BRAIN STRUCTURE, FUNCTIONS & COGNITIVE DOMAINS

•Neuroanatomy: Study of the structure of the nervous system

•Neurophysiology: Study of the function of neurons and neural circuits

HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM

Nervous system is composed of two major components:

1. Central nervous system (CNS)
It is composed of 1.Brain 2. Spinal Cord
2. Peripheral nervous system:
Consist of nerves that arise from central nervous system and spread in different
parts of body.

1. Central Nervous System (CNS):

1.1 BRAIN:
 The brain is situated inside a bony cranium.
 Inside cranium, the brain is covered by three layers called meninges
 Meninges protect the brain and provide oxygen and nutrients to the brain.
 The brain contains fluid filled ventricles that are continuous with central canal of
spinal cord.
 Ventricles are filled with Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF).
DIVISIONS OF BRAIN:
The human brain is divided in three parts:
1. Forebrain (Cerebrum, Thalamus, Hypothalamus) (Prosencephalon)
2. Midbrain (Relay center for visual & auditory signals) (Mesencephalon)
3. Hindbrain (Cerebellum, Pons, Medulla Oblongata) (Rhombencephalon)

1.FOREBRAIN:
1.Thalamus:
 Lies just below the cerebrum.
 Serve as a relay center between various parts of brain and spinal cord.
 Receives and modify impulses (except nose) before they go to cerebrum.
 Involved in pain perception and consciousness (sleep and awakening).
2.Hypothalamus:
 Lies above midbrain and just below thalamus.
 One of its most important functions is to link nervous system and endocrine system.
 Control the secretions of pituitary gland.
 Control the feelings such as rage, pain, pleasure and sorrow.
3.Cerebrum:
 Largest part of forebrain.
 It consists of two cerebral hemispheres.
 It controls skeletal muscles, thinking, intelligence and emotions.
 Cerebral cortex has a large surface area and folds in a way to fit in brain.
 It is divided into four lobes.
1. Frontal Lobe 2. Parietal Lobe
3. Temporal Lobe 4. Occipital Lobe

1. Frontal Lobe
  Location: Front part of the brain (forehead area)
 Functions:
o Decision making, planning, and problem-solving
o Voluntary motor movement (motor cortex)
o Emotional control and personality
o Speech production (Broca’s area — left hemisphere)
o Impulse control and judgment

2. Parietal Lobe
 Location: Top middle part of the brain
 Functions:
o Processing sensory information (touch, temperature, pain)
o Spatial awareness and body position
o Coordination of hand-eye movement
o Understanding of language and math

3. Temporal Lobe
 Location: Sides of the brain (near ears)
 Functions:
o Hearing and smell processing
o Language comprehension (Wernicke’s area — left side)
o Memory formation (hippocampus is located here)
o Recognition of faces and objects

4. Occipital Lobe
 Location: Back of the brain
 Functions:
o Visual processing
o Interpreting color, light, shapes, and motion
o Understanding visual information

The Limbic System

The limbic system is a network of brain structures primarily responsible for
emotions, memory, behavior, and motivation. It serves as a bridge between the
conscious thinking brain (cerebral cortex) and the unconscious autonomic
functions that regulate body responses.

Major Structures of the Limbic System

1. Amygdala
 Location: Deep in the temporal lobe, near the hippocampus.
 Function:
o Processes emotions, particularly fear, aggression, and pleasure.
o Involved in the fight-or-flight response.
o Plays a role in emotional memory, helping us associate memories with
emotions.
o Dysfunction in the amygdala is linked to anxiety disorders, PTSD, and
depression.

2 Hippocampus
 Location: In the medial temporal lobe, shaped like a seahorse.
  Function:
o Essential for memory formation, particularly long-term declarative
memories (facts and events).
o Supports spatial navigation, helping us recognize environments and
directions.
o Damage to the hippocampus can lead to amnesia or Alzheimer’s disease
or depression.

3 Hypothalamus
 Location: Below the thalamus, near the pituitary gland.
 Function:
o Controls homeostasis (balance of body functions like temperature, hunger,
thirst).
o Regulates the autonomic nervous system (heart rate, digestion).
o Controls the endocrine system by releasing hormones that influence
metabolism, stress, and sexual behavior.
o Responsible for circadian rhythms (sleep-wake cycle).

4 Thalamus
 Location: Near the center of the brain, atop the brainstem.
 Function:
o Acts as a relay center for sensory information (except smell).
o Sends sensory data (touch, sight, sound) to the cerebral cortex for
processing.
o Plays a role in alertness and consciousness.

5 Cingulate Gyrus
 Location: Above the corpus callosum, part of the cingulate cortex.
 Function:
o Processes emotions and links behavioral outcomes to motivation.
o Plays a role in decision-making and social interactions.
o Involved in pain perception and emotional responses to pain.

6 Basal Ganglia
 Location: Deep inside the brain, surrounding the thalamus.
 Function:
o Involved in movement control and motor learning.
o Helps regulate motivation and reward-seeking behaviors.
o Dysfunction is linked to Parkinson’s disease, addiction or depression.

2.MIDBRAIN:
 Lies between forebrain and hindbrain and connect the two.
 Receives sensory information and send it to appropriate part of the forebrain.
 Also control some auditory reflexes and postures.

3.HINDBRAIN:
Hindbrain consist of three major parts:
1.Medulla Oblongata
2.Pons
 3.Cerebellum
1.Medulla Oblongata
 Lies on the top of spinal cord.
 Control heartrate , breathing and blood pressure.
 Control many reflexes such as vomiting ,coughing, sneezing etc.
2.Cerebellum
 Located behind medulla.
 Coordinates muscle movement.
3.Pons
 Present on the top of medulla.
 Assist medulla in controlling breathing.
 Serve as a connection between cerebellum and spinal cord.

1.2.SPINAL CORD
 Starts from brain stem and extends to lower back.
 Spinal cord is also covered by meninges.
 Vertebral column surrounds and protects spinal cord.
 The outer region of spinal cord is made of white matter (containing myelinated axons).
 The central region is grey in color and is butterfly shaped(containing neuron cell
body).
 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise along spinal cord. These nerves are mixed because
contain both sensory and motor nerves.
 Spinal cord performs two main functions:
1. It serves as a link between body parts and brain. Spinal cord transmits nerve
impulses from body parts to brain and from brain to body parts.
2. Spinal cord also acts as a coordinator, responsible for some simple reflexes.

2. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

 Composed of nerves and ganglia.
 Ganglia are the clusters of neuron cell bodies outside CNS.
 Humans have 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves.
 Some cranial nerves are sensory or motor or some are mixed and spinal nerves are
all mixed.
 The cranial and spinal nerves make two pathways i.e, motor or sensory pathways
A .Somatic Nervous System
 Responsible for the conscious and voluntary actions.
 Includes all of the motor neurons that conduct impulses from CNS to skeletal muscles.

B. Autonomic Nervous System

 Responsible for involuntary and unconscious activities.
 It comprises: 1.Sympathetic system 2.Parasymathetic system

1.Sympathetic System:
 Prepares body to deal with emergency situations.
 Often called the “fight or flight” response.
 For example; it dilates pupils, accelerates heartbeat, increases breathing rate and
inhibits digestion.
2.Parasympathetic System:
 When stress ends, the parasympathetic nervous system takes action and normalizes all
the functions.
 It causes pupils to contract, promotes digestion, and slows the rate of heartbeat.

Brain part Major Function Disorder/Damage effect

Frontal Lobe Decision-making, Schizophrenia, ADHD, Depression
problem-solving,
motor control,
personality, emotions, Poor impulse control, personality changes,
language Broca’s aphasia, motor impairments (e.g.,
(Broca’sarea) paralysis)
Parietal Lobe Sensory processing, Gerstmann’s Syndrome, Balint’s
spatial orientation, Syndrome
perception
Spatial neglect, difficulty recognizing
objects (agnosia), loss of proprioception
Temporal Lobe Memory Alzheimer’s, PTSD, Schizophrenia
(hippocampus),
auditory processing, Memory impairment (amnesia),
language Wernicke’s aphasia, auditory
comprehension hallucinations
(Wernicke’s area)
Occipital Lobe Visual processing, Visual Agnosia, Charles Bonnet Syndrome
object recognition
Cortical blindness, visual hallucinations,
difficulty recognizing faces
(prosopagnosia)
Cerebellum Coordination, Ataxia, Autism Spectrum Disorder
balance, motor
learning
Loss of balance, tremors, vertigo,
difficulty in motor learning
 Limbic System Emotions, memory PTSD, Anxiety Disorders, Depression
(Amygdala, formation, stress
Hippocampus) response Emotional dysregulation, anterograde
amnesia, heightened fear response
Basal Ganglia Movement regulation, Parkinson’s, Huntington’s, OCD
motor control,
habit formation Movement disorders (tremors, rigidity),
repetitive behaviors, difficulty in habit
formation
Thalamus Sensory relay center, Thalamic Syndrome, Insomnia,
consciousness, Schizophrenia
sleep regulation Sensory processing issues, sleep
disturbances, altered consciousness
Hypothalamus Hormonal regulation, Eating Disorders, Sleep Disorders,
homeostasis, hunger, Depression
thirst, sleep-wake Endocrine imbalances, excessive eating or
cycle starvation, altered sleep-wake cycle
Brainstem Vital functions Locked-In Syndrome, Coma
(Midbrain, (breathing, heart rate,
Pons, Medulla) reflexes), motor Loss of vital functions, respiratory failure,
control paralysis
Broca’s Area Speech production Expressive Aphasia
(Frontal Lobe,
Left Difficulty in speaking, broken but
Hemisphere) meaningful speech
Wernicke’s Area Language Receptive Aphasia
(Temporal comprehension
Lobe, Left Fluent but nonsensical speech, poor
Hemisphere) language comprehension

Brain structure Location Function Clinical significance

Corpus Callosum Between two Connects left and Split-brain
hemispheres right hemispheres, syndrome, impaired
facilitates coordination
communication between
hemispheres
Reticular Formation Brainstem Regulates arousal, Coma, sleep
sleep-wake cycles disorders, attention
deficits
Pituitary Gland Below Regulates Endocrine disorders,
hypothalamus hormones, growth, growth
metabolism abnormalities
Pineal Gland Near thalamus Controls melatonin Sleep disturbances,
secretion, sleep Seasonal Affective
cycle Disorder (SAD)
Ventricles & CSF Brain cavities Produces and Hydrocephalus,
circulates increased
 cerebrospinal fluid intracranial pressure
Prefrontal Cortex Frontal Lobe Higher cognition, ADHD, mood
decision-making, disorders,
impulse control schizophrenia
Somatosensory Parietal Lobe Cortex Processes Numbness, sensory
tactile and sensory deficits
information
Motor Cortex Frontal Lobe Controls voluntary Paralysis, loss of
muscle movements motor control