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2ND WEEK
TOPIC: CAREER OPPORTUNITIES IN LINUX
Why Learn Linux?
Linux is a powerful, open-source operating system used in servers, cloud computing,
cybersecurity, software development, and DevOps. Many companies and
organizations depend on Linux to run their systems, which makes Linux skills highly
valuable in the tech industry.

Top Career Paths with Linux Skills

1. Linux System Administrator

 Role: Manage Linux servers, configure systems, handle backups, troubleshoot

issues.
 Skills Needed: Command line, shell scripting, file systems, networking, security.
 Common Tools: Bash, SSH, cron, firewalld, systemd.

2. DevOps Engineer

 Role: Automate software development and deployment processes.

 Linux Use: Runs CI/CD pipelines, containerization tools (Docker, Kubernetes).
 Common Tools: Jenkins, Ansible, Git, Terraform.

3. Cybersecurity Analyst / Ethical Hacker

 Role: Protect systems from threats, test for vulnerabilities.

 Linux Use: Many penetration testing tools run on Linux (e.g., Kali Linux).
 Tools: Wireshark, Nmap, Metasploit, Fail2ban.

4. Linux Support Specialist / Help Desk

 Role: Provide technical support to Linux users and systems.

 Skills: User management, permissions, package management.

5. Web Server Administrator

 Role: Set up and maintain web servers (e.g., Apache, Nginx).

 Skills: Hosting, virtual hosts, SSL setup, FTP/SFTP.

6. Cloud Engineer

 Role: Build and manage cloud infrastructure (AWS, Azure, GCP).

 Linux Use: Most cloud servers run on Linux.
 Tools: AWS CLI, Linux VMs, shell scripting, containers.
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7. Open Source Developer

 Role: Contribute to or maintain open-source Linux projects.

 Skills: Coding (C, Python, etc.), Git, collaboration tools.

Certifications That Boost Linux Careers

 RHCSA/RHCE – Red Hat Certified System Administrator/Engineer

 Linux+ – CompTIA certification for Linux basics
 LPIC – Linux Professional Institute Certification
 CEH – Certified Ethical Hacker (includes Linux-based tools)

Industries That Hire Linux Professionals

 Tech companies (Google, Meta, Red Hat)

 Banks and financial institutions
 Cloud service providers (AWS, Azure, Google Cloud)
 Government agencies
 Telecommunications

3RD WEEK

TOPIC: Performing Basic Linux Tasks with Files and Directories

Linux provides powerful commands to create, copy, move, rename, and delete files
and directories using the command line.

1. Creating Files and Directories

Create a File:
touch filename.txt

Example: touch notes.txt

Create a Directory:
mkdir my_folder

Example: mkdir projects

2. Copying Files and Directories

Copy a File:
cp source.txt destination.txt
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Example: cp notes.txt backup.txt

Copy a Directory (with contents):

cp -r source_dir/ destination_dir/

Example: cp -r my_folder/ backup_folder/

3. Moving or Renaming Files and Directories

Move a File:
mv old_location.txt new_location.txt

Example: mv notes.txt documents/

Rename a File:
mv oldname.txt newname.txt

Example: mv draft.txt final.txt

Rename or Move a Directory:

mv old_folder/ new_folder/

4. Deleting Files and Directories

🗑 Delete a File:
rm filename.txt

Example: rm oldfile.txt

🗑 Delete an Empty Directory:

rmdir folder_name
🗑 Delete a Directory with Files:
rm -r folder_name
``>
> Example: `rm -r old_project/`

- **List files and directories**:

```bash
ls

View current location:

 pwd
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Change directory:

 cd folder_name

Classroom Activity

 Create a directory named classwork.

 Inside it, create a file called lesson.txt.
 Copy the file to a folder named backup.
 Rename lesson.txt to linux_basics.txt.
 Delete the backup folder.

Review Questions

1. What command is used to create a new file?

2. How do you copy a directory with its contents?
3. Which command deletes a file permanently?

4TH WEEK

TOPIC: Permissions in Linux (Controlling Access to Files with Linux File System
Permissions)

Linux uses a permission system to control who can read, write, or execute files and
directories. This helps protect files and maintain system security.

1. Understanding File Permission Categories

Each file and directory in Linux has three types of permissions for three categories of
users:

User Category Description

Owner The person who created the file

Group Users in the same group as the owner

Others Everyone else on the system

2. Types of Permissions
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Symbol Permission Description

r Read View file contents or list directory

w Write Modify file or directory contents

x Execute Run the file (if it's a program/script) or enter a directory

3. Viewing Permissions with ls -l

ls -l filename

Example output:

-rwxr-xr-- 1 user group 1234 May 5 10:00 script.sh

Breakdown:

 -rwxr-xr--
o -: Regular file
o rwx: Owner has read, write, and execute
o r-x: Group has read and execute
o r--: Others have read-only

4. Changing Permissions with chmod

Add execute permission to a file:

chmod +x filename.sh
Set specific permissions using numbers:

Each permission has a value:

 r=4
 w=2
 x=1

Add them up for each user category.

Symbolic Numeric Meaning

rwx 7 Read, write, execute

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Symbolic Numeric Meaning

rw- 6 Read, write

r-- 4 Read only

Example:
chmod 755 script.sh

Breakdown:

 Owner: 7 (rwx)
 Group: 5 (r-x)
 Others: 5 (r-x)

5. Changing Ownership with chown

Change file owner:

sudo chown username filename
Change owner and group:
sudo chown username:groupname filename

Practice Exercise

1. Create a file called test.txt

2. Check its permissions using ls -l
3. Give the owner full permissions and others none:
4. chmod 700 test.txt
5. Change the owner to another user (if available on the system)

Quick Review Questions

1. What does the x permission mean for a file?

2. How do you view permissions of a file?
3. What does chmod 644 filename do?

6TH WEEK
TOPIC: PROCESSES
What is a Process?

A process is any program or command that is currently running on your Linux system. Every
time you run a command, open an application, or start a background task, a new process is
created.
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1. Types of Processes

Type Description

Foreground Runs in the terminal; user interacts directly.

Background Runs behind the scenes; user can keep working.

Daemon Background services like system tasks.

Zombie A finished process that still has an entry in the process table.

2. Identifying a Process

Each process in Linux has a unique PID (Process ID).

Use the command:

ps

to see current processes.

Example:

ps

Output:

PID TTY TIME CMD

1234 pts/0 00:00 bash
5678 pts/0 00:01 nano

3. Viewing Active Processes

See all running processes:

ps aux
Real-time process monitoring:
top

 Shows CPU/memory usage and process info.

 Press q to quit.

Enhanced process viewer (if installed):

htop

4. Managing Processes
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Start a process in the background:

command &

Example: firefox &

Find a process by name:

pgrep processname

Example: pgrep firefox

Kill (terminate) a process:

kill PID

Example: kill 1234

� Force kill a stubborn process:

kill -9 PID

5. Useful Commands Summary

Command Description

ps Show active processes

top Real-time process monitoring

kill PID Terminate a process by PID

& Run a process in the background

pgrep name Find process by name

jobs Show background jobs (in terminal)

fg Bring background job to foreground

Practice Tasks

1. Open a terminal and run top.

2. Start a program in the background using &.
3. Use ps to find its PID.
4. Kill the process using kill PID.

Review Questions

1. What is a process in Linux?

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2. How do you view real-time process activity?

3. What command is used to terminate a process?

7TH WEEK

TOPIC: INTRODUCTION TO PARTITIONING

What is Partitioning?

Partitioning is the process of dividing a physical hard drive into separate sections, called
partitions. Each partition can be used for a specific purpose—like installing the operating system,
storing files, or creating swap space.

Think of a partition like a room in a house. The house is the hard drive, and each room (partition)
has a different function.

Why Partition a Disk?

1. Organize Data – Keep system files separate from personal files.

2. Improve Performance – Optimize system speed and access.
3. Simplify Backups – Backup and restore specific parts of the system easily.
4. Multi-Booting – Install multiple operating systems on one disk.
5. Security – Isolate critical files from general user data.

Types of Partitions

Type Description

Primary Main partitions. A disk can have up to 4.

Extended A special partition that can hold multiple logical ones.

Logical Inside an extended partition. Used when more than 4 partitions are needed.

Common Linux Partitions

Mount Point Purpose

/ Root filesystem (Linux OS files)

/home User personal files and settings

/boot Bootloader files (needed to boot Linux)

swap Virtual memory (used when RAM is full)

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Mount Point Purpose

/var Variable files (logs, mail, print spool)

Tools Used for Partitioning

Tool Interface Use

fdisk Command-line Partitioning MBR disks

parted Command-line Partitioning GPT disks

gparted GUI User-friendly graphical tool

lsblk CLI View block devices and partitions

Basic Partitioning Commands

List current partitions:

lsblk
Create a new partition (example with fdisk):
sudo fdisk /dev/sdX

 Replace /dev/sdX with your actual disk (e.g., /dev/sda)

 Use options like n (new), d (delete), w (write changes)

Format a partition:
sudo mkfs.ext4 /dev/sdXn
Mount a partition:
sudo mount /dev/sdXn /mnt

Important Tips

 Always backup your data before partitioning.

 Partitioning a drive will erase all data if not done carefully.
 Learn the difference between MBR (older) and GPT (modern) partition tables.

Practice Task

1. Use lsblk to view your disk layout.

2. Create a new partition using fdisk or gparted.
3. Format it as ext4.
4. Mount it to /mnt/test.

Review Questions
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1. What is a partition and why is it used?

2. What’s the difference between primary and logical partitions?
3. Which tool would you use to create partitions via GUI?

8TH WEEK

TOPIC: TERMINOLOGIES RELATING TO PARTITIONING IN LINUX

Understanding the key terms related to partitioning is essential before working with disks in Linux.
Below are common and important terms you’ll encounter:

Key Partitioning Terms

Term Meaning
A section of a hard drive that acts as a separate unit (like a mini-
Partition
disk).
Disk The physical hard drive (e.g., /dev/sda) that holds partitions.
A directory in the file system where a partition is accessed (e.g.,
Mount Point
/home).
The method of organizing and storing files on a partition (e.g., ext4,
Filesystem
xfs).
MBR (Master Boot
Older partitioning scheme that supports up to 4 primary partitions.
Record)
GPT (GUID Partition Modern partitioning scheme supporting more partitions and larger
Table) disks.
Primary Partition The main partitions on an MBR disk (maximum of 4).
Extended Partition A type of primary partition that can hold logical partitions.
Partitions inside an extended partition (used when more than 4 are
Logical Partition
needed).
Swap Partition Space on the disk used as virtual memory when RAM is full.
Root Partition (/) The main Linux partition that contains the OS files.
Boot Partition (/boot) Contains bootloader files to start Linux.
Unmount Detaching a partition from the file system.
Creating a new filesystem on a partition, usually erasing all existing
Formatting
data.
Universally Unique Identifier for partitions, used to identify them
UUID
reliably.

Linux Device Naming Convention

Linux names disks and partitions like this:

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Device Name Meaning

/dev/sda First hard disk
/dev/sdb Second hard disk
/dev/sda1 First partition on the first disk
/dev/sdb2 Second partition on the second disk

Quick Tips

 Use lsblk or fdisk -l to view disks and partitions.

 Always back up before formatting or changing partitions.
 Use mount and umount to attach or detach partitions.

Classroom Activity

Ask students to:

 Open a terminal
 Run lsblk to see available disks and partitions
 Identify the root (/) and swap partitions

Review Questions

1. What is the difference between a primary and a logical partition?

2. What does the swap partition do?
3. What tool would you use to check the UUID of a partition?

10TH WEEK

TOPIC: FILE ACCESS CONTROL LIST (FACL)

What is ACL?

Access Control List (ACL) is an advanced permission system in Linux that allows you to set
different permissions for multiple users or groups on the same file or directory — going
beyond the basic owner-group-others permission model.

Why Use ACL?

The traditional Linux permissions (r, w, x) are limited. They only allow:

 One user (owner)

 One group
 Everyone else (others)
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But what if you want to:

 Allow multiple users to read a file?

 Give a specific user write access without changing the group?

That's where ACL comes in!

Enabling ACL

Most modern Linux filesystems like ext4 and xfs support ACL by default. To check if a partition
supports ACL, use:

tune2fs -l /dev/sdX | grep acl

Or, mount a partition with ACL:

sudo mount -o remount,acl /mount/point

ACL Commands

1. View ACLs:
getfacl filename

Example:

getfacl report.txt
2. Add ACL for a user:
setfacl -m u:username:permissions filename

Example:

setfacl -m u:john:rw report.txt

Gives user john read and write permissions on report.txt.

3. Add ACL for a group:

setfacl -m g:groupname:permissions filename
4. Remove ACL for a user:
setfacl -x u:username filename
� 5. Remove all ACLs (reset):
setfacl -b filename

Understanding ACL Syntax

u:username:rw- → User john has read/write
g:groupname:r-- → Group has read only
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Default ACLs for Directories

To make new files inside a directory inherit ACL rules:

setfacl -d -m u:username:rwX /directory

-d sets the default ACL

X means "execute if directory or already executable"

Example Scenario

Imagine a project folder that multiple team members need access to:

mkdir /project
touch /project/plan.txt

setfacl -m u:alice:r /project/plan.txt

setfacl -m u:bob:rw /project/plan.txt

Alice can read, Bob can read and write.

Practices

 Use ACL for complex permission needs.

 Combine with traditional chmod wisely.
 Document ACL rules for team collaboration.

Review Questions

1. What is the limitation of standard Linux file permissions?

2. How can you give a second user write access to a file?
3. What command lists all ACL entries on a file?