Physics Department

Electricity and Magnetism Laboratory

INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION

1. Goals

1) To study the diffraction pattern of a single slit,

2) to measure the diameter of a red blood cell,
3) to study the interference between light beams emerging from two closely-spaced slits.

2. Overview

Light is an electromagnetic wave, and under the proper circumstances, it exhibits wave
phenomena, such as constructive and destructive interference. The wavelength of visible
light ranges from about 400-750 nm, and this wavelength λ sets the scale for the
appearance of wave-like effects. For instance, if a broad beam of light partly passes
through a wide slit (i.e. a slit which is very large compared to λ), then the wave effects are
negligible, the light acts like a ray, and the slit casts a geometrical shadow. However, if
the slit is small enough (i.e. around the same size as λ or smaller), then, the wave
properties of light become apparent and a diffraction pattern is projected.

Now consider the light from two coherent light sources a distance d apart. Coherent sources
emit light waves that are in phase, or in sync. If we think of light like a water wave, we
can imagine that coherent sources emit an identical succession of wave crests and
troughs, with both emitting crests at the same time. One way to create such coherent
sources is to illuminate a pair of narrow slits with a distant light source.

Figure 2: Points A and B acts as coherent sources

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Interference from two slits: Consider the light
rays from the two coherent point sources made from
slits a distance d apart (see fig. 3). We assume that
the sources are emitting monochromatic (single
wavelength) light of wavelength λ. The rays are
emitted in all forward directions, but let’s
concentrate on the rays that are emitted in a
direction θ toward a distant screen (θ measured
from the normal to the screen, diagram below). One
of these rays has further to travel to reach the
screen, and the path difference is given by d×sin 𝜃 .
When this path difference is exactly one wavelength
λ (or any integer number of wavelengths) the
interference will be constructive, while when the
path difference is λ/2, 3 λ/2, 5 λ/2… the interference
will be destructive.

A complete analysis yields a pattern of intensity vs. angle that looks like:

Geometric simplification: If θ is small, then sin 𝜃 ≅ 𝜃 (in radians), and maxima occur on
-
the screen at 𝜃 = 𝑚 𝜆/𝑑; minima occur at 𝜃 = 𝑚 + 𝜆/𝑑. As shown below, the angle θ
.
(measured from the center of the screen) is related to the distance x measured on the
screen by tan 𝜃 = 𝑥/𝐿, where L is the distance from the screen to the source of light (the
aperture).

If the angle θ is small (less than a few degrees), then to an excellent approximation, sin 𝜃
≈ tan 𝜃 ≈ θ (in radians) so the locations of the interference maxima are given by

𝑥 𝜆
=𝑚
𝐿 𝑑

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Single slit diffraction: The uniform 2-slit interference pattern shown above is seldom
observed in practice, because real slits always have finite width (not an infinitesimal width).
We now ask: what is the intensity pattern from a single slit of finite width D? Huygens’
Principle states that the light coming from an aperture is the same as the light that would
come from a collection of coherent point sources filling the space of the aperture. It´s like
if we construct a large slit out of a whole set of small slits, all adjacent to each other. To
see what pattern the entire array produces, consider first just two of these imaginary
sources: one at the edge of the slit and one in the center. These two sources are separated
by a distance D/2.

The path difference for the rays from these two sources, going to the screen at an angle
3 3 4
θ, is sin 𝜃, and these rays will interfere destructively if sin 𝜃 = . But the same can be
. . .
said for every pair of sources separated by D/2. Consequently, the rays from all the sources
3 4
filling the aperture cancel in pairs, producing zero intensity on the screen when sin 𝜃 =
. .
or, if θ is small,
𝜆
𝜃= (First minimum in single slit pattern.)
𝐷
The complete intensity pattern, called a diffraction pattern, looks like this

The single slit diffraction pattern has minima at

𝜆
𝜃 =±𝑚 with 𝑚 = 1,2,3 … (minima of single slit pattern.)
𝐷

So, the separation of minima is λ/D, except for the first minima on either side of the central
maximum, which are separated by 2λ/D. If x is the distance on the screen between minima,
then 𝜃 = 𝑥/𝐿 = 𝜆/𝐷.

Circular hole diffraction: For a circular hole, interference occurs between all rays from
the whole area producing a series of concentric fringes. The exact solution in this case is
difficult but turns out to be of the same form as for the single slit (d·sin θ = m λ) except
that m is related to the zeros of the Bessel function and are given by m = 1.22, 2.23, 3.24,
4.24, 5.24 … and d is the diameter of the hole.

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Babinet’s principle, which applies to any point
outside the area illuminated by the un-diffracted
beam, states that the illumination is unaltered if the
transparent parts of an aperture become opaque
and the opaque parts transparent. Thus, the same
pattern of fringes will be produced by a circular hole
in an opaque screen and by a circular disk of the
same diameter as the hole. The effect of a not too
dense and random array of holes is to enhance the
intensity of the diffraction pattern due to a single
hole. The interference fringes produced by the
diffraction of laser light by a random array of holes
is showed in the figure (the inset shows the array).

A blood smear on a microscope slide, acts as an

array of this type, where particles are red blood cells
and diffraction can be used to measure their
diameters d in the small angular deviation limit
through sin θ ≈ θ ≈ Sm/L= m λ/d, where Sm is the
radius of the mth dark fringe, L the distance between
the diffracting particles and the screen, m = 1.22,
2.23m …and λ the observation wavelength.

Combine interference (2-slit) with diffraction (finite-width slit): When the aperture
consists of two finite slits, each of width D, separated by a distance d, then the intensity
pattern is a combination of both the single-slit pattern and the double slit pattern: the
amplitude of the two-slit interference pattern is modulated by a single slit diffraction
pattern:

In this full pattern, the finely spaced interference maxima are spaced Δ𝜃 = 𝜆 𝑑 apart, while
the more widely spaced minima of the single-slit diffraction pattern are separated by Δ𝜃 =
𝜆 𝐷 or 2 𝜆 𝐷.

3. Learn more...

• SERWAY, RA & JEWETT, JW. “Physics” Volume 1. 3th edition Ed Thomson 2003
Chapters 15,16
• HALLIDAY D, RESNICK R, WALKER J. Fundamentals of Physics Vol 2. John Wiley &
Sons. Chapters 35,36
• BOWLT C. “Measurement of red blood cell diameters using a laser”. 1971 Phys.
Educ. 6 13. http://iopscience.iop.org/0031-9120/6/1/003.

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4. Equipment.

1. Optical table

2. Laser He-Ne (l=632.8 nm)

3. Mirror

4. Single-slit plate

5. A blood smear on a microscope slide

6. Double-slit plate

5. Experimental procedure.

5.1 Diffraction pattern from a single slit.

The light source will be the He-Ne laser which produces a monochromatic beam with a
wavelength of λ = 632.8 nm and a beam diameter of about 1 mm. The power output of
our lasers is about 1 mW, a small amount, but still enough to damage your retina if you
look directly into the beam.

• Mount the laser so that the beam reflects on the mirror and deflects towards the
laboratory wall.
• Mount the single slit near the mirror on the optical table.
• Choose a slit opening.
• Tape a piece of paper to the screen (laboratory wall). You should use this paper to mark
the various diffraction and interference patterns that you observe on the screen.
• Adjust the direction of the mirror, and the position of the slit to give the clearest
possible diffraction pattern on the screen.
• Measure the distance L.
• Record the slit width a.
• Mark on the paper the locations of each of the maxima, making sure to accurately
record their positions and widths.
• Remove the paper from the screen.
• Measure the width of the central maximum (the distance between the first minima on
either side of the maximum) as marked on the paper. You and your partner should do
this twice each.
• Measure the distance between two neighboring dark fringes. In order to increase the
accuracy of your measurement, select a group of five neighboring secondary maxima,
measure the distance between the minima on either side, and divide it by five. (Can
you explain why this procedure improves the accuracy of your measurement?) Again,
you and your partner should each do this twice. (Note: Make sure that the central
minimum is not part of your group of five.)
• Determine the best possible value for the separation of two dark fringes.
• Compare the width of the central maximum to the average separation of two dark
fringes. Is the width of the central maximum twice the separation of two dark fringes,
as theory predicts?

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• Remount the paper on the screen.
• Change the slit opening and repeat steps 4–12.

1. How does the observed single slit pattern change by varying the width of the slit?

2. For both cases: Obtain experimentally the width of the slit (with the corresponding
errors) and compare with the manufacturer´s value.

3. Which measurement is more accurate? Why?

5.2 Diffraction from a red blood cell

• Set up the blood smear on a microscope slide such that the laser light through it.
• Measure the distance L.
• Measure the diameter of the first black circle to 5 different directions.

1. Obtain experimentally the diameter of a red blood cell with the corresponding error.

5.3 Double Slit Interference and Diffraction patterns

• Set up the double slit at a distance from the mirror such that both slits are illuminated
by the laser light. Select one pair of slits
• Record both the slit widths and the distance between the two slits.
• Measure five groups of 10 bright fringes to obtain a good average value for the distance
between two dark fringes in the pattern.
• Repeat steps 1 – 4 using a different double slit.

Note that the fringe separation depends only on d, the separation of the two slits. The
intensities in the pattern, however, vary with the width of the individual slits. This is
because the single-slit diffraction pattern serves as an intensity envelope for the double-
slit interference pattern.

1. Compare the diffraction patterns of different double slits to observe that the above rules
are in fact correct.

2. Cover one of the two slits and see how the pattern on the screen changes.

3. What happens to the double-slit pattern a) as the distance between the slits is increased;
b) as the width of each individual slit is increased?

4. Explain the contributions of both single-slit diffraction and double-slit interference to the
double-slit pattern. How should the width of the single slits be chosen to perturb the
double-slit pattern as little as possible?

5. For both cases: Obtain experimentally the separation of the slits (with the corresponding
errors) and compare with the manufacturer´s value.