VERBS

1. CLASSES OF VERBS
There are two classes of verbs in English:
1.1. Auxiliary Verbs: be, have, do, can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, ought
to, will, would, to need, to dare and used to.
This class is divided into two sub-classes:
Primary auxiliaries: be, have, do
Modal auxiliaries: The remaining auxiliaries

NB
It should be noted that be, have, do, need and dare have infinitives and
participles like ordinary verbs, while the other auxiliaries have not.

1.2. Lexical / Ordinary verbs: All the other verbs belong to this class.
e.g. to sing, to work.
This class is also divided into two sub-classes: regular and irregular verbs according to
the form of the verb as explained below.

2. LEXICAL / ORDINARY VERBS

2.1. Verbal Forms
All ordinary verbs have five basic forms:

Ver Base/ Past Past Present ‘S’ Form

b Form Infinitive simple Participle Participle
Regular Walk Walked Walked Walking Walks

Irregular Write Wrote Written Writing Writes

As mentioned earlier there are two categories of lexical verbs: regular and irregular.
In regular verbs the past simple and past participle are both formed by adding (d) or
(ed) to the infinitive; therefore, from the base of such verbs we can predict the other
forms. Whereas the past forms of irregular verbs cannot be predicted from the base,
they should be learnt (see the list of irregular verbs).

N.B.
In all verbs the ‘s’ form and the present participle can be obtained by
adding ‘s’ / ‘es’ and ‘ing’ to the base respectively .

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 2.2. Some Inflectional Spelling Rules

2.2.1. Doubling of Consonant

Final base consonants of a verb, except w, x and y, are doubled before inflections
(suffixes) beginning with a vowel letter when the preceding is stressed and spelled with
a single vowel letter.
e.g. hit + ing =hitting knit + ed = knitted
permit + ing = permitting begin + ing =
beginning
There is no doubling when the vowel is unstressed or written with two letters.
e.g. enter + ing = entering answer + ed =
answered defeat + ed = defeated

Exceptions

Bases ending with certain consonants are doubled also after single unstressed vowels:
-g - - gg-
-c - - ck-
e. g: traffic trafficking trafficked

In British English bases ending in ‘l’, ‘m’, and ‘p’ are also doubled when they come after a
single vowel.
-l- -ll-
-m -mm-
-p -pp-
e. g. signal signalling signalled program(me)
programming programmed worship
worshipping worshipped
These consonants (l, m, p) are not doubled in American English unless they come
after a single stressed vowel.

2.2.2. Verbs Ending with ‘y’

Bases ending with ‘y’ following a consonant, change the ‘y’ to ‘i’ before any suffix
except ‘ing’
e.g. carry + ed = carried - carry + ing = carrying hurry + ed =
hurried - hurry + ing = hurrying
When the verb is in the ‘s’ form, that is the third person singular, the following change
occurs:
e.g. carry + s = carries hurry + s = hurries
In bases ending with ‘ie’, the ‘ie’ is replaced by ‘y’ before the ‘ing’ inflection
e.g. die + ing = dying lie + ing = lying

2.2.3. Omission of Final ‘e’

Final ‘e’ in a verb is regularly dropped before the ‘ing’ and ‘ed’ inflections.
e.g. shave shaving shaved

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Verbs with bases ending in ‘ee’, ‘ye’ , ‘oe’ and often (but not always) ‘ge’ are
exceptions to this rule in that they do not drop the ‘e’ before ‘ing’ , but they do drop it
before ‘ed’.
e. g. agree agreeing agreed dye dyeing
dyed
hoe hoeing hoed
singe singeing singed
The final ‘e’ of verbs ending in ‘ ie’ is also dropped before ‘ed’.

3. AUXILIARY VERBS
Auxiliaries help to form a tense or an expression. They combine with present or past
participles or with infinitives to form the tenses of ordinary verbs.
e. g. I am coming He has finished. I
didn’t see him.

They also combine with infinitives to indicate permission, possibility, obligation,

deduction etc.
e. g. He can speak French. You may go .
We must hurry.

Auxiliaries are divided into two classes: principal / primary auxiliaries and modal
auxiliaries.

3.1. Principal Auxiliaries: be , have , do

Be, have, do have the Following Forms:

Infinitive Present tense Past simple Past participle Present participle

Be am, is, are was, were been being

Have have, has had had having

Do do, does did done doing

Be and have are used as auxiliaries to form tenses.

e.g. He has just arrived. (present perfect) He is writing
a letter. (present continuous)
They are also used to express negation and interrogation in such statements.
Do as an auxiliary is used with the present and past simple of ordinary verbs in
negative and interrogative sentences.
e.g. It didn’t matter.

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 e.g. Does she see us?
Be, have, do require a participle or infinitive when used as auxiliaries, but in answers,
comments etc. this is often understood but not mentioned.
e.g. A: Have you heard that ? B: yes, I have
( heard that ).
Be, have, do are also used as ordinary verbs with independent meanings. Be can denote
‘existence’, have can mean ‘take’, do can mean ‘perform’ etc.
e.g. The cat is in the kitchen. He had his
breakfast. She does her homework.
In this case:
¤ Be follows the auxiliary verb pattern.
e.g. He is here.
He isn’t here. Is he here?
¤ Have normally follows the auxiliary pattern when having the state sense of
possession.
e.g. I haven’t any books. Have I any
books?
With this meaning, the informal form have got can be used especially in British
English as an alternative to have in negative and interrogative sentences.
e.g. I haven’t ( got) any books. Has he (got) to
go?
Have uses the do-construction when used in dynamic senses (receive, take,
experience, etc.).
e.g. Did he have his breakfast ?
¤ Do follows the ordinary verb pattern.
e.g. Did she do her homework? She didn’t do her
homework.

3.2. Modal Auxiliaries

There are two categories of modal auxiliaries: modals and semi-modals.
3.2.1. Modals: They are as follows:

Present form Past form

Can Could
May Might
Will Would
Shall Should
Must
Ought to

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 Modals have no final‘s’ in the third person singular.
e. g. He can
He must
They always form their negative and interrogative according to the auxiliary pattern
that is without do.
e. g. A: will he come? A: Can I open the door? B: No, he will
not. B: No, you cannot.
They have no proper past tenses. Only four past forms exist: could, might, should and
would, but they have a restricted use.
All modal verbs except ought are followed by the bare infinitive i.e. infinitive without
‘to’.
e. g. You should pay. You ought to pay.

3.2.2. Semi–modals
Need, dare and used are considered as semi-modals because they can have different
forms. When used as auxiliaries, need and dare can either conform to the modal
auxiliary pattern i.e. take the bare infinitive, or to the ordinary verb pattern i.e. use the
do construction and, then, take the full infinitive.
It should be mentioned that in the affirmative, dare is conjugated like an ordinary verb
i.e. dare/ dares in the present and dared in the past. Observe the following examples:

Auxiliary pattern Ordinary verb pattern

He needn’t wait. He doesn’t need to wait.

He dared not interrupt. He didn’t dare to interrupt.
Dare he criticise my Does he dare criticise my
arrangements? arrangements?
She dares coming to my house.

Need and dare can also be used as ordinary verbs and are then inflected and have the
usual participles.
e. g. He needs help.
They dared me to jump.
Used, also referred to as used to, is used only in the past. For its negative and
interrogative forms used in formal English, it usually follows the auxiliary pattern.
e. g. I used not / usedn’t to go there. Used you to
live in London?
Though technically used has no infinitive, the forms didn’t use to and did he use to?
are quite often heard.
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4. USE OF AUXILIARIES

4.1. Auxiliaries in Short Answers

Auxiliaries are used in short answers to yes/ no questions.
e. g. A: Do you smoke?
B: Yes, I do/ No, I don’t.

If there is more than one auxiliary in the question, the first should be used in the
answer.
e. g A: Could he have bought it ?
B: Yes, he could/ No, he couldn’t.
4.2 Disagreements with Remarks
We use auxiliaries to disagree with someone’s remark.
e. g. A: He worked too hard. B: Oh no, he
didn’t.
A: Ali gets up too early. B: No, he
doesn’t.
A: Why did you travel first class? B: But I didn’t.
A: I won’t pay you B: yes, you will.

4.3 Question Tags

Question tags are short additions to sentences asking for agreement or confirmation
and in which auxiliaries are used.
 After negative statements we use affirmative interrogatives.
e. g. You didn’t see him, did you?
 After affirmative statements we put negative interrogatives.
e. g. Ali was there, wasn’t he?

NB :
Negative auxiliaries in the tags are usually contracted.
The subject of the tag is always a pronoun.
The same tense of the statement is kept in the tag.

 Statements containing words such as : neither, no (adj), none, no one, nobody,

scarcely, barely, hardly, hardly ever and seldom are treated as negative statements and
followed by affirmative interrogative tags.
e. g. No salt is allowed, is it?
Amina hardly ever goes to parties, does she?

 When the subject of the sentences is: anyone, anybody, no one, nobody, none,
neither, everybody, everyone, somebody or someone, we use the pronoun they as
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subject to the tag.
e. g. No one would object, would they? Neither of them
complained, did they? Someone had recognised him,
hadn’t they?

 Negative interrogative tags without contractions are very rarely

used but possible with a different word order.
e. g. You saw him, did you not? Irregularities:
e. g. I ‘m late, aren’t I? let’s go, shall
we?

 After affirmative imperatives we use:

‘Won’t you?’ to invite people to do things
‘Will you?’, ‘Would you?’, ‘Can you?’, ‘Could you?’, ‘Can’t you?’ to tell people to do
things.
e. g. Do sit down, won’t you? Open the window,
would you? Give me a hand, will you? Shut up,
can’t you?
Ask her to come, can you?

 After a negative imperative we use ‘will you?’

e. g. Don’t forget, will you?

4.4. Additions to Remarks

 Affirmative additions to affirmative remarks are made by:

Subject + auxiliary + too / also

or
so + auxiliary + subject

If there is an auxiliary in the remark it is repeated in the addition, otherwise the

auxiliary do is used.
e. g. Amina has finished her work and Sarah has too / so has Sarah. Djawad
enjoyed the party and Ali did too / so did Ali.
The additions can be spoken by another person.
e. g. A: The boys cheated. B: The girls did
too.
 Negative additions to affirmative remarks are made with:

but + subject + negative auxiliary

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 e. g. He likes pop music but I don’t.

 Affirmative additions to negative remarks are made with:

but + subject + auxiliary

e. g. The horse wasn’t hurt but the rider was.

 Negative additions to negative remarks are made with:

neither/ nor + auxiliary + subject

or
subject + negative auxiliary + either

e. g. He never goes to concerts neither does his wife / his wife doesn’t either.
She didn’t like he book nor did I/ I didn’t either.

5. MEANING OF AUXILIARIES

5.1. Principal Auxiliaries: Be, Have, Do

5.1.1. Be
Be+ infinitive is used to convey orders or instructions.
e. g. No one is to leave this building without the permission of the police.
Note the difference between:
a) Stay here, Ali.
And
b) You are to stay here, Ali.

In (a) the speaker himself is ordering Ali to stay, while in (b) he may be simply
conveying to Ali the wishes of another person.
The above distinction disappears in indirect speech where the Be +
infinitive expresses indirect commands.
e. g. He says, “wait till I come”.
Reported speech : He says that we are to wait till he comes.
It is also used in reporting requests for instructions.
e. g.“Where shall I put it, sir?” he asked.
Reported speech: He asked where he was to put it.

Be + infinitive is also used to convey a plan.

e. g. She is to be married next month.

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 The expedition is to start in a week’s time.

Was / Were + infinitive can express an idea of destiny.

e. g. They said goodbye, knowing that they were never to meet again.

Be about + infinitive expresses the immediate future.

e. g. They are about to start.
If just is used, the future expressed is even more immediate.
e. g. They are just about to leave.
Be about + infinitive = Be on the point of + gerund
e. g. They are on the point of starting.

5.1.2. Have
The construction have + object + past participle can be used to express sentences of
the type ‘I employed someone to do something for me’
e. g. I had my car cleaned.
This sentence means: I employed someone to clean my car.

NB:
The word order have + object + past participle should be
kept otherwise the meaning will be changed, compare:
She had her hair cut.
*She had cut her hair.

When have is used in this way, the negative and interrogative of its present and
past tenses are formed with do.
e. g. Do you have your windows cleaned every month?
Get can be used in the same way as have but is more colloquial.
e. g. I got my car cleaned.
Had better + bare infinitive has a present or future meaning, had in this construction is
an unreal past.
e. g. Affirmative: I’d better ring him at once. Negative: you’d
better not miss the last bus.
Had is usually contracted after pronouns
The construction had better + bare infinitive is not normally used in the ordinary
interrogative, but is sometimes used in the negative interrogative.
e. g. Hadn’t you better ask him first?

The construction have + object + present participle is often used with a period of
future time.
e. g. I’ll have you driving in 3 days. It can also be
used in the past.

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 e. g. He had them all dancing.
This construction can be used in the interrogative form but is not often used in the
negative.

5.1.3. Do
Do / Did + infinitive is used in affirmative statements when we wish to add special
emphasis on the verb in the infinitive. It is mainly used when another speaker had
expressed doubt about the action referred to.
e. g. A: You didn’t see him. B: I did see him.

Do + imperative makes a request or invitation more persuasive.

e. g. Do come with us.

Do can be used as an approving or encouraging affirmative answer to someone asking

for approval.
e. g. A: Shall I write to him? B: Yes, do.

5.2. Modal Auxiliaries

5.2.1. Can / Could Ability
Can and could are used to express general ability or knowing how to do something. In
this case they can be replaced by be able to.
e. g. I can type a telex
I am able to type a telex

Both can and be able to are possible in the present, but can is more commonly used.
Similarly, both could and be able to are possible in the past, but could is more
commonly used.
e. g. He can speak French.
He is able to speak French
e. g. He could run 100 meters in 13 seconds
He was able to run 100 meters in 13 seconds

Only be able to is used in all other forms and tenses such as the future simple, present
perfect, infinitive ... etc.
e. g. I’ve been able to swim since I was three. I would love to
be able to swim.

Could has a conditional use both in the second and third conditionals.
e. g. If I had taken the exam I could have passed it.

Could + perfect infinitive is used to express a past ability that was never proved.
e. g. I could have stopped the bank robbers as they were escaping.

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Possibility
Can is used to express a theoretical possibility.
e. g. How many people can a land-rover hold?

Could can express a weak possibility.

e. g. It could be a UFO1, but it looks like a plane.

Could + perfect infinitive is used when we think it is possible that something has
happened, but we don’t really know.
e. g. She is still not here; she could have got lost.

Permission
Can and could are used to ask permission. “Could I?” can express both formal and
informal requests, whereas “can I ?” is more colloquial.
e. g. Can I bring a friend to the party?
Could I have another cup of coffee, please?

Can is used to give or refuse permission for both “can I?” and “could I?”
e. g. A: Can I open the door?
B: Yes, you can / No, you can’t.
A: Could I open the door?
B: Yes, you can / No, you can’t.
Offers and requests
Can and could are used to offer to do something for someone
e. g. Can I do the shopping for you?
I could give you a lift to the station.

Can and could are also used to ask or tell someone to do something.
e. g. Can you draw the curtains, please?

5.2.2. May / Might Possibility

May and might express either a present or future possibility.
Might slightly increases the doubt.
e. g. He may be at home, now.
He doesn’t work hard, but he might succeed in his exams.

May / Might + perfect infinitive is used in speculations about past actions.

e. g. He may / might have gone = it is possible that he has gone. When the
main verb is in the past only might is used.
e. g. He thought that she might have missed the plane.

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Might, not may, must be used when the uncertainty no longer exists.
e. g. He came home alone, he might have got lost. (But he didn’t get lost.)
Might, not may, is also used when the matter was never put to test, as in:
e. g. Perhaps we should have taken the other road. It might have been quicker.
Sentences of this kind are similar to the 3rd conditional.
e. g. If we had taken the other road it might have been quicker.

May / Might can be used in conditional sentences instead of will / would to indicate a
possible rather than a certain result. Only might is used in the 2nd and 3rd conditional

Permission
May and might are used to ask formally for permission. Might is less common and a
rather tentative way of asking permission i.e. it indicates a greater uncertainty than may
about the answer.
e. g. May I write you a cheque?
I wonder if I might borrow $5 from you.

May is used to give or refuse permission for both “may I?” and “might I?”
e. g. A: May I stay out late tonight?
B: Yes, you may. / No, you may not.
5.2.3. Must Obligation
Must is used to give command (when the command is at the wish of the speaker) or
strong advice. It can also be used to express personal obligation.
e. g. You must be home early. I must clean the
house.

When the command is made because of external circumstances, have to is used.

e. g. We have to be at work at 8:00 everyday.

Have got to can also be used. It is usually contracted and it is used for more specific
actions, whereas have to is used for more habitual actions.
e. g. I’ve got to work late tonight.

Only have to can be used in the past simple, perfect tenses, gerund, infinitive and after
modals.
e. g. I don’t like having to repeat myself all time.

Absence of obligation
Don’t need to, needn’t, don’t have to and haven’t got to are used to say that something
is unnecessary. They express absence of obligation, which is not expressed by mustn’t.
In fact, mustn’t is used to give strong negative advice or command.
e.g. You don’t have to wear a tie to work, but you mustn’t wear jeans. (Wear a tie
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 or not as you like, but no jeans allowed)
Deduction / Assumption
Must is used to express a logical deduction, that is when we are certain about
something but have no concrete evidence.
e. g. Someone is knocking at the door. It must be Amina.

In questions and negative statements, we use can and can’t / couldn’t with this
meaning not must and mustn’t.
e. g. There is somebody at the door. Who can it be? It can’t be the
postman. It’s only seven o’clock.

Must + perfect infinitive is used to express a logical deduction about the past.
e. g. You must have been terrified when the curtains caught fire.
In questions and negative statements can and can’t / couldn’t are used.
e. g. He can’t / couldn’t have missed the bus.

N.B.:
Only couldn’t is used when the negative or interrogative deduction is
introduced by a verb in the past.
e. g. He said that it couldn’t be an aeroplane.

5.2.4. Ought to / Should

Obligation, duty or giving advice

Ought to and should are used to express obligation or duty and to give advice to people
about what to do.
e. g. They should / ought to forbid parking here; the street is too narrow.
Ought to/ should + perfect infinitive expresses the speaker’s view of past obligation or
duty, and can also express regret or disapproval.
e. g. We should / ought to have gone with them. They had a lovely time.

NB:
The difference between ought to / should, must and have to is that must
expresses the speaker’s authority, have to external authority, whereas with
should and ought to it is more a matter of conscience or good sense.
e.g. Someone suffering from an incessant cough went to the doctor. The
doctor told him: “You must stop smoking”. When he came back home
and after telling his wife about the cause of his illness he said “I have to
stop smoking”. His wife answered “Yes indeed, you should stop
smoking”.
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 A second difference between the above mentioned auxiliaries is that with must
and have to we have the impression that the obligation is or will be fulfilled.
With ought and should, it is uncertain that the obligation is being or will be
fulfilled.
e.g. A driver: I ought to / should go slowly here. (He isn’t really going to
drive slowly otherwise he would say : I must / have to go slowly)

Probability / Assumption
Ought to / Should is used when we think it is probable that something is the true
situation.
e. g. My glasses ought to/ should be here somewhere.

Ought to / Should + perfect infinitive is used when we think it is probable that

something has happened, but we do not know definitely.
e. g. Ali ought to /should have arrived to Oran by now.
5.2.5. Will/ Would

Requests
Will/ Would can express requests. “Will you” is more authoritative and therefore less
polite than “would you”.
e. g. Will / Would you please count your change? Would you
mind moving your car?
“Would you” can have the same meaning of request as “could you”.
e.g. Would / Could you open the window, please?

Offers
Both will and would can express offers, but would is more formal.
e. g. Will you have lunch with me tomorrow? (Informal)
Would / Could you have lunch with me tomorrow? (Formal)

Probability / Assumption
Will is used for assumptions about present or future actions.
e. g. Ring his home number, he will be at home now . They will have
plenty of time to get to the station.

Will + perfect infinitive is used for assumptions about past actions in the future.
e. g. Phone him at 9: 00, he will have finished his supper.
The following table summarises the meaning that can carry each modal auxiliary.

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 Modals Can Could May Might Will Would Must Should Ought

Meaning
Ability X X

Possibility X X X X

Permission X X X X

Offers & X X X X
Requests
Obligation X X X

Deduction/ X X X X
Probability/
Assumption
Advisability X X

5.3. SEMI –MODALS

5.3.1. Need / Needn’t
Needn’t is used to express an absence of obligation or necessity
e.g. You needn’t bring any food, lunch is provided .
Needn’t + perfect infinitive is used to express a past action that was unnecessary but
which actually happened.
e.g. You needn’t have made me supper, I ‘m not hungry .

5.3.2. Dare
In affirmative state
ments, dare is conjugated like an ordinary verb.
e.g. For a long time no one dared even to whisper .
But in negative and interrogative statements it can be conjugated either like an
ordinary verb or like an auxiliary.
e.g. He doesn’t dare to say anything. /He daren’t say anything. Do we dare
interrupt? / Dare we interrupt?
In the negative dare as an auxiliary can have the following forms: dare, dares and
dared
e.g. They dared not move. She dares not
move.
Dare is not much used in affirmative statements except in the following expression:
‘I dare say’ meaning ‘I suppose’ or ‘I accept what you say’. It is used only with
the first person singular ‘I’.
e.g. I dare say there’ll be a restaurant car on the train.
Dare is also used to express indignation
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 e.g. How dare(d) you/ he/ they?

5.3.3 Used
Used to expresses a discontinued habit or a past situation which contrasts with the
present.
e.g. I used to smoke cigarettes; now I smoke a pipe. She usedn’t to like Ali, but she
quite likes him now.

Used to also expresses a past routine or pattern.

e.g. Every evening Ali used to visit his uncle.

Since used has no present form, we use the simple present tense to express present
habits or routines.
e.g. He visits his uncle every Friday.

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