Interference of Waves

Demonstrated successfully by Thomas Young in 1802.

When 2 waves of same frequency , nearly same amplitude &
constant initial phase difference travels in the same direction
along same straight line , they superimpose each other in such a
way that in the region of superimposition ,the intensity is
minimum at some points and maximum at some other points .
This is called interference of waves.
Types of Interference
oConstructive Interference
oDestructive Interference
Constructive Interference
Two waves (of the same wavelength) are
said to be in phase if the crests (and
troughs) of one wave coincide with the
crests (and troughs) of the other, as in fig.

In this case the resultant wave would have

twice the amplitude of the individual waves -
one says that constructive interference has
occurred
Destructive
Interference
If the crest of one wave coincides with
the trough of the second, as in
fig. , they are said to be
completely out of phase,.

In this case the two waves would cancel each other out , i.e.
, destructive interference has occurred.
At a point of constructive
interference the net amplitude of the two waves is a
maximum, whereas at a point of destructive interference, the
net amplitude is a minimum. Of course, one could also have
situations in between these two extremes .
Diffraction:
Diffraction basically refers to the bending of light around hindrances.
It creates some sort of interference in the passage of light. Diffraction is
in fact a special case of interference. It takes place when a wave hits
against the barrier of an edge.
Light travels in a straight path . As a result it casts the shadow of object
coming in its path . It happens so if the size of obstacle coming in its
path is large . However ,if the size of slit or obstacle is made small , the
light enters geometrically prohibited regions , showing thereby that light
bends round the corner of slit or obstacle . This phenomenon is called
diffraction of light .
 Types of Diffraction
•Frensel Diffraction (Near Field Diffraction) :
It occurs due to short distance in which diffracted waves propagate
which results in a Frensel
Number greater than or equal to 1 i.e.,
F ≥ 1.
Source of light lies at finite distance from the slit , also the screen .
•Fraunhoffer Diffraction (Far Field Diffraction) :

When the distance is increased , outgoing waves becomes planer

& Fraunhoffer diffraction takes place .It is a type of diffraction
that takes place at a slit , when a plane wavefront is incident on
it & the wavefront emerging from slit is also plane .

In the laboratory to make a plane wavefront incident

on slit , a convex lens is used between source and slit
.
Huygens’s Principle
Huygens Principle mentions how a wavefront moves in space
with the help of geometrical constructions. Huygens principle
states that
(i) Each point on a wave front acts as a source of a new
disturbance and therefore emits its own set of spherical waves
which are called secondary wavelets. The secondary wavelets
travel in all directions with the velocity of light as long as they
move in the same medium.

(ii) The locus or the envelope of these wavelets in the forward

direction indicates the position of new wave front at any
subsequent time.
Huygens principle could determine the shape of the wavefront
at a later time t = ԏ, if we know the shape of wavefront at time t
= 0.
Explanation
Consider a point source of light . Let AB be a section of primary spherical wavefront at
any time t . Inorder to find the new position of wavefront at time (t+Δt) , consider a no
of points 1 , 2,3,4,… (fig.) .

cΔt
They act as a source of
secondary wavelets . Taking
centre , draw sphere of radius
cΔt .
These spheres are secondary
wavelets . The envelopes A1B1
and A2B2 are termed as forward
and backward secondary
wavelets respectively . Huygen
assumed that the portion of
secondary wavelets which lie on
backward secondary wavefront
doesnot exist at all .
Wavefront
According to wave theory of
light , a source of light sends out
disturbance in all directions .
Wavefront is a surface (which is
either real or imaginary) for
which an optical wave
comprises a constant phase. It
can be the crest or the trough of
the same wave.
Types
 Spherical
Cylinderical
Plane
Principle Of Superposition
The Principle Of Superposition states that
when two or more waves of the same kind
meet at a point in space, the resultant
displacement ( y ) at that point is the
vector sum of the displacements due to
those waves (y1 , y2 , y3 , y4 , ... ) would
separately produce at that point i.e.
y = y1 + y2 +…
Interference refers to the superposing of two
or more coherent waves to produce regions
of maxima and minima in space, according
to the principle of superposition.
(a) y = y1 + y2
(b) y = y1 - y2
Coherence in interference is obtained
by

(i) Division of Wavefront

For this wavefront is divided into
two parts by the help of mirrors ,
lens or prisms .
(ii) Division of Amplitude
The amplitude of incoming beam is
divided into 2 parts by means of
partial reflection or refraction .
These divided parts travel different
direction and are finally brought (a) (b)
together to produce interference .
Young’s Double Slit Experiment ( by
division of wavefront )
Thomas Young in 1802 , demonstrated the phenomenon of
interference of light by simple experiment . The setup is shown
in fig.
Experimental Setup –
S is the narrow slit illuminated by a monochromatic source light .
At a suitable distance (about 10 cm ) from S , there are 2 fine slits
S1 & S2 parallel to S . On placing a screen at a large distance (about
2 m) from slits S1 & S2 , alternate dark and bright bands running
parallel to the lengths of slit appears on screen , called interference
fringes . The fringes disappear when one of the slit S1 or S2
disappears.
Explanation –
According to Huygen’s principle , the monochromatic source of light
illuminating the slit S sends out spherical wavefront . These wavefronts
reach the slit s1 & s2 simultaneously , which in turn , become source of
secondary wavelets .
The bright and dark fringes are placed alternatively &
they are equally spaced. These bands are called interference fringes.

Resultant Intensity
Let a1 and a2 be the amplitudes at P due to waves from S1 & S2
respectively. The waves reunite at point P after transversing
different path S1P & S2P . Let the phase difference between two
waves be δ
δ= (S2P- S1P)

If y1 & y2 are displacements of 2 waves

y1 = a1sinωt
y2 = a2sin(ωt +δ)
where is the common frequency of 2 waves

By using principle of superposition of waves , the resultant

displacement is
y = y1+y2
= a1sinωt + a2sin(ωt +δ)
= a1sinωt + a2sinωtcosδ + a2cosωtsinδ
= sinωt (a1+ a2cosδ) + cosωt(a2sinδ)

Let a1+ a2cosδ = Rcosθ ...(i)

a2sinδ = Rsinθ ...(ii)
where R & θ are new constant
∴
y = sinωt Rcosθ + cosωt Rsinθ
⟹ y= Rsin (ωt +θ)
 Hence , resultant displacement at P is simple harmonic and
of amplitude R . Squaring & adding eqn (i) & (ii), we get

R2cos2θ +R2sin2θ = (a1+a2cosδ)2 + (a2sinδ)2

⟹ R2 = a12 + a22+2a1a2cosδ
∵ Resultant intensity I at P is proportional to square of
resultant amplitude , is given by

I ∝R2 ⟹ I =R2
Let constant of proportionality = 1

I = a12 + a22 + 2a1a2cosδ ...(iii)

where
δ= (S2P- S1P)
Let a1 = a2 = a
then I = a2 + a2 + 2a2cosδ
= 2a2(1+cosδ)
I = 4a2cos2
...(iv)

∵ cosδ= 2cos2
 Condition for maxima and minima
I is maximum when
cosδ = +1
i.e., phase difference δ= 2nπ , where n=0,1,2,...
path difference (S2P- S1P) = nλ
Imax= a12 + a22 + 2a1a2
=(a1+a2)2 ...(v)
I is minimum when
cosδ = -1
i.e., phase difference δ= (2n+1)π , where n=0,1,2,...
path difference (S2P- S1P) = (2n+1)

Imin= a12 + a22 - 2a1a2

=(a1-a2)2 ...(v)
Thus , on screen , there is variation in intensity of light
being alternatively maximum and minimum . This is called
interference pattern.
Average Intensity
Average intensity is defined as average of maximum and minimum intensities . It is
given by
2𝜋
‫׬‬0 𝐼𝑑𝛿
Iav = 2𝜋
‫׬‬0 𝑑𝛿

2𝜋
‫׬‬0 (𝑎12 +𝑎22 +2𝑎,𝑎2 cos 𝛿)𝑑𝛿
Iav = 2𝜋
‫׬‬0 𝑑𝛿

2𝜋
𝑎12 +𝑎22 +2𝑎1 𝑎2 sin 𝛿 0
Iav =
𝛿 2𝜋
0

𝑎12 +𝑎22 2𝜋
=
2𝜋

= a12 + a22 …(vi)

If a1 = a2
Iav = 2a2 …{vii}
Thus , the average intensity is equal to the separate intensities . Thus , there is a
violation conservation of energy in the phenomenon of interference.
Fringe Width
Consider a point P at a distance x from O . The waves reach at the point P
from S1& S2.
𝑑 𝑑
Hence PQ = x - PR = x +
2 2
𝑑 𝑑
(S2P) 2 – (S1P)2 = [D2 + (x + )2] - [D2 + (x - )2] = 2xd …(viii)
2 2
∵ a2 − b2 = a − b a + b
2𝑥𝑑
∴S2P – S1P =
𝑆1 𝑃+𝑆2 𝑃

But S2P = S1P = D (approx.)

2𝑥𝑑 𝑥𝑑
∴ Path Difference = S2P – S1P = =
2𝐷 𝐷
2𝜋 𝑥𝑑
Phase Difference = ( ) …(ix) Q
𝜆 𝐷

R
For bright fringes
Path difference is an integral multiple of wavelength for bright
fringes.
𝑥𝑑
𝐷
=n𝜆 where n = 0,1,2,3,… …(ix)
𝑛𝜆𝐷
⟹x = 𝑑
…(x)
∴ The distance between any two consecutive bright fringes is
2𝜆𝐷 𝜆𝐷 𝜆𝐷
x2 –x1 = − = …(xi)
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
For dark fringes
Path difference is an odd multiple of half -wavelength for dark
fringes.
𝑥𝑑 𝜆
= (2n+1) where n = 0,1,2,3,… …(xii)
𝐷 2
(2𝑛+1)𝜆𝐷
⟹x = …(xiii)
2𝑑
∴ The distance between any two consecutive bright fringes is
5𝜆𝐷 3𝜆𝐷 𝜆𝐷
x2 –x1 = − = …(xiv)
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
Hence , the distance between any two consecutive dark or
bright fringes is same .
The distance between any two consecutive dark or bright fringe
is known as fringe width;
Dλ
Fringe Width, ഥ
X= …(xv)
d
Newton’s Ring
Formation of Newton's ring
When a plano-convex lens of large radians of curvature is placed with its
convex surface in contact with a plane glass plate , an air- film of gradually
increasing thickness from the point of contact is formed between the
upper surface of the plate and the lower surface of the lens . If
monochromatic light is allowed to fall normally on this film , then alternate
bright and dark concentric rings with their centre dark are formed , known
as Newton's rings .
Newton’s rings are formed because of the interference (by division of
amplitude) between the waves reflected from the top and bottom surface
of air film formed between the lens and the plate .
Experimental Arrangement
The experimental setup is shown in figure the experimental setup is shown in fig. A
plano-convex lens L of large radius of curvature is placed on a plane glass plate P
such that both of them is having a point of contact . Light from a monochromatic
source is allowed to fall on a glass plate G inclined at an angle of 45° to the incident
beam. The light reflected from the glass plate falls normally on the air-film enclosed
between L and P .
Light is reflected upward from the air- film, superimpose each other and interference
takes place .Due to interference of these rays , alternate bright and dark concentric
rings are seen with the help of microscope as shown in figure.
The fringes are circular because the air film is symmetrical about the point of contact
of the lens with the plane glass plate .
Theory
As the rings are observed in reflected light ,
effective path difference between the interfering
rays is given by
λ
2μt cos r + …(i)
2
where μ is the refractive index of the film(air), the
thickness of the air film and r the inclination of
λ
the ray . The factor accounts for the phase
2
change of π on reflection at the lower surface of
the air film . For air μ=1 ,and in this case r=0.
λ
∴ Path Difference = 2t + …(ii)
2
At the point of contact ; t=0
λ
∴ Path Difference =
2
This is the condition for minimum intensity .
Hence, the centre of Newton's ring is dark .But sometimes it is observed that
centre is bright , this is because a dust particles comes in between the two surfaces
at the point of contact .
For maximum (Bright fringe) , the path difference = nλ
λ
⟹2t = (2n-1) …(iii)
2
Where n = 1,2,3,…
λ
For minima(dark fringe) ,the path difference = (2n+1)
2
λ λ
2t + = (2n+1)
2 2
2t =nλ …(iv)
Where n= 1,2,3,…
As in air film, t remains constant along a circle with its centre at the point of
contact , the fringes are in the form of concentric circles. Since , each fringe is the
locus of constant thickness of the air film, these are known as ‘fringes of constant
thickness’.
Diameter of bright fringes
From fig. , let ADB be the lens placed on the glass plate MN , the point of contact
being O . Let R be the radius of curvature of the curved surface of lens . Let r be
the radius of a Newton’s ring where the film thickness is t . From the geometrical
property of a circle , E
AD X DB = OD X DE
⟹ r Xr = OD(2R-OD)
C R
⟹ r2 = t(2R-t) D
A B
⟹ r2 = 2Rt-t2 …(v)
M O
∵ t is very small compared to R , hence t2can N

be neglected . Hence
r2 = 2Rt
r2
⟹2t = …(vi)
R
Substituting the value of 2t in eqn. (iii) for bright rings , we have
r2 λ
= (2n-1)
R 2
 ∴ Radius of nth bright ring
2n−1 λR
rn = …(vi)
2
The diameter of nth bright ring Dn = 2rn …(vii)
D2n = 2 2n − 1 λR
Dn = 2λR 2n − 1 …(viii)

Dn ∝ 2n − 1
Thus , the diameters of bright rings are proportional to the square roots of the
odd natural numbers.
The diameter of first few rings are in ratio
1: 3 : 5 : 7
=1: 1.732: 2.236: 2.646…
The separation between successive rings are
0.732,0.504,0.410 , …
Thus , the separation between consecutive bright rings decreases as the order
increases .
Diameter of dark rings
As 2t = nλ

∴ Comparing eqn. (vi) & eqn. (iv)

The diameter of nth dark ring Dn = 2rn

Dn = 4nλR
Dn = 4λR n

Dn ∝ n …(ix)
Thus , the diameters of dark rings are proportional to the square roots
of the natural numbers.
The diameter of first few rings are in ratio
0:1: 2 : 3 : 4
=0: 1:1.414: 1.732: 2…
The separation between successive rings are
1:0.414:0.318:0.268
Thus , the separation between consecutive dark rings also
decreases as the order increases .
Thus ,in general in the Newton’s ring experiment the central
rings are broad and peripheral rings are closer.
Determination of Wavelength of Sodium Light and
Refractive Index of a Liquid by Newton’s Rings
The diameter of the nth dark ring in Newton’s ring experiment is given by
D2n = 4nλR …(x)
Similarly , the diameter of (n+p)th ring is
D2n+p = 4(n + p)λR …(xi)
Substractingeqn (x) from (xi)
D2n+p − D2n = 4 n + p λR − 4nλR … xiii
D2n+P −D2n
λ= …(xiv)
4pR

However, the same result shall be obtained by using relation giving the diameter of nth
bright ring.
Refractive Index of Liquid
The liquid whose refractive index is to be determined is placed between the lens and the
glass plate of the Newton's ring setup. In case liquid is rarer than glass , a phase change of π
will occur at reflection from the lower surface of liquid film but if the liquid is denser than
glass , phase change will occur at reflection from the upper surface of the film . Hence , in
λ
both the cases path difference is equal to .
2
λ
Therefore , effective path difference = 2μt cos r + …(xv)
2
Where μ is the refractive index of the liquid .
Now , for normal incidence r=0.
∵ cos r=1
λ
∴ Effective path difference = 2μt +
2
The condition for nth bright fringe is given as
λ
2μt cos r + = 𝑛𝜆
2
(2n−1)λ
⟹ 2t = 2μ …(xvi)
From eqn (vi)
r2
2t =
R
Using above eqn and eqn (xvi)
(2n−1)λR
r2=
2μ

If Dn the diameter of nth bright ring Dn = 2rn

2(2n−1)λR
D2n = …(xvii)
μ

If Dn+p the diameter of nth bright ring Dn+p = 2rn

2(2(n+p)−1)λR
D2n+p = …(xviii)
μ

Substractingeqn (xvii) from eqn (xviii)

2(2(n+p)−1)λR 2(2n−1)λR
D2n+p - D2n = -
μ μ
4pλR
= …(xix)
μ
∵ For air film μ = 1
Thus , dividing eqn (xix) by (xviii)
D2n+p −D2n
air
μ= 2 2 …(xx)
Dn+p −Dn
liquid
Newton’s ring with
white light
When monochromatic light is used , then
Newton's rings are alternatively dark and
bright . The diameter of the ring depends
upon the wavelength of light used. When
white light is used then a few coloured
rings are visible . After that due to
overlapping of the rings of different
colours , the rings cannot be viewed .
Michelson
Interferometer
Michelson interferometer consists of 2 highly
polished mirrors M1 & M2 and two plain glass
plates A and C parallel to each other . The rear
side of a glass plate A is half silvered so that
light coming from the source S is equally
reflected and transmitted by it. Light from
monochromatic source after passing through
the lens L, falls on a plate A. The lens L makes
the beam parallel. The plate A is inclined at an
angle of 45° . One half of the energy of the
incident beam is reflected by the plate A
towards the mirror M1 and the other half is
transmitted towards mirror M2 . These two
beams travel along two mutually
perpendicular paths and are reflected by the
mirror M1 & M2 .These two beams return to
plate A .
The beams reflected back by M1 is transmitted through the glass plate A and beam reflected
back by M2 is reflected by the glass plate towards the eye (fig.) . The beam going towards the
mirror M1 and reflected back , has to pass twice through the glass plate A . Therefore to
compensate for the path , the plate C is used between mirror M2 and A . The light beam going
towards the mirror M2 and reflected back towards A also passes twice towards the
compensation plate C . Therefore the path of two rays in glass are the same . The mirror M 1 is
used fixed on a carriage and can be moved with the help of the handle H. The distance through
which the mirror M1 is moved can be read on the scale . The planes of mirrors M1 & M2 can be
made perfectly perpendicular with the help of fine screws attached to them. The compensating
plate is a necessity for white light fringes but can be dispensed with , while using
monochromatic light .
If the mirror M1 and M2 are perfectly perpendicular , observer’s eye will see the images of
mirrors through A . There will be an air film between the two images and the distance can
be varied with the help of handle H. The fringes can be perfectly circular. If the path
travelled by two rays is exactly the same , the field of view will be completely dark. If the
two images of M1 and M2 are inclined (the mirrors are not perfectly perpendicular) the
enclosed air film will be wedge shaped and straight line fringes will be observed . When the
mirror M1 is moved away or towards the glass plate A with the help of the handle H , the
fringes cross the centre of the field of view of the observer’s eye . If M1 is moved through a
λ
distance , one fringe will cross the centre of field of view and will move to the position
2
previously occupied by next fringes .
Types of Fringes
(i) Circular fringe
(ii) Localised fringe
(iii) White light fringe
Fraunhofer diffraction from single slit
A slit is a rectangular aperture whose length is larger compared to its breadth . Let a
parallel beam of monochromatic light of wavelength λ be incident normally upon a
narrow slit of AB = e , as shown in fig. Let the diffracted light be focused by a
convex lens L . The diffraction pattern obtained on the screen consists of a centre
bright band , having alternate dark and weak bright bands of decreasing intensity of
either side of central bright band .
According to Huygen’s theory , a plane wavefront is incident normally on the slit
AB and each point in AB sends out secondary wavelets in all directions . The rays
proceeding in the same direction as the incident rays are focused at O ; while those
diffracted from an angle θ are focused at P .
Let the disturbance caused at P by the wavelet from unit width of the slit
at M be
yo = A cos ωt …(i)
Then the wavelet from the width dx at C when it reaches P has the
2Π
amplitude Adx and phase [wt + xsinθ].
𝜆
Let this small disturbance be ‘dy’ , we have
2Π
dy = Adxcos [wt + xsinθ] …(ii)
𝜆
For the total disturbance at the point of observation at an angle θ , we get
+ⅇ∕2
+ⅇ∕2 2Π
y= ‫׬‬−ⅇ∕2 1 dy =න Acos [wt +
𝜆
xsinθ] dx
−ⅇ∕2
+ⅇ∕2
+ⅇ∕2
2Π 2π
= 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑤𝑡 ඲ cos
𝜆
xsinθ dx − Asin wt න sin [
𝜆
xsinθ] dx
−ⅇ∕2
−ⅇ∕2
Πe
sin sinθ
𝜆
=A Πe cos 𝑤𝑡
sinθ
𝜆
 πe
sin sinθ
𝜆
= Ae πe cos 𝑤𝑡
sinθ
𝜆
πe
sin sinθ
𝜆
= Ao πe cos 𝑤𝑡 …(iv)
sinθ
𝜆
Where Ao = Ae is the amplitude for θ = 0
Πⅇ
Put sinθ = α
𝜆
∴eqn (iv) becomes
sinα
y= Ao cos 𝑤𝑡 …(v)
𝛼
sinα
∴ resultant amplitude R = Ao (vi)
𝛼
The resultant intensity at P is given by I = R2
sinα I0 sin2 α
I= (Ao I= )2 ⟹ …(vii)
𝛼 α2
Where I = A20 represents the intensity at θ= 0.
Πⅇ
As α = sinθ , it is clear that α depends on the angle of diffraction θ and
𝜆
sinα
( )2 give the intensity at different points for different values of θ.
𝛼
Position of secondary or principal maximum
For the central point O on the screen
α=0
sin α
∴lim =1
α→0 α
Hence intensity at O
I0 sin2 α
I= = I0
α2
This is maximum as all waves reaches O in phase.
πⅇ
Again α = 0 ⇒ sinθ = 0
𝜆
⇒θ = 0
i.e. waves are travelling normal to the slit & O gives the position of central
maxima.
Position of minima
Intensity is minimum (zero) when
sin α
=0
α
⇒α = ± mπ
⟹ e sin θ = ±mλ
Where m = 1, 2 , … gives the direction of first , second , … minima
Diffraction Grating
A diffraction grating is an arrangement equivalent to N number of parallel slits
of equal width and separated from one another by equal opaque phases .
Diffraction grating is made by ruling a large number of fine , equidistant and
parallel lines on an optically plane glass plate with a diamond point . The
ruled portion scatters the light while unruled portion transmits light .
Fig. represents N - number of equidistant and equally wide slits . Let e be the
width of each slit and d be the width of each opaque space between the less
slits . Then (e+d) is called the ‘grating element’ .
Let a parallel beam of monochromatic light of wavelength λ incident normally
on the grating from the left . At angle θ on the right we have N-waves each of
sin α 2π
amplitude Aθ = A0 and successive phase differenceδ = e + d sin θ.
α x
Rayleigh Criterion of Resolution
To express the resolving power of optical instruments as a numerical value , Lord
Rayleigh proposed the following criterion:
Two spectral lines of equal intensities are said to be resolved if the principal
maximum of the diffraction pattern due to one falls on the first secondary
minimum of the diffraction pattern due to the other and vice versa.
In fig(i) , A and B are the principal maxima of the diffraction patterns of two
spectral lines of wavelength λ 1 and λ2 . In this case the angle of diffraction
corresponding to the principal maxima of the image B is greater than the angle of
diffraction corresponding to first minima at the right of A .Hence has the two
spectral lines will appear as resolved .
In fig(ii) , the principal maxima corresponding to wavelengths λ 1 and
λ2 (where λ 2 = λ 1 + dλ1 ) are very close . The angle of diffraction
corresponding to first minima of A is greater than the angle of
diffraction corresponding to principal maximum of B .Hence , the two
images overlap and 2 spectral lines are not resolved .
The resultant intensity due to A and B gives a maximum C which is
higher than the intensities of A and B individually . Thus when an
optical instrument is turned from A to B the intensity increases ,
becomes maximum at C then decrease .
 In fig. (iii) ,the principal maximum of A (wavelength λ1 coincides with the first
minimum of B (wavelength λ1 + dλ2), Similarly , the principal maximum of B
coincides with the first minimum of A.
The eye will see the combined effect of the two which is shown by the resultant
dotted curve. This curve shows a dip in the middle. The intensity at C is nearly
same as turned from A and B , hence when an optical instrument is turned from
A to B there is noticeable decrease in intensity between two principal maxima .
Hence the spectral lines can be distinguished from one another and the lines are
said to be just resolved .
If an optical instrument just resolved two spectral lines of wavelength 1 and λ+
dλ then λΤdλ is taken as the measure of resolving power of an optical instrument .
Resolving power of diffraction grating
The resolving power of diffraction grating represents its ability to form
separate lines for wavelengths very close together .
It is given by λΤdλ , where dλ is the smallest wavelength difference that can
be ‘just’ resolved at wavelength λ . Let a parallel beam of light of wavelength
λ and λ+ dλ be incident normally on a diffraction grating . Let nth principal
maxima of wavelength λ be formed in the direction θ , then we have
e + d sin θ = 𝑛𝜆 …(i)
where (e+d) is the grating element .
Let the first minimum adjacent to the nth maxima be formed in the direction
(θ+dθ) . Then from the grating equation of minima , we have
𝑁 e + d sin θ = 𝜆 …(ii)
Where N is the total number of rulings
on the grating and m in an integer
having values except 0 , N ,2N , … , nN dθ
because these values gives zero order , θ
first order , second order , … principal
maxima .
Clearly , the first minimum adjacent to
the nth principal maximum in the
direction θ increasing will be obtained nth maxima of λ+dλ and first
min. of λ
for m = nN+1 . dθ
𝑁 e + d sin(θ + dθ) = (nN + 1)𝜆 nth maxima of λ
θ
λ and λ + dλ
 𝑛𝑁+1
e + d sin(θ + dθ) = 𝜆 …(iii)
𝑁
According to Rayleigh criterion , the wavelength λ and λ+ dλ
are just resolved by the grating when the nth maximum (λ+ dλ )
is obtained in the direction θ + dθ . Then
𝑁 e + d sin(θ + dθ) = n(𝜆 + 𝑑𝜆) …(iv)

comparing eqn(iii) and eqn (iv) , we get

𝑛𝑁+1
𝑁
𝜆 = n(𝜆 + 𝑑𝜆)
⇒ λΤdλ= nN …(v)
Thus , the resolving power of grating is equal to the product
of the total number of rulings on the grating and the order of
spectrum .
For central maxima n = 0 , hence resolving power = 0
 Another associated concept is of a diffraction
grating.
A diffraction grating
refers to the screen with a bunch of parallel slits
which are placed at a distance‘d’ from each
other.