What is Biology?

Biology is the study of living organisms. The word is derived from the Greek words ‘bios’
meaning life and ‘logos’ meaning study. Organisms studied in Biology may be single cellular or
multicellular.

Branches of Biology
Anatomy: The study of an organism’s internal structure
Botany: The study of plants
Cardiology: The study of the heart and its abnormalities and diseases
Dermatology: The study of the skin
Ecology: The study of interactions among organisms and their environments
Genetics: The study of genes, variations in genes and heredity
Hepatology: The study of the liver
Histology: The study of the microscopic structures of tissues
Molecular biology: The study of the structures and functions of macromolecules
Zoology: The study of animals. This includes various sub-branches, some of which are listed
above.

Characteristics of Living Organisms

Nutrition: This is the process by which organisms make or obtain food. Heterotrophs are
organisms that obtain their food by eating other organisms and autotrophs are organisms that
make their own food.
Respiration: This is the process by which cells release energy from food. There are two types of
respiration: aerobic (requires oxygen) and anaerobic (does not require oxygen).
Excretion: The removal of metabolic waste from the body of an organism.
Movement: This is the change in position of part of an organism or the entire organism.
Irritability (sensitivity): This is the ability of organisms to detect and respond to internal or
external stimuli (changes).
Growth: This is a permanent increases in the size of an organism.
Reproduction: This is the process whereby organisms produce new individuals of the same
kind. It may be asexual reproduction where only one parent is required, or sexual reproduction
where two parents (male and female) are required to produce the offspring.

Classification of Organisms
- Allows us to identify relationships between different organisms and to clearly identify species.
 Gives insight into how organisms develop and helps to distinguish new species. Simple
classification can be done by observing visible characteristics e.g., the presence of
antennae, number of wings, number of legs, hairiness, shape, etc. An observation is a
statement based on a characteristic that can be seen, heard or otherwise noticed.
 Organisms are also classified based on their internal structures, patterns of
development, life cycles and the molecular structure of their DNA. DNA stands for
deoxyribonucleic acid and is the way in which genetic material is carried and passed on
in most organisms. The more similarities present in their DNA, the more closely related
the organisms. The science of the classification of organisms is called taxonomy.
Taxonomic Hierarchy and ranks
The taxonomic hierarchy is a classification system of living organisms in which they are
arranged from higher to lower categories (or vice versa). Each category is called a taxonomic
rank. The basic category is species. A species is a group of organisms that shares common
ancestry, closely resemble each other and can interbreed to produce fertile offspring. Species
which are closely related are grouped to form genera (singular genus), related genera are
grouped to form families, related families are grouped to form orders, related orders are
grouped to form classes, related classes are group to form phyla (singular phylum) and related
phyla are grouped to form kingdoms which are grouped to form domains.
Taxonomic Ranks

Naming Organisms
In different countries and regions, the same organism may have different common names. To
precisely identify species no matter where they are found, scientists use the binomial system of
classification which is a two-part naming system consisting of Latin words. The first word is the
genus and the second word is the species. This naming system was developed by Carl Linnaeus.
If, in a piece of writing, the scientific name of an organism is used, the name is written out in full
the first time and then the genus name is abbreviated every time after that, followed by the
species name written out in full.

Examples of Binomial Nomenclature

Kingdoms
There are five kingdoms in the modern classification system. They are:
Prokaryotae/Monera (Prokaryotes)
Protoctista (Protists)
Fungi
Plantae (Plants)
Animalia (Animals)

 Prokaryotes
Prokaryotes are unicellular organisms that do not have membrane-bound nuclei. Instead, their
DNA is free in the cells. They have cell walls, but lack other membrane-bound organelles such as
mitochondria and chloroplasts. Most of them feed by absorbing food. Examples include E.coli,
cyanobacteria (blue green algae) and Tuberculosis bacterium.
Members of ALL other kingdoms have eukaryotic cells. This means that they have membrane
bound nuclei which contain their genetic material as well as other membrane bound organelles.

General structure of a bacterial cell

 Protists
These are single cellular organisms. Cells have membrane bound nuclei and other organelles.
Protozoans ingest or absorb food. Examples include amoeba and paramecium.

General structure of Amoeba

 Fungi
These include yeasts, molds and mushrooms. Most of them are multicellular (except yeasts
which are unicellular) and their bodies are made of threads called hyphae. Their cell walls
contain chitin (a carbohydrate) and fungal cells contain no chlorophyll. Most fungi are
saprophytes, meaning they release enzymes that break down dead organic matter outside of
their bodies and then absorb the nutrients through their cell membranes. Most fungi reproduce
by producing spores, but yeasts reproduce by a cell division process called budding.

General structure of a Yeast Cell showing Budding

 Plants
These are multicellular organisms which have cell walls made of cellulose (a carbohydrate) and
contain chlorophyll. They make their own food by the process of photosynthesis which requires
carbon dioxide, water and sunlight. The products of photosynthesis are glucose and oxygen.
Plants are stationary.

General Structure of a plant cell

  Animals
These are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms. Most of them reproduce sexually. They are
heterotrophic (consume other organisms for nutrients). Their cells do not have a cell wall. Most
of them can move from one place to another.

General structure of an animal cell

The Main Groups of Plants

Bryophytes - These have simple stems and leaves with root-like filaments called rhizoids. They
are found in damp, shady places and reproduce using spores. Examples are mosses and
liverworts.
Ferns - These have proper roots, stems and leaves (fronds). Spores are produced on the
underside of leaves for reproduction. Examples are breadfruit fern and maidenhair fern.
Conifers - These also have proper roots, stems and leaves (usually needle-shaped). Seeds are
produced within the cones for reproduction. Examples are pine and fir.
Flowering Plants - These have proper roots, stems and leaves. Seeds which are produced for
reproduction. There are two types: dicotyledons and monocotyledons.
Algae - These are non-flowering aquatic plants which contain chlorophyll, but lack stems, roots
and leaves. Sargassum (seaweed) is an example.

Bryophytes
 Horwnworts - Liverworts - Mosses

Ferns
- Cinnamon fern - Japanese painted fern - Christmas fern
- Sensitive fern - Ostrich fern - Royal fern
- Maidenhair fern - Interrupted fern - Bracken fern
- Hay-scented fern
Conifers
- Red spruce - Stika spruce - Western hemlock
- Deodar cedar - Eastern hemlock - Hick’s yew
- Spartan juniper - Sugar pine - Red pine
- Giant sequoia - California redwood - Bald cypress
- Noble fir -Japanese yew - Western larch
- Atlas cedar

Algae
- Green algae - red algae - brown algae
- golden algae - fire algae - slime molds

Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons

Monocotyledons have leaves with straight, parallel veins and the leaves are usually straight and
narrow. Their seeds contain one cotyledon (seed leaf) and the flower parts (such as petals) are
in multiples of three. Examples include sugar cane, wheat, onions and grass.
Dicotyledons have leaves with a network of veins and the leaves are usually broad.The seeds
contain two cotyledons. The flower parts are in multiples of four or five. Examples include
tomatoes, mint, and peas.

Comparison of Monocots and Dicots

THE ANIMAL KINGDOM

Phyla of the Animal Kingdom

Porifera (sponges) - These are stationary, lack tissues and organs and their bodies contain a
single cavity with many pores in its walls making many water canals. Examples include barrel
sponges and vase sponges.
Cnidaria - These have bag or umbrella shaped bodies. The gut has one opening (the mouth) and
there is a ring of tentacles around the mouth. Examples include coral and jellyfish.
Platyhelminthes - These are also called flatworms. They have long, flat, unsegmented bodies.
An example is a tapeworm.
Nematodes - These are also called roundworms. They have elongated, round, unsegmented
bodies with pointed ends. Examples are hookworms and threadworms.
Annelids - These are segmented worms. They have elongated bodies that are divided into
segments. An example is an earthworm.
Arthropods - These have waterproof external skeletons made of the carbohydrate chitin. They
have segmented bodies and several pairs of jointed legs. Sub-groups of this phylum are
crustaceans, arachnids, insects and myriapods. About ¾ of all known animals are insects.
Molluscs - These have soft, moist, unsegmented bodies. They have a muscular foot and many
have shells. Examples include snails, slugs, squids and octopuses.
Echinoderms - Their bodies have a radial patterns of five parts. They have tube feet with
suction pods for movement and their bodies contain calcium carbonate, often with projecting
spines. Examples include starfish and sea urchins.
Chordates: These have a notochord (rod) running down their bodies. Most have a backbone.
They have a dorsal (back) nerve cord with the anterior end usually forming the brain. Most have
an internal skeleton made of bone and cartilage. Vertebrates (animals with backbones) can be
further divided into five groups: fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals.

Groups of Arthropods
Classes of Vertebrates
Fish - These organisms have waterproof skin covered with scales. They breathe using gills and
have fins for swimming. Examples include barracuda and shark.
Amphibians - These organisms have soft, moist waterproof skin. Their skin has no scales. They
lay eggs in water which hatch into larvae that also live in water. The adult forms live on land.
Examples include frogs, toads and newts.
Reptiles - These organisms have dry, waterproof skin with scales. They lay eggs on land.
Examples include snakes, lizards, iguanas and turtles.
Birds - These organisms have waterproof skin with feathers, have beaks and have no teeth.
Their forelimbs form wings, they lay eggs and are endothermic. Examples include hawks, eagles
and chickens.
Mammals - These organisms have waterproof skin with hair and sweat glands. They have
various types of teeth and are endothermic. The young organisms feed on milk produced by
their mothers. Examples include mice, whales and goats.

The dichotomous key

A dichotomous key is a flow diagram that classifies organisms. To determine which group an
organism belongs to, a series of ‘yes’ or ‘no’ questions can often be asked. A dichotomous key
may be used, for example, to identify what sub-group of vertebrates an animal belongs to.

Example of a dichotomous key

The use of DNA for the classification of organisms
Grouping organisms based solely on their observable characteristics has some disadvantages.
For example, birds and bats both have wings, but bats are mammals. Some organisms of
different groups look the same under a microscope and other organisms that belong to the
same group may look very different to each other. However, closely related organisms share
many similarities in the sequences of their DNA. DNA sequencing has lead scientists to discover
that the single-celled algae found inside coral belong to different species although they all look
the same under a microscope.