Vector data model

➢ The Vector Data Model is one of the most commonly used methods for representing
spatial data in Geographic Information Systems (GIS).
➢ It models the world by using geometric shapes, which are defined by a set of
coordinates.
➢ The vector data model is particularly useful for representing discrete features like
points, lines, and polygons, which are the basic building blocks for most GIS
applications.
1. Basic Features of the Vector Data Model
The vector data model has three primary feature types that represent geographic entities:
A. Points:
a. Points represent specific locations in space with no length or area.
b. They are defined by a single pair of coordinates (x, y).
c. Examples: A city on a map, a tree, or a water well.
d. Characteristics:
i. Defined by one coordinate pair (X, Y).
ii. No size or dimension.
B. Lines (or Polylines):
a. Lines represent linear features that have length but no area.
b. A line is defined by a series of ordered coordinates (a sequence of points)
connected by straight segments.
c. Examples: Rivers, roads, railways.
d. Characteristics:
 i. Defined by two or more coordinate pairs.
ii. Represents linear features (no width, just length).
iii. Examples of lines: road networks, rivers, or power transmission lines.
C. Polygons:
a. Polygons represent areas (closed shapes) and are formed by a sequence of
connected lines where the first and last point coincide. P
b. olygons are defined by a series of points that form closed loops.
c. Examples: Boundaries of countries, lakes, forests, or land parcels.
d. Characteristics:
i. Defined by a series of connected coordinates that close to form a
boundary.
ii. Represents areas with both length and width.
iii. Examples of polygons: lakes, administrative boundaries, land parcels.
Each of these features in the vector model is represented by geometric shapes, with a set of
coordinates specifying their position in space.
2. Characteristics of the Vector Data Model
• Precision: Vector data can represent geographic features with high precision because
each point, line, or polygon is represented with exact coordinates.
• Compactness: The vector model is often more compact than raster models, especially
for representing linear features, as only the essential coordinates need to be stored.
• Topological Relationships: The vector model supports topological relationships (e.g.,
adjacency, connectivity, containment), which helps define spatial relationships
between features.
• Data Integrity: Vector data is highly structured and supports data integrity due to its
strict rules about how geographic features must be connected (for example, the
requirement that a polygon's endpoint matches the starting point).
• Scale Independence: Vector data is generally scale-independent, which means that it
can be zoomed in or out without loss of detail or clarity.
• Accuracy: The accuracy of vector data is determined by the precision of the
coordinates that define the points, lines, or polygons.
3. Components of Vector Data
Vector data consists of:
 • Coordinates: The x, y (and sometimes z) values that define the location of each point,
line, or polygon.
• Attributes: Each geometric feature in a vector dataset can have associated attributes
stored in a table. These attributes provide additional information about the feature.
• For example, a point representing a city might have attributes such as
"population" or "name."
A polygon representing a forest might have attributes such as "area" and "forest type."
Topology: The vector model can also store topological relationships, such as which lines are
connected to other lines or which polygons are adjacent to each other. This ensures that
relationships between spatial features are maintained.
4. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Vector Data Model
Advantages:
High precision: Vector data can represent geographic features with great detail and accuracy.
Efficient storage for discrete features: For most types of data, the vector model is more
efficient than the raster model in terms of storage.
Compactness: Vector data is often more space-efficient compared to raster data, particularly
for linear features (e.g., roads, rivers).
Clear representation of boundaries: Since vector data uses precise coordinates, the
boundaries of features (like administrative areas or land use) are clearly defined.
Topological relationships: Vector models allow for easy analysis of spatial relationships,
such as connectivity and adjacency, which is useful for routing and network analysis.
Disadvantages:
Complexity: Vector data can be more complex to work with than raster data, especially when
dealing with very large datasets or when topological relationships need to be explicitly
modeled.
Processing speed: Operations such as spatial analysis or geometric transformations can
sometimes be slower than with raster data, especially when dealing with very detailed
datasets.
Incompatibility with some raster-based tools: Some types of analysis are better suited to
raster data (e.g., continuous surface modeling, like elevation), and it may be difficult to
convert between raster and vector formats efficiently.
5. Examples of Vector Data Model in GIS
Point Example:
In urban planning, a point can represent the location of a bus stop. The bus stop's
geographical coordinates (latitude and longitude) are represented as a single point in the
vector data model. The attributes might include the bus stop number, the routes it serves, or
the facilities available (e.g., shelter, benches).
Example: Coordinates (10.123, -75.234) represent a bus stop in a city.
Line Example:
A line can represent a road. The road is defined by a series of points connected by straight
lines, representing the path the road takes. The attributes for the road might include the road
name, type (e.g., highway, street), number of lanes, or speed limits.
Example: The I-90 highway in the United States is represented as a line feature, with
attributes like speed limit, type, and location.
Polygon Example:
A polygon can represent a national park. The national park’s boundary is defined by a set of
points forming a closed shape, and the attributes might include the park's name, area, and
wildlife species found there.
Example: The Yellowstone National Park is represented as a polygon feature on a map. The
polygon’s attributes might include the park's size (2.2 million acres), type (national park),
and other characteristics (such as the presence of geothermal features).
6. Use Cases and Applications of the Vector Data Model
Urban Planning: The vector model is widely used in urban planning to represent features
like buildings (points), roads (lines), and zoning areas (polygons).
Environmental Management: It helps in representing natural features like forests, lakes, and
protected areas (polygons), rivers and streams (lines), and animal locations (points).
Transportation and Routing: Road networks, railway lines, and bus routes can be efficiently
modeled using vector data to analyze connectivity and traffic patterns.
Land Use and Ownership: Property boundaries, land use types (e.g., residential, commercial,
agricultural), and ownership are often represented as polygons with detailed attribute data
in GIS.
7. Remarks
A. The vector data model is an essential framework in GIS for representing discrete
geographic features like points, lines, and polygons.
B. It provides high precision, flexibility, and the ability to store and analyze complex
topological relationships.
C. The model is widely used in applications across urban planning, environmental
management, transportation, and many other fields.
Raster data model

• The Raster Data Model is another fundamental approach to representing spatial data
in Geographic Information Systems (GIS).
• It uses a grid of cells (or pixels) to represent continuous or discrete spatial
phenomena. Each cell in the grid contains a value representing a characteristic of that
location.
• Raster data is most commonly used for representing phenomena that vary
continuously across the landscape, such as elevation, temperature, or land cover.

1. Basic Features of the Raster Data Model

In the raster data model, the entire geographic area is divided into a regular grid of cells,
each representing a specific geographic location.

Cells (or Pixels):

The fundamental unit of raster data is a cell (also called a pixel in image data), which
represents a small, square area on the ground. Each cell has a uniform size and holds a value
that represents a specific characteristic at that location.

A raster grid can be made up of any number of rows and columns of cells, depending on the
resolution.

Resolution:
Resolution refers to the size of the cells in the raster grid. Higher resolution means smaller
cells and more detail, while lower resolution means larger cells and less detail.

For example, a 1-meter resolution raster would have a cell size of 1 meter by 1 meter,
representing 1 square meter on the ground. A 30-meter resolution raster would have a cell
size of 30 meters by 30 meters, representing 900 square meters on the ground.

Value Representation:

Each cell contains a value that can represent either continuous data (such as temperature,
elevation, or precipitation) or categorical data (such as land cover types or soil types).

For continuous data, the value is typically a number (e.g., a temperature in Celsius or an
elevation in meters). For categorical data, the value may represent a class or category (e.g., a
land cover type such as water, forest, or urban).

2. Characteristics of the Raster Data Model

Grid-Based Structure: Raster data is structured as a grid of cells, each with a value
representing the geographic area it covers. This structure is well-suited to representing
phenomena that vary continuously, such as elevation or temperature.

Data Volume: Raster datasets can become large, especially when the resolution is high or the
area of interest is large, as they store a value for every cell in the grid.

Spatial Resolution: Raster resolution defines the size of each grid cell, impacting the level of
detail in the data. A finer resolution (smaller cells) provides more detail but requires more
storage space.

Uniformity: All cells in a raster are of equal size and shape (usually squares), which can make
raster data simpler to process and analyze for certain types of spatial analysis.

3. Types of Raster Data

Raster data can be classified into two main categories based on the type of data it represents:

Continuous Raster Data:

Continuous data represent spatial phenomena that can take any value within a given range,
often related to natural phenomena. Each cell in a continuous raster dataset contains a
numerical value that represents some continuous variation.

Examples:

Elevation: A raster dataset where each cell represents the elevation at that location.

Temperature: A raster showing the temperature across a landscape.

Precipitation: A raster showing varying levels of rainfall across a region.

Categorical Raster Data:

Categorical (or discrete) data represent distinct classes or categories, where each cell is
assigned a value corresponding to a specific category or class.

Examples:

Land Use: A raster where each cell represents a land use type (urban, agricultural, forest,
etc.).

Soil Type: A raster where each cell represents a different soil type in an area.

Land Cover: A raster where each cell represents a different type of land cover (water, forest,
grassland, etc.).

4. Characteristics of Raster Data

Simplicity: Raster data is easier to understand and work with for continuous phenomena
because it represents data in a regular grid format. Each cell in a raster directly corresponds
to a geographic location.

Resolution and Accuracy: The resolution of raster data affects both the spatial accuracy and
the level of detail. Higher-resolution rasters provide more detail but require larger data
storage, while lower-resolution rasters have less detail but are more efficient in terms of
storage.
Computational Efficiency: Raster data is often easier to process computationally because of
its uniform grid structure. Operations like map algebra, overlays, and neighborhood analysis
are often more straightforward than with vector data.

No Topology: Unlike the vector model, the raster data model does not inherently maintain
topological relationships between objects (e.g., adjacency, connectivity). This can make some
types of spatial analysis more challenging.

5. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Raster Data Model

Advantages:

Simple structure: The grid structure of raster data is easy to understand and work with,
especially for continuous data like elevation or temperature.

Efficient for continuous data: Raster data is ideal for representing continuous phenomena
such as slope, temperature, or land cover, where each point in space can be assigned a value.

Ease of analysis: Raster data is well-suited for mathematical and statistical operations, such
as analysis of terrain (e.g., slope, aspect), spatial modeling, and remote sensing image
processing.

Compatibility with remote sensing: Raster data is often used to represent imagery obtained
from remote sensing technologies like satellites and drones, which naturally produce raster
data (such as land cover maps or satellite images).

Disadvantages:

Coarser data for high-resolution analysis: If the resolution of a raster dataset is too low, the
data might lack the necessary detail for precise analysis. Larger cell sizes mean less accuracy
and fewer details.

Large data storage requirements: High-resolution raster datasets can require substantial
storage space, which may be impractical for large regions or when working with multiple
layers.
Loss of detail in categorical data: When representing discrete features (e.g., roads, rivers),
raster data may not be as efficient or accurate as vector data, as continuous cells can blur
boundaries between different categories.

6. Examples of Raster Data Model in GIS

Elevation Data (Continuous):

In the case of a digital elevation model (DEM), the raster dataset would represent terrain
elevation. Each cell would have a numerical value corresponding to the elevation at that
location, with the entire area of interest represented by the grid.

Example: A 10-meter resolution DEM might have a cell value of 250 meters at a location,
indicating the elevation of the land surface at that point.

Temperature Data (Continuous):

Temperature is another example of continuous data in a raster format. The raster would
represent temperature readings over a large geographic area, where each cell stores a
temperature value.

Example: A raster showing the average temperature of a region, where each cell might
contain the temperature value for a specific location.

Land Cover Map (Categorical):

A land cover raster dataset represents different types of land cover (forests, lakes, urban
areas, etc.) as categories. Each cell is assigned a value that corresponds to a particular land
cover type.

Example: A land cover map where forest areas are represented by a value of 1, water by 2,
and urban areas by 3.
Remote Sensing Imagery (Categorical):

Satellite images are often stored as raster data, where each cell represents a pixel in the
image. In some cases, the raster can also represent categorical information such as land use
or vegetation type.

Example: A raster representing land use classification derived from satellite imagery, where
different classes (e.g., agricultural land, urban areas, water bodies) are assigned unique
integer values.

7. Use Cases and Applications of the Raster Data Model

Remote Sensing: Raster data is commonly used in remote sensing, where satellite and aerial
imagery is captured in raster format to analyze land cover, vegetation, and other
characteristics of the Earth's surface.

Environmental Modeling: Raster data is used to model and analyze environmental variables
such as climate, soil properties, and vegetation.

Geospatial Analysis: Raster data is used in GIS for spatial analysis, such as calculating slope,
aspect, and distance to features (e.g., roads, rivers).

Natural Resource Management: Raster data is essential for managing natural resources like
forests, water, and minerals, helping map and assess their distribution, condition, and
accessibility.

Remarks

• The Raster Data Model is a widely used approach in GIS, particularly for representing
continuous spatial phenomena like elevation, temperature, and land cover.
• It is well-suited for large-scale, region-wide analysis, especially when the data is
inherently continuous or collected through remote sensing.
• While raster data can be computationally efficient and easy to process, it may suffer
from issues related to resolution, storage, and loss of detail for discrete features.
• The raster model plays a crucial role in many GIS applications, from environmental
analysis to urban planning and beyond.
Spaghetti Data Model in GIS

• The Spaghetti Data Model is a simple and straightforward method for representing
spatial data.
• It is typically used to store geometric features (points, lines, and polygons) as a series
of coordinate pairs without explicitly defining spatial relationships or connectivity
between features.
• This model is the foundation for many early GIS systems, and although it is somewhat
outdated in advanced GIS applications, it is still useful in some cases.
Key Features of the Spaghetti Data Model

• No Topology: The spaghetti model does not maintain any explicit topological
relationships (such as adjacency, connectivity, or containment) between features.
Each feature (point, line, or polygon) is stored independently, with no connection to
other features.

• Simplicity: The spaghetti model is easy to understand and implement. Each feature is
simply a collection of points (for points and lines) or a series of coordinate pairs that
define its boundaries (for polygons).

• Individual Features: In this model, each spatial feature is stored separately. For
example:

A point is represented by a single coordinate pair (X, Y).

A line is represented by a sequence of coordinates (X1, Y1), (X2, Y2), etc., forming
a connected set of line segments.

A polygon is represented by a closed set of coordinates that form the boundary of

the polygon.

• No Explicit Relationships: The model does not inherently capture spatial

relationships between features like adjacency or connectivity. If a relationship
between features is needed (for example, if two lines form a junction), it must be
inferred or managed separately by the user.

Characteristics of the Spaghetti Data Model

• Data Structure: The data structure is simple, consisting of individual points, lines, and
polygons. Each feature is just a set of coordinates.

• Ease of Use: The model is easy to implement and use, but it is less efficient when it
comes to complex spatial analyses because it does not handle spatial relationships
automatically.
 • Limited Interactivity: Since there are no explicit topological relationships, operations
like network analysis (e.g., finding the shortest path between two locations) are more
difficult to perform efficiently in the spaghetti model.

Advantages and Disadvantages of the Spaghetti Data Model

Advantages:

• Simplicity: The spaghetti model is easy to understand and implement.

• Flexibility: It is flexible for simple tasks where relationships between features are not
important.

• Storage: It can be more efficient in terms of storage for simple datasets without
complex relationships.

Disadvantages:

• Lack of Topology: There is no built-in way to model relationships between features,

which makes tasks like connectivity analysis, adjacency analysis, and network
analysis challenging.

• Redundancy: Since features are stored independently, there can be redundancy in

data, particularly in the case of shared boundaries or intersections between features
(e.g., two adjacent polygons sharing a boundary).

• Inefficient for Complex Analysis: The model is inefficient for tasks that require
analyzing relationships between features, such as spatial querying or geometric
operations.

Example of Spaghetti Data Model

• Point Example: A city could be represented by a point with the coordinates (10.123, -
75.234). This is a simple feature without any topological information.

• Line Example: A road could be represented by a series of coordinates such as (10.234,

-75.123), (10.456, -75.345), etc., where the road is just a collection of coordinates
connected in sequence.
• Polygon Example: A forest boundary could be represented by a series of coordinates
forming a closed loop, such as (10.234, -75.234), (10.345, -75.123), (10.567, -75.456),
etc. Again, there are no inherent relationships between this polygon and other
features.
Topological model
 • The Topological Data Model is an advanced method of representing spatial data
where the relationships between features—such as adjacency, connectivity, and
containment—are explicitly defined. ‘
• Unlike the spaghetti model, the topological model focuses on storing spatial
relationships and the geometry of features, allowing for more complex spatial
analysis and ensuring data integrity.
Key Features of the Topological Data Model
• Topology: The central concept of the topological data model is the use of topology,
which defines the spatial relationships between geometric features (e.g., which
polygons share a boundary, which lines intersect, or which points are connected by a
line).
• Adjacency: Topology helps in defining which polygons are adjacent to each
other.
• Connectivity: It captures the connections between points or lines (e.g., which
roads intersect with other roads).
• Containment: It defines which polygons are inside other polygons (e.g., a park
inside a city).
• Feature Types: The model still uses points, lines, and polygons, but it adds explicit
rules for how these features relate to each other:
 • A point can be part of a line.
• A line can be part of a polygon.
• Polygons can share boundaries with other polygons.
• Data Integrity: The topological model ensures data integrity by enforcing rules that
maintain relationships between features. For example, it prevents errors such as
"dangling" lines (lines that do not connect properly) or "sliver polygons" (small
polygons that occur due to misaligned boundaries).
Characteristics of the Topological Data Model
• Topology Storage: The topological model stores not only the geometric coordinates
but also the relationships between features (such as which lines are connected or
which polygons share a boundary).
• Enhanced Data Integrity: Topology helps maintain data consistency, making it easier
to detect errors in spatial relationships and ensuring that features connect or
intersect correctly.
• Complex Operations: With topology, GIS can perform complex operations such as
network analysis, finding areas of overlap, and identifying relationships between
neighboring features.
Advantages and Disadvantages of the Topological Data Model
Advantages:
• Spatial Analysis: Topology enables complex spatial analysis, including network
analysis (e.g., transportation and utility networks), adjacency queries, and
connectivity analysis.
• Error Detection: By maintaining explicit relationships, topology helps in identifying
errors like gaps between polygons or disconnected lines.
• Efficiency: It can be more efficient for operations involving relationships between
features, such as buffering, overlay, or proximity analysis.
Disadvantages:
• Complexity: The topological model is more complex to implement and manage than
the spaghetti model. It requires additional data structures to store the relationships
between features.
• Data Size: Storing topological relationships requires additional memory, which can
increase the size of the dataset compared to the spaghetti model.
• Processing Overhead: Operations on topological data can be more computationally
intensive due to the additional complexity of maintaining and processing spatial
relationships.
Example of Topological Data Model
• Point Example: In a road network, points could represent junctions where multiple
roads meet. The model would explicitly store the connectivity between these
junctions, allowing for efficient routing analysis.
• Line Example: Roads are represented as connected line segments. The topology
ensures that no road is "dangling," meaning that roads must properly connect to each
other at junctions (points).
• Polygon Example: Land parcels are represented as polygons, and the topology
ensures that adjacent parcels share a boundary. It prevents the occurrence of "gaps"
or "overlaps" between land parcels.
Applications of the Topological Data Model
• Network Analysis: The topological model is used for modeling transportation
networks, utility networks (e.g., water, electricity), and communication networks,
where connectivity between points (junctions) and lines (roads, pipes, cables) is
critical.
• Land Use Planning: In land use planning, topology is useful for ensuring that
boundaries between different land use zones (e.g., residential, commercial,
industrial) align correctly and do not create gaps or overlaps.
• Environmental Studies: Topology is essential for tasks such as watershed analysis,
where the relationships between rivers, lakes, and land boundaries must be well-
defined.
TIN data model – Delaunay triangles

TIN (Triangulated Irregular Network) Data Model and Delaunay Triangles

• The TIN (Triangulated Irregular Network) data model is a vector-based method used
to represent surface data, typically used for modeling terrain surfaces in Geographic
Information Systems (GIS).
• Unlike the regular grid structure of raster data, the TIN model represents surfaces as
a set of non-overlapping triangles.
• These triangles are formed using a set of sample points (vertices) that represent
elevations or other surface characteristics.
• The TIN model is particularly suitable for representing uneven surfaces and is widely
used for applications such as terrain analysis, hydrology, and landscape modeling.
• A key concept associated with the TIN model is the Delaunay Triangulation, which is
the mathematical method used to form the triangles in the TIN.
• This concept is central to ensuring that the surface representation is accurate and
optimal.
Rasterization: Convert Vector to Raster
Simple vector line with a vertex at the start and endpoints.
Vectorization: Convert Raster to Vector
Computation of Compressed Size and percentage decrease
 Chain Encoding

Good for area and perimeter

calculation