ICT AND IT

• Information and Communication Technology (ICT) :

is an extensive sector
enclosing any communication device or application, including radios,
televisions, cellular phones, computers, network hardware, software,
satellite systems, as well as the various services and applications associated
with them, such as videoconferencing and distance learning.

• Information Technology (IT)

This term is somewhat more expansive than Information Technology (IT),

which primarily refers to the management and processing of data,
especially within a business or other enterprise.

• While IT is primarily concerned with how data is stored, processed, and

transmitted, ICT surounds a broader spectrum that emphasizes
communication and the transmission of information.

• For instance, IT might focus on the technology behind a database that

stores client information, while ICT is about the means by which that
information is communicated to stakeholders, including email, video calls,
and social media.

ICT COMPONENTS

1. HARDWARE: This includes physical devices like computers, servers, networking

equipment, and other devices necessary for data processing and
communication. Mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets have become
increasingly significant, allowing for more versatile and location-independent
communication.

2. SOFTWARE: Software refers to the applications and operating systems that run
on the hardware. This includes everything from the iOS on a smartphone to
complex data analysis programs used in research. Software solutions enable the
analysis, manipulation, and presentation of data, which is crucial in various
aspects of ICT.
3. TELECOMMUNICATIONS: This area of ICT includes services like the internet,
wireless networks, and satellite technology. It's the backbone of modern
communication, enabling data and information to be transmitted globally in
seconds. This component has revolutionized how information is shared and
accessed, making global communication seamless and instantaneous.

1. HARDWARE

a. COMPUTERS: These are the foundational tools of ICT, comprising both personal
computers
(PCs) and mainframes used by larger organizations. Modern computers have evolved to
offer
higher processing power, allowing for complex data analyses and support of advanced
software applications.

b. SERVERS: Servers are powerful computers that store, send, and process data. In the
context of
ICT, they are crucial for hosting websites, running business applications, and storing
large
amounts of data. They can be physical machines located in a data center or virtual
servers
hosted in the cloud.

c. NETWORKING EQUIPMENT: This includes routers, switches, modems, and the

cabling
infrastructure necessary to connect computers and servers both within an organization
(intranet) and to the wider internet. Networking hardware is essential for the exchange
of data
and is the backbone of internet connectivity.

d. MOBILE DEVICES: Smartphones and tablets have become increasingly crucial in

ICT. Their
portability and connectivity allow users to access information and communicate from
virtually anywhere. They have become essential tools in international relations,
enabling real-
time communication and access to information on the go.
e. OTHER PERIPHERAL DEVICES: Printers, scanners, and external storage devices
also form part of
the hardware component of ICT. These devices support the operation and functionality
of
computers and networks

2. SOFTWARE

a. OPERATING SYSTEMS (OS): An operating system is the primary software that

manages
a computer's hardware and provides a foundation upon which other applications can
run.

Examples include: Windows, macOS, Linux, and the mobile OS like Android and
iOS. The OS is crucial for the functioning of computers and mobile devices, managing
resources and providing a user interface.

b. APPLICATIONS: Application software refers to programs designed to perform

specific
tasks.

In ICT, this includes a wide range of software such as word processors,

spreadsheets, database management systems, and specialized software used in
international relations like data analysis tools.

c. ENTERPRISE SOFTWARE: This encompasses applications used by organizations to

conduct business and solve enterprise-level problems.

Examples include Customer , Relationship Management (CRM) systems, Enterprise

Resource Planning (ERP) systems, and Supply Chain Management (SCM) systems.

d. NETWORK SOFTWARE: This software is used to manage and facilitate

communication
over networks.

It includes network operating systems, network management tools, and

cybersecurity software, which are critical for maintaining the integrity and security of
data.
ROLE IN COMMUNICATION AND INFORMATION PROCESSING

• Information and Communication Technology (ICT) plays a

pivotal role in the modern world by facilitating rapid
transmission and efficient processing of information.

• This capability is particularly crucial in our globalized society,

where the exchange of information across vast distances is
fundamental to various aspects of life, including
international relations, business, education, and
governance.

• ICT has:

(1) enhanced communication,

(2) accelerated information processing,

(3) transformed the dissemination

of the information,

(4) facilitated operations

(5) improved security.

ENHANCING COMMUNICATION

• GLOBAL CONNECTIVITY: ICT has virtually eliminated geographical barriers,

enabling real-time communication across the world.

Technologies like email, instant messaging, and video conferencing allow individuals
and organizations to
interact seamlessly, irrespective of their physical locations.

• SOCIAL MEDIA AND COLLABORATION PLATFORMS: Platforms like Facebook,

Twitter, LinkedIn, and collaborative tools like Slack and Microsoft Teams have
revolutionized the way we share information and collaborate.

These tools have become integral in driving social movements, political campaigns,
and fostering global discussions on critical issues.
• PUBLIC DIPLOMACY AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS: ICT enables governments
and diplomatic agencies to engage directly with foreign publics, enhancing
diplomatic efforts and public diplomacy.

Digital platforms facilitate the dissemination of policy positions, cultural exchanges,

and direct interaction
with the global audience.

ACCELERATING INFORMATION PROCESSING

1. DATA MANAGEMENT AND ANALYSIS: Advanced software tools allow for efficient
management and analysis of vast amounts of data. Tools like spreadsheets,
databases, and specialized statistical software are crucial in fields like international
relations for policy analysis, economic forecasting, and demographic studies.

2. CLOUD COMPUTING: Cloud services provide on-demand access to computing

resources and data storage, facilitating the processing of large datasets without the
need for extensive physical infrastructure. This has been transformative for
organizations and governments, enabling scalable and flexible data processing
capabilities.

3. ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND MACHINE LEARNING: AI and machine learning

algorithms are increasingly used to process and analyze data, providing insights
that were previously unafordable.

In international relations, these technologies canbe used for predictive analytics, risk
assessment, and even in diplomatic strategy
formulation

TRANSFORMING INFORMATION DISSEMINATION

1. DIGITAL MEDIA: The rise of digital media has transformed how

information is published and consumed. News and information are now
more accessible, with online newspapers, blogs, podcasts, social media
and streaming services providing a wide range of viewpoints and
information sources.
2. E-LEARNING AND ONLINE EDUCATION: ICT has revolutionized education,
enabling remote learning and access to a wealth of online resources. This
has implications for international relations, as it facilitates cross-cultural
education and the global exchange of knowledge.

3. OPEN ACCESS AND INFORMATION SHARING: The internet has fostered a

culture of open access to information. Online libraries, research papers,
and educational resources are increasingly available to anyone with
internet access, democratizing information and knowledge.

FACILITATING EFFICIENT OPERATIONS

1. E-GOVERNANCE: Governments around the world are utilizing ICT for

efficient administration and public services delivery. E-governance
initiatives include online tax filing, e-voting systems, and digital
public records, making governmental processes more transparent
and accessible.

2. BUSINESS OPERATIONS: ICT is integral to modern business

operations. It enables global supply chain management, online
marketing, telecommuting, and e-commerce, all of which are
essential in today's globalized market.

3. CRISIS MANAGEMENT AND RESPONSE: In times of crisis, such as

natural disasters or pandemics, ICT is crucial for rapid response and
information dissemination. Real-time data sharing, satellite
imagery, and communication networks are vital tools in
coordinating international aid and relief efforts.

ADVANCING GLOBAL SECURITY AND SURVEILLANCE

1. CYBERSECURITY: As the reliance on ICT grows, so does the importance of

cybersecurity. Protecting data and communication networks from cyber
threats is a key concern for governments and organizations, particularly in
safeguarding sensitive information related to national security.
2. SURVEILLANCE AND INTELLIGENCE: ICT tools are used for surveillance and
intelligence gathering, playing a crucial role in national security and
international relations. Technologies like drones, satellite surveillance, and
electronic eavesdropping are employed for intelligence and
reconnaissance purposes.

3. INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION: The global nature of ICT necessitates

international cooperation in areas like cybercrime, internet governance,
and standard setting. This fosters a collaborative approach to managing
and utilizing ICT for the greater global good

CONCLUSION

• In conclusion, ICT's role in

communication and information
processing is multi-faceted and deeply
integrated into the fabric of our global
society.
• Its impact on communication is
profound, enabling instant and
borderless interactions. In information
processing, ICT provides the tools and
platforms for efficient data
management, analysis, and
dissemination.
• These capabilities are crucial in
addressing the complex challenges of
our interconnected world, making ICT
an indispensable tool in international
relations and global governance

ICT EVOLUTION AND FUTURE DEVELOPMENT

HISTORICAL
PERSPECTIVE

• The evolution of Information and Communication

Technology (ICT) has been rapid and
transformative, marking one of the most
significant technological advancements in human
history.

1. EARLY BEGINNINGS:

The journey began with the

development of the first mechanical computing
devices in the 19th century (1820), such as Charles
Babbage’s Difference Engine. These were the
precursors to modern computers (mechanical
calculator designed to
tabulate polynomial functions)

2. THE BIRTH OF
COMPUTERS:

The mid-20th
century saw the
development of the first
electronic computers like
ENIAC, (completed in
1945)which were initially
used for complex
calculations in scientific
research and military
operations.

4. PERSONAL COMPUTING
REVOLUTION:

In the 1970s and

1980s, companies like Apple,
IBM, and Microsoft ushered in
the era of personal computing,
making computers accessible to
individuals and small businesses
5. THE INTERNET AND
WORLD WIDE WEB:

The
creation of the internet in the
late 20th century revolutionized
information sharing and
communication. Tim Berners-
Lee’s invention of the World
Wide Web in 1989 further
facilitated the accessibility and
spread of information globally

5. Mobile and Wireless

Technology:

The late 20th and

early 21st centuries saw the
advent of mobile and wireless
technology, marked by the
widespread adoption of
smartphones and the
development of Wi-Fi
technology.

RECENT INNOVATIONS

1. ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI) AND MACHINE

LEARNING (ML):

AI and ML represent significant

breakthroughs in ICT. AI algorithms, which mimic
human cognition, are now integral in various
applications, from voice assistants like Amazon’s
Alexa to complex data analysis in healthcare.
Machine learning, a subset of AI, involves the
development of algorithms that enable computers
to learn from and make predictions or decisions
based on data. A combination of them can be seen
in ChatGPT (Large Language Model or LLM).
2. BIG DATA:

The exponential growth in data

generation has led to the era of big data. It involves
analyzing large datasets to uncover patterns, trends,
and associations, particularly relating to human
behavior and interactions. This has profound
implications in fields ranging from marketing and
finance to urban planning and healthcare

3. BLOCKCHAIN:

Best known for its role in

cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin, blockchain is a
distributed ledger technology that offers secure,
transparent, and tamper-proof transactions. Its
potential applications extend beyond finance to
areas like supply chain management, voting systems,
and digital identities

FUTURE TRENDS

1. QUANTUM COMPUTING: Quantum computing,

which utilizes the principles of quantum theory,
promises to surpass the capabilities of traditional
computing. It has the potential to revolutionize areas
such as cryptography, materials science, and
complex system simulation. 1-0, 1 and 0 at the same
time.

2. INTERNET OF THINGS (IOT):

IoT involves the extension of
internet connectivity into
physical devices and everyday
objects. These devices can
communicate and interact over
the internet, and they can be
remotely monitored and
controlled. IoT has applications
in smart homes, industrial
automation, and healthcare.

3. 5G NETWORKS:

The rollout of 5G networks

promises faster internet
speeds, lower latency, and
increased connectivity
capacity. This will not only
enhance current mobile
broadband services but also
enable new technologies
such as autonomous
vehicles and augmented
reality (AR).

CHALLENGES AND
OPPORTUNITIES

1. CYBERSECURITY:

As ICT evolves,
cybersecurity emerges as a
paramount concern. The increasing
interconnectivity and the growing
number of connected devices amplify
vulnerabilities to cyber-attacks,
data breaches, and hacking
incidents. Protecting information and
maintaining privacy in an increasingly
digital world presents both a
challenge and an opportunity for
innovation in cybersecurity measures.

2. PRIVACY CONCERNS:
 The digital age has raised significant
privacy issues. Technologies like AI
and big data analytics, while
beneficial, also pose risks regarding
data privacy and surveillance.
Ensuring user privacy and consent
in data collection and processing is
a growing concern that requires
stringent data protection laws and
ethical practices.

2. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS:

With the advancement of

technologies like AI and ML, ethical
considerations, especially regarding
decision-making processes and bias
in algorithms, become crucial. For
example, there are concerns about
AI perpetuating existing biases in
society, requiring a careful and
ethical approach to AI
development.

3. AUTOMATION AND ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE:

As technology becomes more sophisticated, tasks

that were previously performed by humans are
increasingly being carried out by machines or AI
systems. This leads to the displacement of workers
in various industries, from manufacturing to
services.
The jobs that technology displaces are often not
the same ones it creates. There's a skill gap
between the jobs lost and the new jobs that
emerge, requiring workers to retrain or upskill to
remain employable
OPPORTUNITIES AHEAD

1. Innovation in Health Sector:

ICT advancements, particularly in AI and big data, offer

tremendous opportunities for revolutionizing healthcare. Personalized medicine,
predictive analytics in patient care, and AI-assisted diagnostics are areas with
significant
potential.

2. Smart Cities and Urban Planning:

Technologies like IoT and 5G will be instrumental in

developing smart cities, leading to more efficient urban planning, better resource
management, and improved quality of life for residents.

3. Enhanced Learning and Educational Access:

ICT developments can transform

education, providing personalized learning experiences and democratizing access to
education globally through e-learning platforms.
4. Business Innovation and New Markets:

The evolution of ICT opens up new business

models and markets. E-commerce, digital marketing, and remote working are just a few
examples of how ICT is creating new economic opportunities.

5. Global Connectivity and International Relations:

The continued expansion of digital

connectivity can foster global collaboration and understanding, impacting international
relations positively. ICT can be a tool for diplomacy, cultural exchange, and global
problem-solving.

DATA AND INFORMATION

a) Data:
basic representations of elements of the reality, that tend to show up in set of
numbers or alphanumeric inside a document or inside an information system in a
physical or electronic format.

• Data itself does not have inherent value, it is because the human ability to relate them
and interpret them and convert them into information that they acquire value.

• Example: Spain’s GDP is 300 billions in 2022.

b) Information:

it is generated through the gathering and processing of data, by adding

them background, meaning and purpose.

• Information as a term is used for three purposes :

(a) creation of information from data

(b) to provide information by sending the information from an issuer to a receiver and

(c) the act of receiving that information.

• Information can modify and influence the way the receiver feels, acts and behaves. In
consequence, for an Intelligence Service Information is all set of data, news,
documents,
that does have potential interest as natural resource to produce Intelligence.

• Example: Spain’s GDP has grown 5% in the last two years.

Information is a basic resource for people, companies, organizations

and Nation-States. But the value of Information is measured by its
ability to become in useful knowledge.

• In order to send and receive Information, this must be adapted to a

document or an audible or visible sign.

c) Document:

every unit of conservation and communication made up

by a format and by the representation of data, information or
knowledge through a code understood by the creator of the Document
and the receiver of the Document.

• The Document can be understood as a particular set o data and also

as the material object where it is possible to reflect information
and/or knowledge.

• In a context where the available amount of Information exceeds

human capabilities of absorption and acquisition, and where the
quality of that Information does have big differences, it is necessary
to use adequate means to identify, collect, process, analyze and
assess relevant information with the aim to favor its use and its
transformation into knowledge and Intelligence.
• Organizations need information in documents, in order to generate
knowledge, to understand a fact, to adopt a decision or to carry out
an action.
• The managing of those Documents, and the protection of them are a
daily basis and essential tasks in every kind of organization (public,
private and non-profit)

THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE INFORMATION: THE KNOWLEDGE

Knowledge acquisition guarantees to get criteria to adopt decisions and to

take actions to influence successfully in the environment.
The process to create Knowledge from information includes, at least, five
activities:

a) Identification
b) Analysis
c) Synthesis
d) Contextualization
e) Assessment

Information and Knowledge form the base of human communication and

learning so that they are paramount for every organization
However, Knowledge is not exclusive in people, also there is an
Organizational Knowledge (OK) in systems, structure and processes
of the organizations.

• The set of knowledge provided by key personnel, know-how,

Intellectual Property (IP), patents and licenses, feedback from
customers, branding and trademarks, etc. is at the end of the day the
OK and it is also call Intangible Assets (IA).
• Intangible Assets are a set of knowledge and skills that when
combined and act produce goods, services, profit and advantages.
• Even though these Assets are non-tangible, they are essential for
organizations because they qualify the social value and/or the market
value of the organization.

• The Organizational Knowledge (OK) does have two categories.

a) Implicit.

The Implicit OK is formed by

i. human capital.

It is the knowledge acquired by the

Organization from the people inside the Organization.ç

ii. relational capital.

It is the knowledge acquired by the

Organization from the external relations (partners,
customers, providers, etc.)

b) Explicit.

It is the knowledge that has been already captured in a

support or material form, so that it is independent from the people
who created it.

For example: patents, software, goods, documents,

data bases, etc
• Inside an Organization, the Knowledge is not easy to capture, represent,
assimilate and transfer. The Knowledge inside an Organization is
disseminated through a process called The Spiral of Knowledge.

The Spiral of Knowledge is a Process formed by four activities.

1. Socialization.

Exchange of experiences between individuals where Tacit

Knowledge is shared in order to create new knowledge.

2. Externalization.

Capture of Implicit Knowledge in a format, turning Tacit

Knowledge into Explicit Knowledge.
3. Combination.

Creation of new Explicit Knowledge from existing Explicit

Knowledge from explicit documents or formats.

4. Interiorization.

Transform Explicit Knowledge into Tacit Knowledge

thanks to its absorption by individuals

UNIT 2: RESEARCH AND SOURCES

Research:

BASIC INITIAL APPROACH

1.IDENTIFYING THE RESEARCH ISSUE:

Begin by identifying a clear and concise issue that is worthy of

investigation.
Example: Choose an issue like 'The impact of economic sanctions on
international diplomacy’.

2. CONDUCTING A LITERATURE REVIEW:

Before formulating a hypothesis, you should familiarize with existing
research on the topic. This involves reading scholarly articles, books,
and other resources to understand what has already been discovered
and what gaps remain in the knowledge.
Example: Review scholarly articles on previous cases of economic
sanctions.

3. FORMULATING THE HYPOTHESIS:

A hypothesis is a statement that can be tested through research. It should be
an educated guess about the relationship between two or more variables; a
tentative explanation based on theory to predict a causal relationship
between variables. A research Project is about to test the hypothesis.

Example: 'Economic sanctions lead to decreased diplomatic relations

between countries’.

4. DEFINING KEY CONCEPTS AND VARIABLES:

Clearly define the key concepts and variables in your hypothesis. What
exactly do you mean by 'economic sanctions' and 'diplomatic relations'? How
will you measure these variables?

Example: Define 'economic sanctions' in terms of specific measures like

trade embargoes and define 'diplomatic relations' in terms of embassy
interactions or diplomatic visits.

5. DEVELOPING A RESEARCH DESIGN:

Decide how you will conduct your research. Will it be qualitative,
quantitative, or a mix of both? What methods will you use to collect
data?
Example: Choose to conduct case studies on different countries that
have faced economic sanctions and examine their diplomatic activity
before, during, and after sanctions.
6. COLLECTING DATA:
Gather the information you need to test your hypothesis. This could
involve conducting interviews, surveys, or gathering data from existing
records.

Example: Use historical records of diplomatic interactions from

government archives.

7. ANALYZING DATA:
Once you have your data, you'll need to analyze it to see if it supports
or refutes your hypothesis. This could involve statistical analysis or
thematic analysis of qualitative data.

Example: Look for patterns in the diplomatic relations of sanctioned

countries.

8. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS:
Based on your analysis, what can you conclude about your hypothesis?
Be sure to consider whether your findings can be generalized or if they
are specific to the cases you studied.

Example: Determine whether there is a pattern of decreased

diplomacy following sanctions.

9. REPORTING FINDINGS:
Present your research in a clear and organized manner, whether it's
through a paper, presentation, or publication. Include your
methodology, findings, and any limitations of your study.

Example: Write a research paper or prepare a presentation that

outlines your study and findings.

10. REFLECTING ON IMPLICATIONS:

Consider the broader implications of your findings for the field of
International Relations and for real-world politics.
Example: Discuss how the findings might affect future policy decisions
regarding economic sanctions.

RESEARCH TYPOLOGIES

1. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH:
Qualitative Research focuses on understanding the meaning and
characteristics of human behavior and social phenomena. It explores
the 'why' and 'how' of decision making, not just 'what', 'where', and
'when'. It often involves collecting rich data from a smaller number of
cases.

• Methods: Common methods include interviews, focus groups,

participant observations, and analysis of texts or cultural artifacts.
• Usage: This method is useful for exploring complex issues,
understanding social processes, and gaining insights into people's
attitudes and behaviors.

2. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH:
Quantitative research is about quantifying relationships between
variables. It uses statistical methods to test hypotheses and typically
involves the collection of numerical data that can be analyzed using
statistical techniques.

• Methods: Surveys with closed-ended questions, experiments, and

content analysis where data can be quantified are typical quantitative
methods.
• Usage: It's best for studying large populations, testing theories, and
making generalizable predictions or conclusions.

3. PRIMARY RESEARCH:
Primary research involves the collection of new data that has not been
previously collected. It's firsthand evidence related to your research
question.

• Methods: This can include both qualitative and quantitative methods,

such as conducting surveys, interviews, experiments, or collecting
observations.
• Usage: Primary research is conducted when there's a need for fresh
data specific to a particular question or when existing data is
inadequate or obsolete.

4. SECONDARY RESEARCH:
Secondary research involves the summary, collation, and/or synthesis
of existing research. It uses data that has already been gathered by
others and is available in various forms like books, articles, reports, or
datasets.

• Methods: It includes literature reviews, meta-analyses, and data

analysis from existing databases.
• Usage: Secondary research is useful for gaining a broad
understanding of a subject, framing a research question, or when the
collection of primary data is impractical

Sources
1.Definition:
Primary sources are original, firsthand documents or records of events, experiences, or
observations. They provide direct evidence about a topic or subject without any
interpretation or commentary.
Unedited, original, factual, and time-specific.

2. Examples:
a. Documents and Records: Letters, diaries, government documents, legal records,
and original
manuscripts.
b. Artifacts and Objects: Physical objects like artifacts, relics, clothing, or artwork from
the period
being studied.
c. Statistical Data: Original data collected through surveys, experiments, or
observational studies.
d. Audio-Visual Materials: Photographs, audio recordings, videos, films, or broadcasts
from the
time of study.
e. Interviews and Surveys: Direct interviews, questionnaires, or surveys conducted by
the
researcher.
3. Usage in Research:
Used to provide direct, unfiltered access to the subject of study. Primary sources are
essential for understanding the context, event, or phenomenon in its original for

SECONDARY SOURCES

1. Definition:
Secondary sources interpret, analyze, or summarize information from primary sources.
They offer second-hand accounts and provide commentary or criticism on the original
material.
Analytical, interpretative, evaluative, and reflective of the author’s perspective.

2. Examples:
a. Books and Articles: Academic books, journal articles, reviews, and critiques that
discuss,
analyze, or interpret primary sources.
b. Biographies: Accounts of a person's life written by someone else.
c. Documentaries: Films or television programs that provide a historical account or
analysis based
on primary sources.
d. Encyclopedias and Reference Books: Summarize information on a particular topic,
providing an
overview based on various sources.
e. Textbooks: Educational books that provide a summary and interpretation of
knowledge on a
subject.

3. Usage in Research:
Used to gain an understanding of the context, interpretation, or second-hand analysis
of
events, phenomena, or subjects. Secondary sources are vital for building theoretical
frameworks, literature reviews, and understanding the current state of research on a
topic.

INFOXICATION

• In the Society of Information, information is cheap to obtain, almost free.

• Never, throughout History, information has been so accessible for citizens,
although, we do not have skills or abilities to process and filter the
information. We live in “Infoxication”; we are intoxicated of information.
• Flooded with a massive influx of information the skills to process it (and all
the activities inside the word “process”) become paramount.
• To overcome this, we need to be experts in specific areas, what she/he
needs is to acquire necessary skills and knowledge to become an expert in
less time possible and, at the same time, being able to work in different
areas at the same time.
• Today, an organization obtains a strategic advantaged turning information
into Knowledge. Obtaining information as such no longer means strategic
advantage.
• Robert Baer (former CIA): “It is not about joining the dots but to decide
what is a dot and what is not”.

• It is hard to get rid of the infoxication without important tools.

• Managing a confused, inundated and blurry flux of information
requires high technology, but also high knowledge.
• In sum, in order to combat infoxication, we need more knowledge.
• More knowledge requires more time, at a time that we seem wasting
every second.

METHODS TO ASSESS SOURCES

1. CRAAP Test:
• Currency: How recent is the information? Is it up-to-date and relevant
to your current research needs?

• Relevance: Does the source address your research topic effectively? Is

it at an appropriate academic level?

• Authority: Who is the author or publisher? What are their

qualifications and credibility in this field?

• Accuracy: Is the information supported by evidence? Are there

citations or references to verify the claims?
• Purpose: Why was this source created? Is it intended to inform,
persuade, entertain, or sell something? Look for possible bias or
hidden agendas.

2. Source Origin:
• Primary vs. Secondary:

Determine if the source is primary or secondary, as

this affects its use and interpretation.

• Peer-Reviewed: For academic research, prefer peer-reviewed journal

articles as they have undergone rigorous review by experts in the field.

3. Cross-Checking Information:
• Verify information by cross-referencing with other credible sources.
• This helps in confirming the accuracy and reliability of the data.ç

4. Evaluating Online Sources:

• With digital sources, additional scrutiny is needed. Check the domain (.edu,
.gov, .org, or .com) for clues about reliability.
• Look for the “About Us” section on websites to understand their mission
and purpose.

5. Analyzing Writing Style and Quality:

• A credible source usually has a formal and academic writing style, free
from spelling and grammatical errors.
• The tone should be objective and unbiased, focusing on facts rather
than opinions.

6. Understanding the Context:

• Consider the historical, economic, or political context of the source.
This is particularly important for primary sources in understanding
their perspective and potential bias.

7. Assessing the Source's Contribution to Your Research:

• Ask how each source contributes to answering your research question
or how it adds to your understanding of the topic.

MORE SOURCES=LESS BIAS

CRITICAL THINKING

• Critical thinking is a rich concept that has been developing throughout the
past 2,500 years. The term "critical thinking" has its roots in the mid-late
20th century.
• In order to obtain Useful Knowledge, it is vital to apply Critical Thinking.
• Everyone thinks; it is our nature to do so. But much of our thinking, left to
itself, is biased, distorted, partial, uninformed or down-right prejudiced.
Yet the quality of our life and that of what we produce, make, or build
depends precisely on the quality of our thought. Shoddy thinking is costly,
both in money and in quality of life. Excellence in thought, however, must
be systematically cultivated.

➢ Definition.

Critical thinking is that mode of thinking - about any subject,

content, or problem - in which the thinker improves the quality of his or
her thinking by skillfully taking charge of the structures inherent in
thinking and imposing intellectual standards upon them

A WELL CULTIVATED CRITICAL THINKER:

i. raises vital questions and problems, formulating them clearly and precisely;

ii. gathers and assesses relevant information, using abstract ideas to interpret it
effectively comes to well-reasoned conclusions and solutions, testing them
against relevant criteria and standards;

iii. thinks openmindedly within alternative systems of thought, recognizing and

assessing, as need be, their assumptions, implications, and practical
consequences; and
iv. communicates effectively with others in figuring out solutions to complex
problems.

• Critical thinking is, in short, self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored, and

self-corrective thinking. It presupposes assent to rigorous standards of excellence
and mindful command of their use. It entails effective communication and
problem-solving abilities and a commitment to overcome our native egocentrism
and sociocentrism.
• At the end of the day, Critical Thinking means to submit our own thinking to
some rules, questions and disciplines.

THE PROBLEM OF EGOCENTRIC THINKING

• Egocentric thinking arises from the fact that we humans do not usually
appreciate the point of view of others or the limitations of our point of
view. We become aware of our self-centered thinking when we train
ourselves for it. We do not recognize self-centered assumptions, our self-
centered use of information, the self-centered way in which we interpret
data, the self-centered source of our concepts and ideas, or the
implications of our self-centered thinking. We don't usually recognize our
selfish perspective.
• As humans, we live with a confident, yet unreal, sense that we know how
things are and that we are objective. We believe, by nature, in our intuitive
perceptions even if they are wrong. Instead of using intellectual standards
in thinking, we use self-centered psychological standards to determine
what we believe and what we reject. Here are some examples of the most
used psychological standards

OPEN SOURCES RESEARCH

Power point

Unit 3: INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND ICTs

1. ICT APPLICATIONS FOR PROJECT
MANAGEMENT
PROJECT MANAGEMENT
• Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) have
revolutionized project management, especially in the realm of
International Relations.
• Tools such as project management software (like Asana,
Trello, and Microsoft Project) facilitate the organization,
planning, and execution of complex projects across different
geographical locations.
• These applications offer features like task assignment,
deadlines, updates, and collaboration spaces, making it easier
for international teams to work together effectively despite
time zone and language barriers.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT
• ICTs significantly enhance the planning phase of projects by
providing platforms for brainstorming, scheduling, and resource
allocation, all of which are accessible by team members
anywhere in the world.
• During the execution phase, ICT tools enable real-time
communication and problem-solving, allowing for immediate
adjustments and updates. This real-time capability is crucial
for managing the dynamic nature of international projects,
where external factors such as political changes or market
fluctuations can impact project delivery.

UMOJA
• A notable case study illustrating
successful ICT application in
international project management
is the development and
deployment of the UN’s UMOJA
system, a digital transformation
initiative that integrates and
streamlines financial, human
resource, and supply chain
processes across the United
Nations system worldwide. The
use of a centralized ICT platform
has improved operational
efficiency, transparency, and
accountability in UN projects
globally.

Project
Management
• The integration of ICT
tools in project
management thus
offers enhanced
coordination,
efficiency, and
adaptability, essential
qualities for the
successful execution
of international
projects in the complex
and fast-paced
environment of
International Relations.

2. METHODOLOGY FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT

METHODOLOGIES

• Project management methodologies are essential frameworks

used to plan, execute, and finalize projects efficiently and
effectively. In the context of international relations, where
projects often span different countries and cultures, selecting an
appropriate project management methodology is crucial.

PRINCE2 (Projects In Controlled Environments):

• This methodology is widely recognized and used in the UK and

internationally. It is a process-based approach providing a step-by-
step, detailed method for delivering successful projects. PRINCE2
focuses on dividing projects into manageable and controllable
stages, with specific emphasis on adaptability to changes.
• In international relations, PRINCE2 can be instrumental in structuring
projects that involve governmental or non-governmental
organizations across different nations, providing a common language
and standardized approach.

1.Starting Up a Project (SU):

This is the initial phase where the

project is defined and organized. Key activities include appointing
the project team, creating the initial project plan, and designing the
project management team structure. The outcome of this phase is
the Project Brief, which outlines the project's objectives, scope,
risks, and constraints.

2.Directing a Project (DP):

Throughout the project, the Project Board
(comprising executive, senior user, and senior supplier roles)
provides overall direction and management. This stage occurs from
the start to the end of the project and includes decision-making on
project initiation, stage boundaries, and project closure. The Project
Board is responsible for providing resources, ensuring effective
decision-making, and supporting the Project Manager.
3.Initiating a Project (IP):

In this phase, the project’s approach and

plan are developed in more detail. This includes creating key
documents such as the Project Initiation Documentation (PID),
which contains the detailed project plan, baseline documents for
each project objective, and strategies for managing risks, quality,
and communication.
4. Managing Stage Boundaries (SB):

This step involves the review and

assessment of the current stage within the project's lifecycle. The Project
Manager is responsible for providing progress reports to the Project Board,
updating project plans, and preparing for the next stage. This phase
ensures
that lessons are learned and applied, and that future stages are properly
planned.

5. Controlling a Stage (CS):

This phase involves the day-to-day

management of each project stage by the Project Manager. Activities
include
assigning work, monitoring progress, managing risks and issues, and
ensuring that the stage remains within the agreed-upon scope, timescale,
and budget.

6. Managing Product Delivery (MP):

This focuses on the supervision and
coordination of the production of the project’s deliverables. It ensures that
assigned work is completed to the expected quality standards, within the
set
timeframe, and is delivered according to the project plan. Communication
between the Project Manager and team members is crucial during this
phase.

7. Closing a Project (CP):

This final phase ensures that the project is

brought to an orderly conclusion. Activities include handing over
deliverables
to the client, releasing project resources, evaluating project performance
against the initial plan, identifying lessons learned, and officially closing
the

3. METHODOLOGY FOR RESEARCHING IN

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

Comparative Analysis

1. Comparative Analysis:
This methodology involves comparing
two or more cases or entities to understand their differences and
similarities. It is particularly useful for identifying best practices or
explaining variations across cases.

a) Comparative Case Studies:

Comparing the foreign policies
of different countries, such as the environmental policies of
Sweden and the United States, to understand different
approaches to international environmental agreements.

b) Cross-National Comparisons:
Analyzing how different
cultures negotiate treaties or resolve conflicts, comparing
practices across various regions.

2. Historical Analysis:
Historical analysis in international
relations involves studying past events to understand current
international systems and predict future trends.

a) Archival Research:
Examining historical documents, treaties,
and records to understand the genesis of current international
laws or institutions.

b) Historical Case Studies:

Investigating significant historical

events, like the formation of the European Union, to comprehend
their impact on contemporary international relations.

3. Theoretical Analysis:

This approach involves developing and testing

theories to explain phenomena in international relations.

a) Constructivism, Realism, Liberalism:

Utilizing these foundational
theories to frame and analyze current international issues, such as
examining global security through a realist lens.
These three theories provide different perspectives on global issues,
particularly in the realm of global security. Here's how each can be applied
to analyze current international issues with specific examples:

1. Realism:
Realism focuses on the anarchic nature of the international
system, the primacy of state actors, national interest, and the importance
of
military power.

Example: The South China Sea Dispute: Through a realist lens, the
territorial disputes in the South China Sea can be viewed as a power
struggle, primarily between China and other regional actors like the
Philippines, Vietnam, and Malaysia. Realists argue that China's military
buildup and territorial claims in the region are driven by its national interest
to secure maritime routes and assert regional dominance. Similarly, the
United States' freedom of navigation operations can be seen as an effort to
maintain balance of power and protect its own strategic interests in the
region.
2. Liberalism

: Liberalism emphasizes international cooperation,

democratic peace theory, and the role of international institutions
and norms.

Example: The Paris Climate Agreement: From a liberal

perspective, the Paris Agreement is an example of how global
governance and international cooperation can address global
challenges, in this case, climate change. Liberalists would
highlight the role of the UN Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC) in facilitating negotiations and argue that the
agreement reflects the power of international norms and
institutions in promoting cooperative solutions to global problems,
even though its enforcement mechanisms might be weak.

3. Constructivism:
Constructivism focuses on how international
relations are socially constructed through the interaction of ideas,
norms, and beliefs.
Example: The Rise of Humanitarian Interventions:
Constructivists would analyze the growing acceptance and
practice of humanitarian interventions, such as NATO's
intervention in Kosovo or the discourse surrounding the
Responsibility to Protect (R2P) norm, as a shift in international
norms regarding sovereignty and human rights. They would
argue that these interventions are not merely the result of
material power dynamics but are deeply influenced by changing
moral standards, identities, and discourses in the international
community.

4. DIPLOMACY IN THE ERA OF ICT: CHANGES IN THE CONDUCT OF

DIPLOMACY

DIPLOMACY DEFINITION

• Diplomacy can be defined as the practice and art of

conducting negotiations and maintaining relationships
between representatives of different groups, states, or
organizations.
• It involves the strategic management of communication and
relationships to achieve political, economic, or social
objectives.
• Diplomats, the practitioners of diplomacy, work to represent
and protect the interests of their nation or organization while
fostering cooperative and peaceful relations with other
entities.
• Diplomacy is often conducted through dialogue, negotiation,
and compromise, and can take place in various settings,
including international organizations, bilateral meetings, and
multilateral conferences. It encompasses a wide range of
activities, from formal treaty negotiations and ambassadorial
DIPLOMACY’S CORE

At its core, diplomacy aims to:

1. resolve conflicts

2. prevent wars, and;

3. promote understanding and collaboration between nations.

It relies on skills such as communication, cultural sensitivity,

strategic thinking, and the ability to balance different interests
and perspectives.
In today's interconnected world, diplomacy is a crucial tool for
addressing global challenges, building alliances, and shaping
international policy.

DIPLOMACY TODAY

• The landscape of diplomacy has been

fundamentally transformed by the advent of
Information and Communication Technologies
(ICTs).
• This transformation encompasses various
facets of diplomatic practice, including e-
commerce, cybersecurity, and digital
diplomacy.
• The era of ICT has ushered in significant
changes, reshaping how diplomatic activities
are conducted, how international relations are
managed, and how states engage with each
other and their citizens.

E-COMMERCE AND DIPLOMACY

• E-commerce, or electronic commerce, refers to the buying and selling of

goods and services through the internet.
• While primarily an economic activity, e-commerce has significant
implications for diplomacy, particularly in the areas of trade negotiations
and economic diplomacy. For example, the negotiation of international
trade agreements now involves complex discussions on e-commerce
regulations, digital taxation, and cross-border data flows. The United
States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA) serves as a prime example,
incorporating comprehensive digital trade provisions that address issues
such as data localization and privacy.
• The rise of e-commerce has needed a shift in diplomatic focus
towards creating a conducive digital environment for trade. Diplomats
must understand the nuances of digital economy policies and engage in
multilateral forums such as the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the
G20 Digital Economy Task Force. Moreover, countries are increasingly
appointing digital ambassadors or envoys who specialize in tech issues,
illustrating the importance of e-commerce in contemporary diplomatic
agendas.

CYBERSECURITY AND DIPLOMACY

• Cybersecurity has emerged as a critical concern in international

relations, influencing diplomatic priorities and strategies.
• The threat of cyber-attacks on national infrastructure, the theft of
sensitive information, and the potential for cyber warfare have led
states to prioritize cybersecurity in their diplomatic engagements. The
establishment of norms and agreements to enhance global
cybersecurity, such as the Budapest Convention on Cybercrime,
reflects the integration of these concerns into diplomatic dialogues.
• Cyber-diplomacy involves efforts to manage and mitigate conflicts in
cyberspace, promote responsible state behavior, and develop
international cybersecurity standards.
• The Tallinn Manual on the International Law Applicable to Cyber
Warfare exemplifies collaborative efforts to apply existing international
law to cyberspace. Diplomats are increasingly required to possess
knowledge of cyber issues, as cybersecurity discussions
permeate various international platforms, from the United Nations
to regional security organizations.

DIGITAL DIPLOMACY

• Digital diplomacy, also known as e-diplomacy or diplomacy

2.0, represents the use of digital tools and social media
platforms to achieve diplomatic objectives. It encompasses
activities such as public diplomacy, crisis communication, and
the dissemination of official information through digital channels.
Social media platforms like X and Instagram have become
essential tools for diplomats and foreign ministries to
communicate messages, engage with global audiences,
and influence public opinion.
• One notable example of digital diplomacy in action is the
Swedish Foreign Ministry's "Virtual Embassy" in Second
Life, an early experiment in extending diplomatic presence to
digital spaces. Similarly, during the Arab Spring, social media
played a pivotal role in shaping international perceptions and
responses, demonstrating the power of digital platforms in
influencing diplomatic outcomes

VIRTUAL MEETINGS AND DIGITAL

ARCHIVES IN MODERN DIPLOMACY

• The COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated the adoption of

virtual meetings and conferences, reshaping traditional
diplomatic interactions. Virtual platforms have enabled the
continuation of international dialogues, negotiations, and
multilateral summits, albeit with adjustments to diplomatic
protocols and practices. For instance, the United Nations
Security Council and the G7 have held virtual meetings to
address global issues, illustrating the adaptability of
diplomacy to digital formats.
• Furthermore, digital archives and databases have become
invaluable resources for diplomats, providing immediate access
to historical documents, treaties, and international laws. These
digital tools facilitate research, inform decision-making, and
enhance transparency in diplomatic processes.

DIPLOMACY IN THE ERA OF ICT’S

• In conclusion, the integration of ICTs into diplomacy has brought
about profound changes in how diplomacy is conducted.
• E-commerce has expanded the scope of economic diplomacy.
• Cybersecurity has become a cornerstone of national and
international security discussions.
• Digital diplomacy has opened new avenues for engagement and
communication.
• As ICT continues to evolve, diplomats must adapt to these changes,
leveraging technology to enhance diplomatic effectiveness while
navigating the challenges and opportunities presented by the digital
era.
• The future of diplomacy will undoubtedly be marked by a
greater integration of digital tools, requiring a reevaluation of
traditional diplomatic practices and the development of new
skills and strategies to address the complexities of the
interconnected, digital world.
5. BASIC PROBLEMS OF ICT’S GLOBAL
GOVERNANCE

GLOBAL GOVERNANCE
• Global governance refers to the collective processes, norms,
agreements, and institutions that guide and regulate the
behavior of states, corporations, civil society, and individuals in
the international arena.
• Unlike global government, which implies a central authority,
global governance is a decentralized and multilayered
process involving various stakeholders at different levels, from
local to international.
• This global governance is carried out via international
institutions and international agreements.
EXAMPLES

• The United Nations (UN):

The UN
is a prime example of an
organization at the heart of global
governance. Established in 1945, it
aims to maintain international
peace and security, develop
friendly relations among nations,
and promote social progress, better
living standards, and human rights.
The UN is involved in a wide range
of issues including peacekeeping,
humanitarian assistance,
environmental protection, and
the promotion of international
cooperation to tackle global
challenges like poverty and climate
change.
• The World Trade
Organization (WTO):
The WTO is an
international body that
regulates international
trade. It provides a
framework for negotiating
trade agreements, a
dispute resolution
process, and a set of
rules to ensure that
international trade flows
as smoothly, predictably,
and freely as possible. By
promoting fair and open
trade, the WTO facilitates
global economic
cooperation and
governance.

• The International Monetary Fund

(IMF) and World Bank:

These two
financial institutions play key roles in
global economic governance. The
IMF monitors the international
monetary system and provides
financial assistance and advice to
countries facing economic
difficulties. The World Bank,
meanwhile, provides loans and
grants to support development
projects (like infrastructure, health,
and education) in developing
countries, aiming to reduce poverty
and promote economic
development. 35

• The Paris Agreement on

Climate Change:

This
international treaty within the
United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC) aims to
combat climate change by
limiting global warming to
well below 2 degrees Celsius
above pre-industrial levels.
The agreement, adopted by
196 parties at COP 21 in Paris
in 2015, represents a
significant step in global
governance, as it requires
countries to set and pursue
their own nationally
determined contributions to
reduce greenhouse gas
emissions

• The International Criminal Court

(ICC):
The ICC is an independent
judicial institution that has the
authority to try individuals for
international crimes such as
genocide, crimes against
humanity, and war crimes.
Established by the Rome Statute in
2002, the ICC represents an
important aspect of global
governance in terms of enforcing
international law and delivering
justice on a global scale.
37
ICT’S GLOBAL GOVERNANCE
• ICT's global governance refers to the processes, agreements,
norms, and institutions that collectively oversee the
development, implementation, distribution, and regulation
of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs)
across the globe.
• This includes the management of the internet's architecture,
cybersecurity measures, data protection and privacy, digital
trade, and access to digital technologies.
• The goal of ICT's global governance is to ensure that these
technologies support economic growth, enhance social
inclusion, maintain security, and respect individual rights
while addressing the challenges posed by their global nature
and the disparities in access and control. ICT’s global
governance is also carried out via international institutions and
agreements.
EXAMPLES
UNIT 3- INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS PROJECT MANAGEMENT AND ICTs
• Internet Corporation for Assigned
Names and Numbers (ICANN):
ICANN is a nonprofit organization
responsible for coordinating the
maintenance and procedures of
several databases related to the
namespaces of the internet,
ensuring the network's stable and
secure operation. ICANN's role in
managing the Domain Name
System (DNS) is crucial for the
global functioning of the internet.
39

• International
Telecommunication Union
(ITU): A specialized agency of
the United Nations, the ITU is
responsible for issues that
concern information and
communication technologies.
The ITU sets worldwide
standards that foster
seamless interconnection of a
vast range of communication
systems and addresses the
global management of radio-
frequency spectrum and
satellite orbits to prevent signal
interference across borders

• The General Data Protection

Regulation (GDPR):
Although a regional law of the
European Union, the GDPR
has set a benchmark for data
protection and privacy
worldwide. It regulates how
companies should handle
personal data of EU
citizens, impacting global
corporations and leading to
the adoption of similar
regulations in other countries,
thus influencing global
standards for data privacy

• The Budapest Convention

on Cybercrime:

This is the
first international treaty
seeking to address
internet and computer
crime by harmonizing
national laws, improving
investigative techniques,
and increasing cooperation
among nations. The
convention represents an
effort to create a common
framework to fight
cybercrime across the
globe.

• World Wide Web Consortium

(W3C):
The W3C is an
international community that
develops open standards to
ensure the long-term growth of
the Web. By creating protocols
and guidelines that ensure the
internet's growth is compatible
and accessible, the W3C plays a
crucial role in the global
governance of ICT.
• Global Network Initiative (GNI):
The GNI is a multi-stakeholder
organization of companies, civil society organizations, investors, and
academics who work together to protect and advance freedom of
expression and privacy in the ICT sector. By establishing principles
and accountability mechanisms, GNI addresses challenges related to
governance in the global ICT industry.

• The Paris Call for Trust and

Security in Cyberspace:

Launched by the French

government, this call for action
brings together governments,
private sector entities, and civil
society organizations in support
of common principles to
secure cyberspace. The
initiative represents a global
effort to establish norms for
responsible behavior in the
digital environment.

BASIC PROBLEMS OF ICT’S GOVERNANCE

In the interconnected world of the 21st century, Information and

Communication Technologies (ICTs) have become integral to
our daily lives, influencing various aspects of society, economy,
and governance.
• However, the global governance of ICTs presents numerous
challenges, from privacy concerns to the digital divide and
cybersecurity threats. Addressing these issues requires
international cooperation and the development of
comprehensive regulations and agreements.
PRIVACY CONCERNS
• One of the most pressing issues in the global governance of
ICTs is the protection of individual privacy. As digital
technologies permeate all aspects of life, vast amounts of
personal data are collected, stored, and processed, often
without the explicit consent of individuals. This raises concerns
about surveillance, data breaches, and the misuse of personal
information.

• Example:
The European Union’s General Data Protection
Regulation (GDPR) represents a significant step towards
addressing privacy concerns on a global scale. The GDPR sets
strict guidelines for data protection and privacy for all individuals
within the European Union and the European Economic Area. It
also addresses the transfer of personal data outside the EU and
EEA areas. However, implementing such comprehensive
regulations globally is challenging due to varying legal
standards and cultural perceptions of privacy

DIGITAL DIVIDE

• The digital divide refers to the gap between individuals,

households, businesses, and geographic areas at different
socioeconomic levels regarding their opportunities to
access ICTs. This divide exists not only within countries but
also between them, exacerbating global inequalities.
• Example: Initiatives like the United Nations’ Sustainable
Development Goal 9 (SDG 9), which aims to build resilient
infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable
industrialization, and foster innovation, address the digital
divide. However, bridging this gap requires concerted efforts
from governments, the private sector, and international
organizations to ensure equitable access to ICTs and related
skills training.

CYBERSECURITY THREATS

• As reliance on ICTs grows, so does the threat landscape.

Cybersecurity threats include malware, phishing,
ransomware, and state-sponsored attacks, which can target
critical infrastructure, steal intellectual property, and undermine
national security.
• Example:
The WannaCry ransomware attack in 2017 affected
more than 200,000 computers across 150 countries, disrupting
healthcare services, businesses, and government operations.
This incident highlighted the need for global cooperation and
robust cybersecurity measures to protect against such
widespread threats

INTERNATIONAL REGULATIONS AND

AGREEMENTS

• Developing international regulations and agreements is crucial

for addressing the challenges of ICT global governance. These
agreements must balance the protection of privacy,
security, and the free flow of information while promoting
innovation and economic growth.
• Example:

The Budapest Convention on Cybercrime, also

known as the Council of Europe Convention on Cybercrime, is
the first international treaty seeking to address Internet and
computer crime by harmonizing national laws, improving
investigative techniques, and increasing cooperation among
nations. However, achieving global consensus is challenging
due to differences in legal frameworks, national interests, and
levels of technological development.