Chapter 1

Digital Electronic Circuits

PCEE 4205

Binary Numbers
Priya Pritam Panda
Asst. Professor
Electrical Engineering
IGIT, Sarang
 Outline of Chapter 1

 1.1 Digital Systems

 1.2 Binary Numbers
 1.3 Number-base Conversions
 1.4 Octal and Hexadecimal Numbers
 1.5 Complements
 1.6 Signed Binary Numbers
 1.7 Binary Codes
 1.8 Binary Storage and Registers
 1.9 Binary Logic
 Digital Systems and Binary Numbers

 Digital age and information age

 Digital computers
 General purposes
 Many scientific, industrial and commercial applications
 Digital systems
 Telephone switching exchanges
 Digital camera
 Electronic calculators, PDA's
 Digital TV
 Discrete information-processing systems
 Manipulate discrete elements of information
 For example, {1, 2, 3, …} and {A, B, C, …}…
 Analog and Digital Signal

 Analog system
 The physical quantities or signals may vary continuously over a specified
range.
 Digital system
 The physical quantities or signals can assume only discrete values.
 Greater accuracy
X(t) X(t)

t t
Analog signal Digital signal
 Binary Digital Signal

 An information variable represented by physical quantity.

 For digital systems, the variable takes on discrete values.
 Two level, or binary values are the most prevalent values.
 Binary values are represented abstractly by:
 Digits 0 and 1
 Words (symbols) False (F) and True (T) V(t)
 Words (symbols) Low (L) and High (H)
 And words On and Off
Logic 1
 Binary values are represented by values or ranges of values
of physical quantities. undefine

Logic 0
t
Binary digital signal
 Decimal Number System
 Base (also called radix) = 10
 10 digits { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 }
 Digit Position
 Integer & fraction 2 1 0 -1 -2

 Digit Weight 5 1 2 7 4
Position
 Weight = (Base)
 Magnitude 100 10 1 0.1 0.01
 Sum of “Digit x Weight”
 Formal Notation
500 10 2 0.7 0.04
2 1 0 -1 -2
d2*B +d1*B +d0*B +d-1*B +d-2*B

(512.74)10
 Octal Number System
 Base = 8
 8 digits { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 }
 Weights
Position
 Weight = (Base) 64 8 1 1/8 1/64

 Magnitude 5 1 2 7 4
 Sum of “Digit x Weight”
2 1 0 -1 -2
 Formal Notation 2 1 0 -1 -
5
2 *8 +1 *8 +2 *8 +7 *8 +4 *8

=(330.9375)10
(512.74)8
 Binary Number System
 Base = 2
 2 digits { 0, 1 }, called binary digits or “bits”
 Weights
 Weight = (Base)
Position 4 2 1 1/2 1/4

 Magnitude 1 0 1 0 1
 Sum of “Bit x Weight” 2 1 0 -1 -2
 Formal Notation 1 2 1 0 -1 -
2 *2 +0 *2 +1 *2 +0 *2 +1 *2
 Groups of bits 4 bits = Nibble
8 bits = Byte =(5.25)10
(101.01)2
1011

11000101
 Hexadecimal Number System
 Base = 16
 16 digits { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F }
 Weights
Position
 Weight = (Base) 256 16 1 1/16 1/256

 Magnitude 1 E 5 7 A
 Sum of “Digit x Weight”
2 1 0 -1 -2
 Formal Notation
1 *162+14 *161+5 *160+7 *16-1+10 *16-2
=(485.4765625)10

(1E5.7A)16
 The Power of 2

n 2n n 2n
0 20=1 8 28=256
1 21=2 9 29=512
2 22=4 10 210=1024 Kilo

3 23=8 11 211=2048
4 24=16 12 212=4096
5 25=32 20 220=1M Mega

6 26=64 30 230=1G Giga

7 27=128 40 240=1T Tera

 Addition

 Decimal Addition

1 1 Carry
5 5
+ 5 5

1 1 0
= Ten ≥ Base
 Subtract a Base
 Binary Addition

 Column Addition

1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 0 1 = 61
+ 1 0 1 1 1 = 23

1 0 1 0 1 0 0 = 84

≥ (2)10
 Binary Subtraction

 Borrow a “Base” when needed

1 2 = (10)2
0 2 2 0 0 2
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 = 77
− 1 0 1 1 1 = 23

0 1 1 0 1 1 0 = 54
 Binary Multiplication

 Bit by bit

1 0 1 1 1
x 1 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1

1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
Number Base Conversions
Evaluate
Magnitude
Octal
(Base 8)

Evaluate
Magnitude
Decimal Binary
(Base 10) (Base 2)

Hexadecimal
(Base 16)
Evaluate
Magnitude
 Decimal (Integer) to Binary Conversion

 Divide the number by the ‘Base’ (=2)

 Take the remainder (either 0 or 1) as a coefficient
 Take the quotient and repeat the division

Example: (13)10
Quotient Remainder Coefficient
13/ 2 = 6 1 a0 = 1
6 /2= 3 0 a1 = 0
3 /2= 1 1 a2 = 1
1 /2= 0 1 a3 = 1
Answer: (13)10 = (a3 a2 a1 a0)2 = (1101)2

MSB LSB
 Decimal (Fraction) to Binary Conversion

 Multiply the number by the ‘Base’ (=2)

 Take the integer (either 0 or 1) as a coefficient
 Take the resultant fraction and repeat the division

Example: (0.625)10
Integer Fraction Coefficient
0.625 * 2 = 1 . 25 a-1 = 1
0.25 * 2 = 0 . 5 a-2 = 0
0.5 *2= 1 . 0 a-3 = 1
Answer: (0.625)10 = (0.a-1 a-2 a-3)2 = (0.101)2

MSB LSB
 Decimal to Octal Conversion
Example: (175)10
Quotient Remainder Coefficient
175 / 8 = 21 7 a0 = 7
21 / 8 = 2 5 a1 = 5
2 /8= 0 2 a2 = 2
Answer: (175)10 = (a2 a1 a0)8 = (257)8

Example: (0.3125)10
Integer Fraction Coefficient
0.3125 * 8 = 2 . 5 a-1 = 2
0.5 *8= 4 . 0 a-2 = 4
Answer: (0.3125)10 = (0.a-1 a-2 a-3)8 = (0.24)8
 Binary − Octal Conversion
Octal Binary
8= 23
 Each group of 3 bits represents an octal 0 000
digit 1 001

2 010
Assume Zeros
Example: 3 011

( 1 0 1 1 0 . 0 1 )2 4 100
5 101
6 110
( 2 6 . 2 )8 7 111

Works both ways (Binary to Octal & Octal to Binary)

 Binary − Hexadecimal Conversion
Hex Binary
 16 = 24 0 0000
1 0001
 Each group of 4 bits represents a 2 0010
hexadecimal digit 3 0011
4 0100
5 0101
Assume Zeros 6 0110
Example: 7 0111
8 1000
( 1 0 1 1 0 . 0 1 )2 9 1001
A 1010
B 1011
C 1100
D 1101
(1 6 . 4 )16 E 1110
F 1111

Works both ways (Binary to Hex & Hex to Binary)

 Octal − Hexadecimal Conversion
 Convert to Binary as an intermediate step

Example:
( 2 6 . 2 )8

Assume Zeros Assume Zeros

( 0 1 0 1 1 0 . 0 1 0 )2

(1 6 . 4 )16

Works both ways (Octal to Hex & Hex to Octal)

Decimal, Binary, Octal and Hexadecimal
Decimal Binary Octal Hex
00 0000 00 0
01 0001 01 1
02 0010 02 2
03 0011 03 3
04 0100 04 4
05 0101 05 5
06 0110 06 6
07 0111 07 7
08 1000 10 8
09 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
14 1110 16 E
15 1111 17 F
 1.5 Complements
 There are two types of complements for each base-r system: the radix complement and
diminished radix complement.
 Diminished Radix Complement - (r-1)’s Complement
 Given a number N in base r having n digits, the (r–1)’s complement of N is
defined as:
(rn –1) – N
 Example for 6-digit decimal numbers:
 9’s complement is (rn – 1)–N = (106–1)–N = 999999–N
 9’s complement of 546700 is 999999–546700 = 453299
 Example for 7-digit binary numbers:
 1’s complement is (rn – 1) – N = (27–1)–N = 1111111–N
 1’s complement of 1011000 is 1111111–1011000 = 0100111
 Observation:
 Subtraction from (rn – 1) will never require a borrow
 Diminished radix complement can be computed digit-by-digit
 For binary: 1 – 0 = 1 and 1 – 1 = 0
 Complements
 1’s Complement (Diminished Radix Complement)
 All ‘0’s become ‘1’s
 All ‘1’s become ‘0’s

Example (10110000)2
 (01001111)2
If you add a number and its 1’s complement …

10110000
+ 01001111
11111111
 Complements

 Radix Complement

The r's complement of an n-digit number N in base r is defined as

rn – N for N ≠ 0 and as 0 for N = 0. Comparing with the (r  1) 's
complement, we note that the r's complement is obtained by adding 1
to the (r  1) 's complement, since rn – N = [(rn  1) – N] + 1.

 Example: Base-10

The 10's complement of 012398 is 987602

The 10's complement of 246700 is 753300

 Example: Base-2

The 2's complement of 1101100 is 0010100

The 2's complement of 0110111 is 1001001
 Complements
 2’s Complement (Radix Complement)
 Take 1’s complement then add 1
OR  Toggle all bits to the left of the first ‘1’ from the right
Example:
Number:
1’s Comp.:
10110000 10110000
01001111
+ 1
01010000 01010000
 Complements

 Subtraction with Complements

 The subtraction of two n-digit unsigned numbers M – N in base r can be done as follows:
 Complements

 Example 1.5
 Using 10's complement, subtract 72532 – 3250.

 Example 1.6
 Using 10's complement, subtract 3250 – 72532.

There is no end carry.

Therefore, the answer is – (10's complement of 30718) =  69282.

 Complements

 Example 1.7
 Given the two binary numbers X = 1010100 and Y = 1000011, perform the subtraction (a) X – Y ; and
(b) Y  X, by using 2's complement.

There is no end carry.

Therefore, the answer is
Y – X =  (2's complement
of 1101111) =  0010001.
 Complements

 Subtraction of unsigned numbers can also be done by means of the (r  1)'s

complement. Remember that the (r  1) 's complement is one less then the r's
complement.
 Example 1.8
 Repeat Example 1.7, but this time using 1's complement.

There is no end carry,

Therefore, the answer is Y –
X =  (1's complement of
1101110) =  0010001.
 1.6 Signed Binary Numbers

 To represent negative integers, we need a notation for negative values.

 It is customary to represent the sign with a bit placed in the leftmost position of the
number since binary digits.
 The convention is to make the sign bit 0 for positive and 1 for negative.
 Example:

 Table 1.3 lists all possible four-bit signed binary numbers in the three representations.
Signed Binary Numbers
 Signed Binary Numbers
 Arithmetic addition
 The addition of two numbers in the signed-magnitude system follows the rules of ordinary arithmetic. If the signs
are the same, we add the two magnitudes and give the sum the common sign. If the signs are different, we
subtract the smaller magnitude from the larger and give the difference the sign if the larger magnitude.
 The addition of two signed binary numbers with negative numbers represented in signed-2's-complement form is
obtained from the addition of the two numbers, including their sign bits.
 A carry out of the sign-bit position is discarded.

 Example:
 Signed Binary Numbers

 Arithmetic Subtraction
 In 2’s-complement form:
1. Take the 2’s complement of the subtrahend (including the sign bit)
and add it to the minuend (including sign bit).
2. A carry out of sign-bit position is discarded.

( A)  ( B)  ( A)  (B)
( A)  (B)  ( A)  ( B)
 Example:

( 6)  ( 13) (11111010  11110011)

(11111010 + 00001101)
00000111 (+ 7)
 1.7 Binary Codes

 BCD Code
 A number with k decimal digits will
require 4k bits in BCD.
 Decimal 396 is represented in BCD
with 12bits as 0011 1001 0110, with
each group of 4 bits representing one
decimal digit.
 A decimal number in BCD is the
same as its equivalent binary number
only when the number is between 0
and 9.
 The binary combinations 1010
through 1111 are not used and have
no meaning in BCD.
 Binary Code

 Example:
 Consider decimal 185 and its corresponding value in BCD and binary:

 BCD addition
 Binary Code

 Example:
 Consider the addition of 184 + 576 = 760 in BCD:

 Decimal Arithmetic: (+375) + (-240) = +135

Hint 6: using 10’s of BCD

 Binary Codes

 Other Decimal Codes

 Binary Codes)

 Gray Code
 The advantage is that only bit in the
code group changes in going from
one number to the next.
» Error detection.
» Representation of analog data.
» Low power design.
000 001

010 011
100 101

110 111

1-1 and onto!!

 Binary Codes
 American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) Character Code
 Binary Codes

 ASCII Character Code

 ASCII Character Codes

 American Standard Code for Information Interchange (Refer to Table 1.7)

 A popular code used to represent information sent as character-based data.
 It uses 7-bits to represent:
 94 Graphic printing characters.
 34 Non-printing characters.
 Some non-printing characters are used for text format (e.g. BS = Backspace, CR =
carriage return).
 Other non-printing characters are used for record marking and flow control (e.g. STX
and ETX start and end text areas).
 ASCII Properties

 ASCII has some interesting properties:

 Digits 0 to 9 span Hexadecimal values 3016 to 3916
 Upper case A-Z span 4116 to 5A16
 Lower case a-z span 6116 to 7A16
» Lower to upper case translation (and vice versa) occurs by flipping bit 6.
 Binary Codes

 Error-Detecting Code
 To detect errors in data communication and processing, an eighth bit is sometimes added to the ASCII
character to indicate its parity.
 A parity bit is an extra bit included with a message to make the total number of 1's either even or odd.
 Example:
 Consider the following two characters and their even and odd parity:
 Binary Codes

 Error-Detecting Code
 Redundancy (e.g. extra information), in the form of extra bits, can be incorporated into binary code
words to detect and correct errors.
 A simple form of redundancy is parity, an extra bit appended onto the code word to make the number
of 1’s odd or even. Parity can detect all single-bit errors and some multiple-bit errors.
 A code word has even parity if the number of 1’s in the code word is even.
 A code word has odd parity if the number of 1’s in the code word is odd.
 Example:

Message A: 100010011 (even parity)

Message B: 10001001 0 (odd parity)
 1.8 Binary Storage and Registers
 Registers
 A binary cell is a device that possesses two stable states and is capable of storing one of the two states.

 A register is a group of binary cells. A register with n cells can store any discrete quantity of information that
contains n bits.

n cells 2n possible states

 A binary cell
 Two stable state
 Store one bit of information
 Examples: flip-flop circuits, ferrite cores, capacitor
 A register
 A group of binary cells
 AX in x86 CPU
 Register Transfer
 A transfer of the information stored in one register to another.
 One of the major operations in digital system.
 An example in next slides.
 A Digital Computer Example

Memory

Control
CPU unit Datapath

Inputs: Keyboard, Outputs: CRT,

mouse, modem, LCD, modem,
Input/Output speakers
microphone

Synchronous or
Asynchronous?
Transfer of information

Figure 1.1 Transfer of information among register

 Transfer of information

 The other major component

of a digital system
 Circuit elements to
manipulate individual bits of
information
 Load-store machine
LD R1;
LD R2;
ADD R3, R2, R1;
SD R3;

Figure 1.2 Example of binary information processing

 1.9 Binary Logic
 Definition of Binary Logic
 Binary logic consists of binary variables and a set of logical operations.

 The variables are designated by letters of the alphabet, such as A, B, C, x, y, z, etc, with each variable having two
and only two distinct possible values: 1 and 0,
 Three basic logical operations: AND, OR, and NOT.
 Binary Logic
 Truth Tables, Boolean Expressions, and Logic Gates

AND OR NOT
x y z x y z x z
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1

z=x•y=xy z=x+y z = x = x’
 Switching Circuits

AND OR
 Binary Logic

 Logic gates
 Example of binary signals

3
Logic 1
2
Un-define
1
Logic 0
0

Figure 1.3 Example of binary signals

 Binary Logic

 Logic gates
 Graphic Symbols and Input-Output Signals for Logic gates:

Fig. 1.4 Symbols for digital logic circuits

Fig. 1.5 Input-Output signals for gates

 Binary Logic

 Logic gates
 Graphic Symbols and Input-Output Signals for Logic gates:

Fig. 1.6 Gates with multiple inputs

 Depends not only on the
The Complement Integer N but also on the number
of digits (bits) n used to represent it
of an integer

 For a number N of n digits in radix r we define:

 The Radix (r’s) Complement Decimal number system:
» Defined as rn - N r = 10, 2 digits # e.g. 57
 The Diminished Radix [(r - 1)’s] Complement 10’s comp. = 102-57 = 43
 9’s comp. = (102-1)-57
n
» Defined as (r - 1) - N = 99 - 57 = 42
 For binary number, r = 2, we have:
 The 2’s Complement
» Defined as 2n - N
 The 1’s Complement
For n = 4 bits
» Defined as (2n -1) - N 2n = 24 = 16
2n-1 = 16-1 = 15 = 1111 (n 1’s)

Let N = 1001, 1’s comp of N 1111

- 1001
1’s comp. is easier to generate! 0110
Then 2’s comp = 1’s comp. + 1 1  0 , 0  1 (NOT gates)
 Binary 1's Complement

 For r = 2, N = 011100112, n = 8 (8 digits):

(rn – 1) = 256 -1 = 25510 or 111111112
 The 1's complement of 011100112 is then:
11111111 (8 1’s)
– 01110011
10001100
 Since the 2n – 1 factor consists of n 1's and since 1 – 0 = 1 and 1 – 1 = 0, the
one's complement is obtained by complementing each individual bit (bitwise
NOT).
 Binary 2's Complement

 For r = 2, N = 011100112, n = 8 (8 digits), we have:

(2n ) = 25610 or 1000000002 (1 in the (n+1)th position)

 The 2's complement of 01110011 is then:

Eight 0’s
100000000 2n-N = (2n-1-N) +1
– 01110011 2’s Complement 1’s Complement

10001101
 Note this is the 1's complement plus 1
 Can design simple hardware for generating the 2’s
complement from the easier-to-generate 1’s complement
 Alternative 2’s Complement Method

 Given: an n-bit binary number, beginning at the least

significant bit and proceeding to higher bits:
 Starting at the LS bit, Copy all least significant 0’s
 Copy also the first 1
 Complement all remaining bits thereafter.

 2’s Complement Example:

10010100
 Copy underlined bits:

 and complement all remaining bits to the left:

01101100
 Important Complement Remarks

 Taking the complement of a complement returns

you back to the original number,
Example: 2’s complement for an n-bit number
N
2’s comp. of N = 2n-N
2’s comp. of the 2’s comp. of N = 2n- (2n-N) = N

 Complements of 0 (represented as n bits):

 1’s comp of 0 = n 1’s
 2’s comp of 0 = 1’s comp of 0 + 1 = Carry + n 0’s

1’s Complementing
= 0
0000 1111 Ignored-
+1 Outside the n bits
2’s Complementing 0000
(also by the rule on previous slide!)
 Subtraction of two Unsigned Numbers (M-N)
Using the 2’s Complement

For n-bit, unsigned numbers M and N, find M - N:

 Add the 2's complement of the subtrahend N to

M
-N the minuend M:
M + (2n  N) = M  N + 2n
 If M  N, the sum produces end carry (rn) which is
discarded; leaving the correct answer M - N.
 If M < N, the sum does not produce an end carry
and, from above, is equal to 2n  ( N  M ), i.e. the
2's complement of ( N  M ).
i.e. we are To obtain the result, i.e. negative (N – M):
doing
» Take the 2's complement of the sum  (N-M)
subtraction by
addition! » and place a  sign to its left!.
(Simpler)
 Unsigned Subtraction
with 2’s Complement Example 1

 Find 010101002 – 010000112 No need to compare

amplitudes
or re-arrange!
01010100
84 01010100
– 01000011 + 10111101 1
- 67
00010001
2’s comp= 17
17 of 1 indicates that
 The end carry no correction is required on the result .
 Unsigned Subtraction
with 2’s Complement Example 2

 Find 010000112 – 010101002

01000011 01000011 0
67
– 01010100 + 10101100
- 84 11101111
2’s comp
- 17
00010001
 The 0 end carry indicates that a correction of the result is requiredTake
(taking the 2’s comp
of the result and considering it negative) 2’s comp
 Result = – (00010001) = -17
 Subtraction of two Unsigned Numbers (M-N)
Using the 1’s Complement

 For n-bit, unsigned numbers M and N, find M  N:

 Add the 1's complement of the subtrahend N to the
minuend M:
M + (2n  1  N) = M  N  1 + 2n
 If M  N, the result is excess by 2n  1 and a carry is
generated. Ignoring the carry removes 2n, leaving the
result short by 1. To fix this shortage, whenever and end
carry occurs, add it in the LSB position. This is called the
end-around carry.
 If M < N, the sum does not produce an end carry. The
sum is equal to 2n  1  ( N  M ), the 1's complement of
( N  M ).
 So, to obtain the final result,  (N – M), take the 1's
complement of the sum and place a  to its left.