industries and are used as an adhesive
for particleboard. Their other applications include laminating decorative items
Mechanism:
• Most of the thermosetting plastics are formed by condensation
polymerization.
• Condensation polymerization produces cross-linked molecules. Cross
linked molecules are composed of long molecules linked to each
other in three dimensions by primary or valence bonds. They are not
broken by heat until the compound is decomposed.
• Due to these cross- linked molecules the thermosetting plastics
cannot be softened once they are moulded, even at high
temperatures.
• Once the product is heated to an excessive temperature, where cross-
links are broken, an irreversible decomposition takes place
Properties of thermosetting polymers:
• Thermosetting materials are less soluble in conventional solvents due
to their cross-linked molecular structure.
• It can withstand much greater temperatures.
• Because of their cross-linked architecture, thermosetting materials
cannot be remelted.
• Thermosets are brittle and lack the ductile properties of
thermoplastics.
• Thermosets offer greater stiffness and superior mechanical
capabilities than thermoplastics due to their cross-linked molecular
structure. The modulus of elasticity of thermosetting materials is
usually 2-3 times greater than that of thermoplastics.
Advantages of thermosetting polymers:
• Thermoset materials improve the material’s chemical resistance, heat resistance,
structural integrity, and mechanical properties.
• Thermoset polymers are used for sealed goods because of their resistance to
deformation.
• Thermoset plastics withstand higher temperatures than thermoplastics.
• They have great dimensional stability, and are inexpensive.
• During polymerization, thermoset polymers form connections or chemical links between
neighboring chains . As a result, the three-dimensional network is much stiffer than the
two-dimensional (linear) thermoplastic structure.
Disadvantages of thermosetting polymers:
• Thermoset plastics are not recyclable.
• The flawless surface finish of thermosetting polymers is challenging to achieve.
• It cannot be remolded or reshaped.
• The rigidity of the material can result in product failure when used in high in vibration
applications.
 Thermoplastic Thermoset
Thermoplastic can be synthesized by the process Thermosetting plastics are synthesized by
called addition polymerization. condensation polymerization.
It contains long chain linear polymers. It consists of cross-linked structure or heavily
branched molecules.
They are usually soft,weak and less brittle. They are usually hard,strong and more brittle.

They become soften on heating and hard on cooling They does not become soft on heating
They cannot be used at comparatively high They can be used at comparatively high temperature
temperature
Thermoplastics are soluble in organic solvents. Thermosetting plastics are insoluble in organic
solvents.
Can be remolded. They can’t be remolded.
They are expensive They are cheap
They have low molecular wt. They have high molecular wt.
Examples:Acrylic, Polyamide, Polythene Examples:Bakelite,epoxy, Polyurethane
Elastomers
• Elastomers are polymers with viscoelasticity (meaning both viscosity and elasticity), generally
amorphous polymers with cross-linked network structure.
• Unlike plastics and metals, all elastomers have the ability to deform substantially by stretching,
compression or torsion and then return almost to their original shape after removal of the force
causing the deformation.
• Elastomers are made up of long chains of atoms, mainly carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, which are having a
cross-linking with their neighboring chains. It is these cross-linking bonds that pull the elastomer back into
shape when the deforming force is removed.
• Following are examples of elastomers with their applications:
• Natural rubber: These are used in the automotive industry and in the manufacture of medical
tubes, balloons, adhesives.
• Neoprene: This synthetic rubber is highly resistant to degradation, and is very well suited in the
production of corrosion-resistant gaskets, hoses and coatings.
• Polybutadiene: It is a synthetic rubber. Polybutadiene has excellent abrasion resistance, high
elasticity, and low rolling resistance. The major use of polybutadiene is in automotive tyres
• Silicone: silicone elastomers are made of silicon and oxygen atoms. Silicone elastomer is a
magnificent all-purpose elastomer frequently used in aerospace, automotive, food, medical,
manufacturing, and consumer product applications. It is more resistant to harsh temperatures,
ageing, and environmental variables.
Properties of Elastomers
1. Elasticity
• Elasticity is the ability of a material to return to its original shape and size after being stretched, compressed, twisted
or bent.
• Elastic deformation (change of shape) lasts only as long as a deforming force is applied and disappears once the force
is removed.
• The elasticity of elastomers arises from the ability of their long polymer chains to reconfigure themselves under an
applied stress. The cross-linkages between the chains ensure that the elastomer returns to its original configuration
when the stress is removed.
• Elastomers can transiently extend up to 700 per cent depending on the particular material.
2. Resilience
• Resilience as applied to elastomers is essentially their ability to return quickly to their original shape after temporary
deflection. In other words, it indicates the speed of recovery.
3. Viscosity
• Viscosity can be defined as the substance’s capacity to flow. Elastomers typically have high viscosities, which causes
them to flow when forced.
4. Abrasion resistance and tear resistance
• Abrasion resistance is an important parameter for elastomers, especially for dynamic sealing and tire applications.
• Good tear resistance of elastomers is important where they may be subjected to cuts & tears.
• Elastomers with good abrasion resistance usually also have good tear strength.
5. Hardness
• Hardness is a material property that describes a material’s tendency to resist localized deformation or indentation.
Glass transition temperature(Tg)
• Glass transition temperature is the temperature at which an amorphous polymer changes from a hard/glassy
state to a soft/rubbery state, or vice versa.
• Polymers that have a Tg greater than room temperature are in the glassy state at room temperature. These
plastics tend to be hard and brittle at room temperature. For example, PVC is in the glassy state at room
temperature but it can be easily modified to be rubbery by the addition of plasticizers.
Processing of Polymer Matrix Composites
Following are the various manufacturing processes used for processing polymer matrix
composites:
• Hand layup technique
• Spray up technique
• Filament winding
• Moulding methods
• Vacuum bagging
• Pressure bagging
• Autoclave molding
• Pultrusion
Hand lay-up technique (Hand Lay up process)
• Hand lay-up technique is the simplest method of composite processing. The infrastructural requirement for this method is also
minimal. The processing steps are quite simple.
• First of all, a releasing agent is sprayed on the mold surface to avoid the sticking of polymer to the surface.
• Next a thin gel coat(resin) is applied. Gel coating helps in providing good surface finish for the composite part in contact with the
mold.
• Reinforcement in the form of woven mats or chopped strand mats are cut as per the mold size and placed at the surface of mold
after.
• Then thermosetting polymer in liquid form is mixed thoroughly in suitable proportion with a prescribed hardner (curing agent)
and poured onto the surface of mat already placed in the mold.
• The polymer is uniformly spread with the help of brush.
• Second layer of mat is then placed on the polymer surface and a roller is moved with a mild pressure on the mat-polymer layer to
remove any air trapped as well as the excess polymer present.
• The process is repeated for each layer of polymer and mat, till the required layers are stacked.
• After curing at room temperature, mold is opened and the developed composite part is taken out and further processed.
Advantage of Hand Lay up Process
• Appropriate for large and products with contoured surfaces
• Requires limited capital expenses
• Setup costs, and production lead time are less.
• Does not require highly trained and skilled personnel
• Flexible in terms of accommodating changes in design
Limitations of Hand Layup Process
• Inappropriate for large volume production
• Labor intensive
• Requires long cure time, as material hardens at room temperature
• Quality control is difficult as many processes are highly dependent on manual
skills.
• Thickness control is not accurate and it is difficult to uniform fiber-resin ratio.
Applications
• Aircraft components
• Automotive parts
 Spray lay-up Process
• The spray lay-up technique can be said to be an extension of the hand lay-up method. In this technique, a spray
gun is used to spray pressurized resin and reinforcement which is in the form of chopped fibers.
• Generally, glass roving is used as a reinforcement which passes through spray gun where it is chopped with a
chopper gun.
• Matrix material and reinforcement may be sprayed simultaneously or separately one after one.
• Spray release gel is applied on to the mold surface to facilitate the easy removal of composite from the mold. If we
do not spray the release gel there is a tendency that the composite product which has cured finally, may stick to
the mold surface.
• A roller is rolled over the sprayed material to remove air trapped into the lay-ups. After spraying fiber and resin to
required thickness, curing of the product is done either at room temperature or at elevated temperature.
• After curing, mold is opened and the developed composite part is taken out and further processed further. The
time of curing depends on type of polymer used for composite processing.
Advantages of spray lay-up process
• It achieves better wetting of the fiber with fewer voids than with hand lay up.
• Processing is fast.
• It is suitable for small to medium-volume parts
• It is a very economical process for making small to large parts.
• Flexible in terms of accommodating changes in design
Limitations:
• Only short fibres can be used in this process.
• Since, pressurized resin is used, the laminates tend to be very resin-rich.
• The resins need to be of low viscosity so that it can be sprayed.
• It is not suitable for making parts that have high structural requirements.
• It is difficult to control the fiber volume fraction as well as the thickness. These parameters
highly depend on operator skill.
• The process offers a good surface finish on one side and a rough surface finish on the other
side.
• The process is not suitable for parts where dimensional accuracy and process repeatability
are prime concerns.
Applications
• Used for manufacturing lower load carrying parts like small boats, bath tub, duct and air handling
components, furniture components etc.
Filament Winding
• It is a composite processing technique in which resin impregnated fiber is wound over the rotating mandrel
at specific orientation.
• Filament winding is a technique primarily used to manufacture hollow, circular, or prismatic parts such as
pipes and tanks.
• The filament winding process is basically described as taking continuous filament fiber, introducing that fiber
to resin and then wound onto a rotating mandrel and allowing it to cure.
The filament winding system typically consists of the following components:
1. Fiber delivery system
2. Resin impregnation unit
3. Fiber tensioning mechanism
4. Rotating mandrel
5. Carriage system for fiber placement
• Fiber delivery system: Fiber delivery system consists of creel for supplying continuous fiber.
• Resin impregnation: Fibers pass through a liquid bath containing liquid resin and catalyst. The
fiber will be soaked with the resin
• Fiber tensioning: A tensioning system maintains consistent fiber tension.
• Winding: The impregnated fibers are wound onto the rotating mandrel in a predetermined
pattern.
• The operation is repeated to form additional layers, each having a criss-cross pattern with the
previous, until the desired part thickness has been obtain
• Curing: The composite is cured by heating at a given temperature or by exposure to IR radiation.
• Mandrel removal: Once cured, the part is removed from the mandrel.
• Typical materials include glass, carbon or aramid fibers coupled to polyester, vinyl ester or epoxy
resin.
Advantages of filament winding
• High production volumes can be attained.
• High strength products are produced due to fine and continual control of fiber
angle.
• Various sizes can be produced using this method.
• Directional control of modulus and strength is feasible.
Limitations of filament winding
• Capital investment is high.
• Winding at angles when fiber is almost parallel to axis of symmetry is difficult.
• Reverse curvature parts cannot be produced easily.
• Complex shapes, particularly parts with two‐directional curvatures are difficult to
produce.
• Resins with low viscosity are needed
• External surface finish is not always high.
• Mandrel costs for large components can be high.
Compression Molding
 Compression Molding
• Compression Molding is a Closed Mold process in which a molding charge is squeezed
into a preheated mold taking a shape of the mold cavity and performing curing due to
heat and pressure applied to the material.
• The method uses a split mold mounted in a hydraulic press
• Compression Molding process involves the following steps:
• A pre-weighed amount of a polymer mixed with chopped reinforcing fibers, hardening
agent, anti-adhesive agent and pigment is placed into the lower half of the mold.
• The charge may be in form of powders, pellets, putty-like masses or pre-formed sheets.
• The charge is usually preheated prior to placement into the mold. Preheated polymer
becomes softer resulting in shortening the molding cycle time.
• The upper half of the mold moves downwards, pressing on the charge and forcing it to fill
the mold cavity.
• Curing maybe carried out either at room temperature or at an elevated temperature
specially for thermosetting type of polymers. The mold, equipped with a heating system,
provides curing of the thermosetting polymer matrix.
• The mold is opened and the part is removed from it by means of the ejector pin.
Advantages of Compression Molding
• good surface finish.
• faster production
• Low Cost
• More uniform density
• Improves impact strength due to no degradation of the fiber.
• Dimensional Accuracy
Disadvantages of Compression Molding
• Curing time is large
• Not suitable for low volume production because of high investment needed for dies and press.
• Not suitable to produce very large sized products
Applications
• Method is equally applicable for both thermosetting and thermoplastic polymer based composite
products.
• Application spectrum ranging from kitchen goods to automobiles, toys, electrical and aeroplane
parts,
• Some typical parts includes automobile panels, roofs, battery trays, fenders,bumpers, spoilers,
kitchen bowls and trays etc.
Injection Molding
Injection Molding
• The injection molding process involves melting (above glass transition temperature) and injecting
thermoplastic polymers into a mold cavity.
• Polymer material in form of pellets is fed into an Injection Molding machine through a hopper. From the
hopper they will be coming into the barrel, now there is a heating system all around the barrel which will
heat these polymer pellets and they will be melted and they will be moved forward via the screw. The
material is then conveyed forward by a feeding screw and forced into a split mold, filling its cavity through a
feeding system with sprue gate and runners.
• Screw of injection molding machine is called reciprocating screw since it not only rotates but also moves
forward and backward according to the steps of the molding cycle.
• It acts as a ram in the filling step, when the molten polymer is injected into the mold and then it retracts
backward in the molding step.
• The mold is equipped with a cooling system providing controlled cooling and solidification of the material.
• The polymer is held in the mold until solidification and then the mold opens and the part is removed from
the mold by ejector pins.
• Molds are made from at least two parts and are held together with hydraulic rams so that the high-pressure
plastic injected into the mold cannot escape from the parting line
• Injection Molding is used mainly for Thermoplastics, but Thermosets also may be molded.
• Injection Molding is highly productive method providing high accuracy and control of shape of the
manufactured parts. The method is profitable in mass production of large number of identical parts
Resin Transfer Molding (RTM)
Resin Transfer Molding (RTM)
• The resin transfer molding process is a closed molding process. It is also known as liquid
transfer molding process.
• As the name indicates,resin is transferred over the already placed reinforcement in the
mold.
Process Description
• A release gel is applied on the mold surface for easy removal of the composite
• The reinforcement is preplaced inside the lower half of the mold as preform. Then the
mold is closed and clamped.
• There are two separate containers for resin and catalyst.
• Pumping unit transfers the resin and catalyst into the mixing chamber. Resin and catalyst
is mixed properly in the mixing chamber.
• Resin injector is used to inject the mixture in to the mold cavity, where reinforcement is
preplaced.
• As resin fills the preform, the displaced air is allowed to pass through the vents provided.
• The part cures in the mold, normally at high temperature.
• Once curing is completed, mold is open and composite part is ejected.
Advantages of Resin Transfer Molding.
• In resin transfer molding process, it is possible to achieve the near net shape
with controlled fiber orientation.
• Smooth Finish on both sides of the Product
• Elimination of Operator Skill Dependency
• Lower Void content
• Better Quality Control and Process Control
• Better Part Reproducibility
Disadvantages
• Mold cavity limits the size of the composite.
• High tooling cost.
• There is a limitation on reinforcing materials due to the flow of the resin and
saturation of the fibers.
Prepreg
• Prepregs are laminate composites of fiber sheets that are impregnated with polymer resins that
have not been fully cured.
• Fiber sheets are often fiberglass, carbon fiber, or polyaramid (Kevlar). Materials in this form are
often called B-staged.
• The impregnating polymer resins may be thermoplastic or thermosets.
• These prepreg sheets remain flexible and can be cut into any shape. They are easy to handle.

• The reinforcement is dipped in the resin, so fiber is impregnated with the resin.
• Then it goes into the nip rolls. The function or the objective of the nip rolls is to remove the
excessive resin from the fiber.
• Then it goes into a heated horizontal or vertical oven. In the oven, partially curing of the
thermosetting resin occurs.
Manufacturing of PMC using prepregs
1.Vacuum Bagging
2.Pressure Bagging
3.Autoclave Molding
Vacuum bagging
• Vacuum bagging (or vacuum bag laminating) is a clamping method that uses atmospheric pressure to hold the epoxy-coated components of
a laminate in place until the epoxy cures.
• Pressurizing a composite lamination serves several functions. First, it removes trapped air between layers. Second, it compacts the fiber
layers for efficient force transmission among fiber bundles and prevents shifting of fiber orientation during cure. Finally, and most
important, the vacuum bagging technique optimizes the fiber-to-resin ratio in the composite part.
• Vacuum bagging uses atmospheric pressure as a clamp to hold laminate plies together. The laminate is sealed within an airtight envelope.
• The Process setup has an airtight mold on one side and an airtight bag on the other.
• When the bag is sealed, pressure on the outside and inside of this envelope is equal to atmospheric pressure: approximately 14.7 psi.
• As a vacuum pump evacuates air from this envelope, the air pressure inside is reduced while air pressure outside of the envelope remains
at 14.7 psi. Atmospheric pressure forces together with the sides of the envelope and everything within the envelope, putting equal and
even pressure over the surface of the envelope.
• The pressure differential between the inside and outside of the envelope determines the amount of clamping force on the laminate.
• Theoretically, the maximum possible pressure that can be exerted on the laminate, if it were possible to achieve a perfect vacuum and
remove all of the air from the envelope, is one atmosphere, or 14.7 psi.
• A realistic pressure differential (clamping pressure) will be 6–12.5 psi.
• Mould Preparation: The process begins with cleaning and preparing the mold. A release agent is applied to
prevent the composite material from sticking during curing.
• Laying the Reinforcement: The reinforcement material, such as fiberglass or carbon fiber, is laid on the mold
and wetted with resin.
• Release Film Application: The release film is applied over the wet reinforcement. Release fabric is a smooth
woven fabric that will not bond to epoxy. Release film does two things – it controls the flow of excess resin
into the bleeder while allowing air to escape. It also allows you to remove the resin-clogged breather easily
after the part is cured.
• Breather Cloth Placement: A breather cloth is placed over the release film, serving to distribute vacuum
pressure evenly and also absorb excess resin.
• Sealing in Vacuum Bag: The layered mold is enclosed in a vacuum bag, ensuring a wrinkle-free and airtight
seal with sealant tape, leaving an attachment spot for the vacuum hose.
• Evacuation: The vacuum pump is activated, evacuating air from the bag and compressing it onto the mold,
with constant vacuum level monitored using a gauge.
• Curing: The composite is left to cure under vacuum, with the duration varying based on the resin system
used. Some systems may require heat application during curing.
• Demolding: After curing, the vacuum pump is switched off, and the bag, breather cloth, release film are
carefully removed, revealing the composite material which is then separated from the mold.
ADVANTAGES OF VACUUM BAGGING
• vacuum bagging technique optimizes the fiber-to-resin ratio in the composite part
• Lower void contents are achieved than with lay-up method.
• Provides firm, evenly distributed clamping pressure over the entire surface regardless of the material you’re laminating. This
allows a wider range and combination of materials as well as a superior bond between the materials. It’s superior to
mechanical clamping or stapling.
• Better fibre wet-out due to pressure and resin flow throughout structural fibres, with excess into bagging materials.
• Health and safety: The vacuum bag reduces the amount of volatiles emitted during cure
DISADVANTAGES
• The extra process adds cost both in labour and in disposable bagging materials.
• A higher level of skill is required by the operators.
• Mixing and control of resin content still largely determined by operator skill.
• There is a risk of leaks or bag failures during the vacuum bagging process, which can compromise the consolidation of
the part. Proper sealing and monitoring are crucial to prevent such issues.
APPLICATIONS
• Aerospace & Aviation Industries
The aerospace and aviation industry use vacuum bagging for manufacturing composite parts of aircraft, including wing and
fuselage components.
• Automotive Industry
Manufactured composite parts used in cars and other vehicles, like body panels and structural components.
• Industrial & Construction Industries
Vacuum bagging used in a variety of industrial and construction contexts, including pipes, tanks, decks, and other building
components.
• Marine Industry
Manufacture of Boat hulls, rudders, sailboat masts
Pressure Bagging
• Pressure bag molding is similar to the vacuum bag molding method
except that here pressure above atmospheric pressure, usually 30 to
50 psi, is applied to a rubber bag, or sheet that covers the laid up
composite.
• Applications are sonar domes, antenna housings, aircraft fairings, etc
Autoclave molding
• Autoclave molding is similar to both vacuum–bag and pressure–bag molding.
• An autoclave is a closed vessel (round or cylindrical) in which processes occur under simultaneous application of
high temperature and pressure.
• This method uses an autoclave to provide heat and pressure to the composite material(Prepreg) during curing.
• Initially a release gel is applied on to the mold surface in order to avoid sticking of the polymer to the mold.
• Then, prepregs (Prepregs are laminate composites of fiber sheets that are impregnated with polymer resins that
have not been fully cured) are stacked in a mold in a definite sequence and the whole assembly is vacuum bagged
to remove any air entrapped between the layers.
• After a definite period of time when it is ensured that all air is removed the entire assembly is transferred to the
autoclave.
• Inside the autoclave, heat and pressure is applied for a definite interval of time based on the material
specifications. The heat catalyzes the curing of the resin, and the pressure helps compress the material, which
supports bonding between the layers.
• Temperature and Pressure Ramp-Up:- The autoclave’s temperature and pressure gradually increase
according to a specific ramp-up schedule. This controlled increase prevents the development of internal
stresses within the material.
• Holding Phase:- Once the target temperature and pressure are reached, these conditions are
maintained for some time. This holding phase allows the resin to fully cure and cross-link, forming a
solid, durable matrix within the composite.
• Cooling Phase:- After the holding time, the autoclave is gradually cooled to room temperature while
maintaining pressure to avoid warping or deforming the material.
• When the autoclave reaches room temperature, the pressure is carefully released. The vacuum bag is removed,
and the composite part is extracted from the mould.
• This process is relatively expensive and is used in manufacturing high-quality aerospace products.
Autoclave molding
Advantages of Autoclave molding
• This composite processing method allows high volume fraction of reinforcement
in the composite part.
• Applicable for both thermoplastic and thermosetting polymer composites.
• High degree of uniformity in part consolidation.
• Better adhesion characteristics between the layers and good control over resin
and reinforcement is achieved.
Disadvantages of Autoclave molding
• There is limitation on part size which depends upon the autoclave size.
• It is a costly technique for composite processing.
• Rate of production is low and skilled labor is required in this process.
Applications
• This process is mainly used in applications requiring high strength to weight ratio
components such as aircraft parts, spacecraft and missiles.
Pultrusion Processes
• Similar to extrusion but workpiece is pulled through die (so prefix "pul-" in place of "ex-").
• Pultrusion is a continuous moulding process whereby reinforcing fibres are saturated with a liquid
polymer resin and then carefully formed and pulled through a heated die to form a part.
• Pultrusion results in straight constant cross section parts of virtually any shippable length.
• A pultrusion machine consists of creel for supplying fiber, a resin tank, forming dies, machined die with
a temperature control facility, puller, and saw for cutting the product from the continuous system.
• The continuous strand mats are passed through a bath containing a mixture of resin and curatives.
• In the resin bath, the fiber is passed through a series of rods to remove entrapped air and the excess
resin to ensure complete wetting of the fiber.
• As the reinforcements exit the resin impregnator, they’re passed through “pre former” tools, designed
to squeeze out surplus resin and organize the fiber reinforcements into the correct shape.
• The resin-impregnated fibers or fabrics were then pulled through a series of forming dies.
• The final die is heated to cure the resin system in order to produce a rigid composite structure. A key
consideration during this step is the temperature. A low temperature can result in a weak composite
profile, while a temperature that is too high can cause the composite to crack.
• The hardened FRP is then pulled towards the saw by the pulling system for accurate cutting to the
desired length.
• Depending on the tool cross-section, products of different profiles can be made.
Advantages-Pultrusion process
• High throughput rate.
• High material usage(low process waste).
• Complex thin walled shapes can be fabricated.
• Can fabricate any transportable length parts.

Disadvantages-Pultrusion process
• Cross-sections generally be uniform
• Difficult to maintain tight tolerances
• Quick curing resin systems typically have lower mechanical properties.
• Complexity of process.