LIMITS

I. PRINCIPLE OF LIMITS

The limit of a function of x is the number L that f(x) approaches as x approaches a number a.
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎
It must be stressed that the value of limit, L, does not depend on the value of f(a). It is
determined solely from the values of f(x) as the value of x gets closer and closer to a.

When evaluating lim 𝑓(𝑥), we are concerned with the values of x in an open interval containing
𝑥→𝑎
a but not a itself. Therefore, we are only dealing with values of x which are greater than and less
than a.

Evaluating the limit of a function will result to either of these three cases:
• Case 1: f(a) exists and f(a) = L.
• Case 2: f(a) is undefined. Thus, f(a) cannot equal L.
• Case 3: f(a) exists, but f(a) ≠ L.

To demonstrate the difference among these three cases, let us say that we need to find the limit
of the following functions as x approaches 3.

1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 3
𝑥 2 −9
2. 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥−3
𝑥 2 −9
𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 3
3. ℎ(𝑥) = { 𝑥−3
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 3

A more definitive and convenient approach of evaluating the limit of a function is to sketch the
graph of the function and trace the graph from the left and from the right of x = a to see the value
that f(x) approaches. It must be stressed that this is different from simply evaluating f(a). To
determine the value f(a), one just needs to substitute a for x in the function and solve for the
resulting value of the function.

Let us first consider 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 3. Given below is the graph of this function. Notice that when
the graph is traced from the left and from the right of x = 3, the value that the function
approaches is y = 6. This is equal to the value of the function when 3 is substituted for x in the
function. Under these conditions, evaluating the limit of the function falls under Case 1.
 9

f(3) 6

0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
-1

-2

-3

𝑥 2 −9
Next, given below is the graph of 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥−3 . It can be noticed that this graph is like the graph
of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 3, except that there is a hollow dot in the portion of the graph corresponding to
x=3. The reason behind this is that when evaluating for the value of g(x) at x=3, the function
becomes undefined. However, when the graph is traced from the left and from the right of x=3,
the value that the function approaches from both sides is again y = 6. Under these conditions,
evaluating the limit of the function falls under Case 2.

0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
-1

-2

-3
 𝑥 2 −9
𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 3
Lastly, examine the graph of the piecewise function ℎ(𝑥) = { 𝑥−3 . Notice that if we
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 3
are only concerned with the value of h(x) when x=3, the piecewise function already explicitly
states its value to be equal to 1. However, when the graph is traced from the left and from the
right of x=3, the value that the function approaches from both sides is again y = 6. Under this
condition, the value of the function at x = 3 does not equal to the value that the function
approaches as x approaches 3. Thus, this case can be categorized under Case 3.
9

f(3) 1

0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
-1

-2

-3

II. ONE-SIDED LIMITS

Evaluating the limit of a function from the left of x = a and from the right of x = a is a definitive
way of determining whether the limit of a function exists as x approaches a. Remember that for a
function to have a limit, the left hand limit must be equal to the right hand limit.

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑎− 𝑥→𝑎

Example 1: Determine the limits of the following function

1.a) lim− √16 − 𝑥 2
𝑥→0
1.b) lim+ √16 − 𝑥 2
𝑥→0
1.c) lim √16 − 𝑥 2
𝑥→0

Given below is the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = √16 − 𝑥 2 . For Question 1.a, if you approach x = 0 from the
left, the function will approach y = 4. On the other hand, for Question 1.b, if you approach x = 0
from the right, the function will still approach y = 4. Since both one-sided limits are equal, then
the
lim √16 − 𝑥 2 = 4
𝑥→0
Example 2: Determine the limits of the following function
𝑥 2 − 3 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 1
𝑓(𝑥) = {
𝑥 − 1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 1
2.a) lim− 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→1
2.b) lim+ 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→1
2.c) lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→1

Given below is the graph of the piecewise-defined function above. For Question 2.a, if you
approach x = 1 from the left, the function will approach y = -2. However, for Question 2.b, if you
approach x =1 from the right, the function will approach y = 0. Since the left-hand limit is not
equal to the right-hand limit, then the lim 𝑓(𝑥) does not exist.
𝑥→1
III. THEOREMS ON LIMITS

1. Limit of a constant: lim 𝐶 = 𝐶

𝑥→𝑎
Example: lim −5 = −5
𝑥→1

2. Limit of the variable x: lim 𝑥 = 𝑎

𝑥→𝑎
Example: lim 𝑥 = 3
𝑥→3

3. Sum Law: lim [𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) + lim 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
Example: lim(𝑥 + 1) = lim 𝑥 + lim 1 = 2 + 1 = 3
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2

4. Difference Law: lim [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) − lim 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
Example: lim(𝑥 − 3) = lim 𝑥 − lim 3 = 2 − 3 = −1
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2

5. Constant Multiple Law: lim [𝑐𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑐 lim 𝑓(𝑥) if c is a constant

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
Example: lim[2𝑥] = 2 lim 𝑥 = 2 ∙ 1 = 2
𝑥→1 𝑥→1

6. Product Law: lim [𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ lim 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
Example:
lim[𝑥 2 − 1] = 𝑙𝑖𝑚[(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1)] = 𝑙𝑖𝑚(𝑥 + 1) ∙ 𝑙𝑖𝑚(𝑥 − 1)
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2
= (lim 𝑥 + lim 1) ∙ (lim 𝑥 − lim 1) = (2 + 1) ∙ (2 − 1) = 3 ∙ 1
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2
lim[𝑥 2 − 1] = 3
𝑥→2

𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥)

7. Quotient Law: lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥→𝑎
lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑠 lim 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
𝑥→𝑎
Example:
𝑥+1 lim(𝑥 + 1) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥 + 𝑙𝑖𝑚 1
lim = 𝑥→1 = 𝑥→1 𝑥→1
𝑥→1 2𝑥 − 3 lim(2𝑥 − 3) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 2𝑥 − 𝑙𝑖𝑚 3
𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥→1
1+1 2
= =
2 ∙ lim 𝑥 − 3 2 ∙ 1 − 3
𝑥→1
𝑥+1
lim = −2
𝑥→1 2𝑥 − 3

𝑛
8. Power Law: lim [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 = [lim 𝑓(𝑥)] 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
3
Example 1: lim 𝑥 = [ lim 𝑥] = (−1)3 = −1
3
𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1
1 lim 1 1 1
Example 2: lim(𝑥 − 2)−2 = lim (𝑥−2)2 = 𝑥→3
= [lim (𝑥−2)]2 = (3−2)2 = 1
𝑥→3 𝑥→3 lim (𝑥−2)2
𝑥→3 𝑥→3
 9. Root Law: lim 𝑛√𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑛√ lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
Example: When n is even,
2 3
2 √(𝑥 2 3
lim(𝑥 − 3) = lim 3 − 3)2 = lim(𝑥 2
√𝑥→2 − 3)2
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑎,
3 3 2
= √[lim (𝑥 2 − 3)] = √22 − 3 otherwise the limit DNE.
𝑥→2
2
lim(𝑥 2 − 3)3 = 1
𝑥→2

IV. DIRECT SUBSTITUTION PROPERTY

In most cases, if f(x) is a polynomial or a rational function and a is in the domain of f(x), then
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑥→𝑎
Generally, the limit of most functions can be determined by direct substitution. However, if
0
direct substitution of a on a rational function will result to an indeterminate form 0, you need to
eliminate the factor which becomes 0 from both the numerator and the denominator first, before
evaluating the limit as x approaches a.

It is important to note that although the limit of a function may exist if a is directly substituted
for x in the function, it is still best to verify the existence of a limit by checking whether the left-
hand limit is equal to the right-hand limit.

𝑥 2 +2𝑥−3
Example 1: Evaluate lim
𝑥→−3 𝑥+3
Solution: If -3 is directly substituted for x in the function, the function assumes an indeterminate
0
form of 0. Therefore, the factor that makes both numerator and denominator zero must then be
cancelled out before the limit can be evaluated.

𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3 (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 1)
lim = lim = lim (𝑥 − 1)
𝑥→−3 𝑥+3 𝑥→−3 𝑥+3 𝑥→−3
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3
lim = −4
𝑥→−3 𝑥+3

√5𝑥 2 +𝑥 4
Example 2: Evaluate lim
𝑥→0 𝑥
Solution: Like the previous example, directly substituting 0 for x in the function will result to an
0
indeterminate form of 0. To evaluate the limit, we must then factor out 𝑥 2 inside the radical and
obtain its square root so that the variable x in both the numerator and the denominator can be
cancelled out.

√5𝑥 2 +𝑥 4 √𝑥 2 (5+𝑥 2 ) 𝑥√5+𝑥 2

lim = lim = lim 𝑥 = lim √5 + 𝑥 2 = √5 + 02 = √5 (RHL)
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥→0
𝑥, 𝑥 ≥ 0
𝑏𝑢𝑡 √𝑥 2 = |𝑥| = { 𝑅𝐻𝐿 = √5 ; 𝐿𝐻𝐿 = −√5 , 𝑅𝐻𝐿 ≠ 𝐿𝐻𝐿, ∴ 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝐷𝑁𝐸
−𝑥, 𝑥 < 0
Example 3: Evaluate lim √4 − 𝑥
𝑥→4
Solution: In this example, it may be tempting to conclude that the limit of the function is zero,
since direct substitution of 4 in the function will not result to an indeterminate form. However, if
you investigate the graph of the function (given below), you will notice that although the limit of
the function as x approaches 4 from the left exists, the same cannot be said with the right hand
limit since the function has no graph at the right of x = 4. This is one of the cases in which the
direct substitution property may fail in evaluating the true limit of a function; thus, evaluating the
left-hand limit and right-hand limit is still a definitive means of verifying the existence of the
limit of a function.

V. LIMITS AT INFINITY and INFINITE LIMITS

+∞, 𝑖𝑓 𝑐 > 0
1. lim 𝑐𝑥 = {
𝑥→∞ −∞, 𝑖𝑓𝑐 < 0
𝑐
2. lim 𝑛 = 0
𝑥→±∞ 𝑥
𝑥 +∞, 𝑖𝑓𝑐 > 0
3. lim ={
𝑥→∞ 𝑐 −∞, 𝑖𝑓𝑐 < 0
𝑐
4. lim = ∞, 𝑖𝑓 𝑐 > 0
𝑥→0+ 𝑥 INFINITE LIMITS
𝑐
5. lim− 𝑥 = −∞, 𝑖𝑓 𝑐 > 0
𝑥→0

𝑓(𝑥)
Note: When evaluating the lim in which both f(x) and g(x) are polynomial functions, the
𝑥→∞ 𝑔(𝑥)
∞
rational function will obviously assume an indeterminate form of ∞ by simply substituting  for
x in the function. To avoid this, both the numerator and the denominator are divided by the
highest degree of the variable x from among all the terms in f(x) and g(x). Only after doing so
can the limit of the function as x → ∞ be evaluated. Remember the following shortcuts in
evaluating the limit of these kinds of functions.

1. If the degree of the polynomial function f(x) is equal to the degree of the polynomial
𝑓(𝑥)
function g(x), then lim = ratio of the leading coefficients of the numerator and
𝑥→±∞ 𝑔(𝑥)
denominator
2. If the degree of the polynomial function f(x) is less than the degree of the polynomial
𝑓(𝑥)
function g(x), then lim = 0.
𝑥→±∞ 𝑔(𝑥)
3. If the degree of the polynomial function f(x) is greater than the degree of the polynomial
𝑓(𝑥)
function g(x), then lim = ±.
𝑥→±∞ 𝑔(𝑥)

2𝑥 3 +3𝑥−5
Example 1: Evaluate lim
𝑥→∞ 3𝑥 3 +5𝑥 2 +𝑥−6
Solution: Since the degrees of both the numerator and the denominator are equal, then the
2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 − 5 2
lim 3 =
𝑥→∞ 3𝑥 + 5𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6 3
𝑥 2 +2
Example 2: Evaluate lim
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 3 +5𝑥
Solution: Since the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator, then the
𝑥2 + 2
lim =0
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 3 + 5𝑥

𝑥 3 +1
Example 3: Evaluate lim
𝑥→∞ 2𝑥
Solution: Since the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator, then
the
𝑥3 + 1
lim =∞
𝑥→∞ 2𝑥

cos 𝑥
Example 4: Evaluate lim+ log 𝑥
𝑥→0
Solution: The given function is no longer a rational function of two polynomial functions. To
evaluate this limit, we can use the Quotient Law of evaluating limits.
cos 𝑥 𝑥→0 lim+ cos 𝑥 1
lim+ = = =0
𝑥→0 log 𝑥 lim+ log 𝑥 −∞
𝑥→0
Note that the lim+ cos 𝑥 and the lim+ log 𝑥 were evaluated by examining the graph of these two
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
functions as x approaches 0 from the right.

Example 5: Evaluate lim (√𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 3 − 𝑥)

𝑥→∞
Solution: By substituting ∞ for x in the equation, the function will assume an indeterminate form
∞ − ∞. The limit of this function can then be found by multiplying the conjugate of the function
in both the numerator and the denominator.
 √𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 3 + 𝑥
lim (√𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 3 − 𝑥) = lim (√𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 3 − 𝑥) ∙
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ √𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 3 + 𝑥
2 2
𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 3 − 𝑥 4𝑥 + 3
lim (√𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 3 − 𝑥) = lim = lim
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ √𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 3 + 𝑥 𝑥→∞ √𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 3 + 𝑥
By doing so, evaluating the limit again for this form of the function will just result to another
∞
indeterminate form ∞. To remedy this, both the numerator and the denominator can be divided
by the highest degree of the variable x. For the numerator, the highest degree of x is 1. On the
other hand, for the denominator, although there is an 𝑥 2 term involved in the denominator, this
term is part of a square root function; thus, the highest degree of the variable x in the
denominator is still 1.

1 4𝑥 3
lim (√𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 3 − 𝑥) = lim 𝑥4𝑥 + 3
∙ = lim 𝑥 +𝑥
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ √𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 3 + 𝑥 1 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 2
𝑥 √ 2 + 4𝑥2 + 32 + 𝑥
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
3
4+𝑥 4+0
lim (√𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 3 − 𝑥) = lim =
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ √1 + 0 + 0 + 1
√1 + 4 + 32 + 1
𝑥 𝑥
lim (√𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 3 − 𝑥) = 2
2
𝑥→∞

Practice Exercises:
𝑥−2 3
1. lim √2𝑥 2 = Answer: 4
𝑥→2 +1−3
cos 𝑥
2. lim = Answer: 0
𝑥→0 𝑒 𝑥
3
√1+3𝑥−1
3. lim = Answer: 1
𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑥 2 − 1, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 3
4. If 𝑓(𝑥) = {
𝑥 + 5, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 3
4.a) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = Answer: 8
𝑥→3
4.b) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = Answer: 0
𝑥→1
4.c) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = Answer: -1
𝑥→0
𝑥 + 2, 𝑥 < −4
5. If 𝑔(𝑥) = {√16 − 𝑥 2 −4≤𝑥 ≤4
4−𝑥 𝑥>4
5.a) lim 𝑔(𝑥) = Answer: does not exist
𝑥→−4
5.b) lim 𝑔(𝑥) = Answer: 0
𝑥→4
5.c) lim 𝑔(𝑥) = Answer: 4
𝑥→0
sin3 𝑥
6. lim sin 𝑥−tan 𝑥 = Answer: -2
𝑥→0
𝑥 2 +𝑥+2
7. lim 𝑥 2 +2𝑥−3 = Answer: does not exist
𝑥→1
 1 6 1
8. lim [𝑥−2 − 𝑥 2+2𝑥−8] = Answer: 6
𝑥→2