Chapter 2: Pipe flow problems and solutions

2.1 Three types of pipe flow problems and solution procedure

6 Variables: head loss (hf), Discharge (Q), Length of pipe (L), Diameter of pipe (D), roughness (k),
kinematic viscosity of fluid (υ)
L, K and υ: always known
hf or Q or D: to compute
Use of Darcy-Weisbach equation, Continuity and Moody diagram or resistance equations (equation of f)
to solve for unknown

Type 1

Given: Q, L, D, k, υ
Compute: hf
Step:
I. Compute Re and K/D from given data.
II. For the values of Re and K/D, find f from either Moody chart or from equation (Swamee and Jain
equation or Colebrook-White equation or other resistance equations).
𝑓𝐿𝑉 2
III. Compute hf using ℎ𝑓 = .
2𝑔𝐷

Type 2

Given: hf, L, D, k, υ
Compute: Q
Trial and error solution
I. Assume a suitable value of f for the known K/D by inspecting Moody diagram. (If Moody
diagram is not given and resistance equation is given or known, assume a suitable value of f in
the beginning.)
𝑓𝐿𝑉 2
II. Use ℎ𝑓 = 2𝑔𝐷
and determine V.
𝑉𝐷
III. Determine 𝑅𝑒 = 𝜐 and find the new value of f for this R e and K/D using either Moody chart or
equation. Use new f for next trial.
IV. Repeat steps ii) and iii) until the difference between two values of f is very small.
V. Compute Q using Q =AV.

Analytical method by Swamee and Jain

From Darcy-Weisbach equation

𝑓𝐿𝑉 2 𝐿 𝑄2
ℎ𝑓 = 2𝑔𝐷
= 𝑓 𝐷 2𝑔[(𝜋/4)𝐷2]2
Solving this equation for 1/√𝑓
𝑓 = (𝜋)2 𝑔𝐷5 ℎ𝑓 /8𝐿𝑄2
1 √8𝑄
=
√𝑓 𝜋√𝑔𝐷 5ℎ𝑓/𝐿

Substituting 1/√𝑓 into Colebrook-White equation

1 𝑘 2.51
= −2.0𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( + )
√𝑓 3.7𝐷 𝑅𝑒√𝑓

√8𝑄 𝑘 2.51 √8𝑄

= −2.0𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (3.7𝐷 + 𝑄 𝐷 )
𝜋√𝑔𝐷 5 ℎ ( ) 5
𝑓 /𝐿 (𝜋/4)𝐷2 𝜐 𝜋√𝑔𝐷 ℎ𝑓 /𝐿

𝑘 1.775𝜐
𝑄 = −2.2𝐷2 √𝑔𝐷ℎ𝑓 /𝐿𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( + )
3.7𝐷 𝐷 √𝑔𝐷ℎ𝑓/𝐿

Type 3

Given: Q, hf, L, k, υ
Compute: D
Trial and error solution
I. Assume a suitable value of f.
𝑓𝐿𝑉 2
II. Compute D using ℎ𝑓 = . (trial value of D)
2𝑔𝐷
𝑓𝐿𝑉 2 𝐿 𝑄2
ℎ𝑓 = =𝑓
2𝑔𝐷 𝐷 2𝑔[(𝜋/4)𝐷2 ]2
8𝐿𝑄2
𝐷5 = ( ) 𝑓 = 𝐶1𝑓
ℎ𝑓 𝑔𝜋 2
where C1 is known quantity
III. With this trial value of D, compute value of Re.
𝑉𝐷 𝑄𝐷 4𝑄 1 𝐶2
𝑅𝑒 = 𝜐
= [(𝜋/4)𝐷2]𝜐 = 𝜋𝜐 𝐷 = 𝐷
where C2 is known quantity
IV. Compute k/D.
V. Using the computed value of Re and k/D, find f from either Moody chart or equation.
VI. Use new value of f for next trial.
VI. Repeat steps II to VI until the difference between two values of f is very small.

Analytical approach
Swamee and Jain equation to compute D
4.75 5.2 0.04
𝐿𝑄2 𝐿
𝐷 = 0.66 [𝑘1.25 ( ) + 𝜐𝑄 9.4
( ) ]
𝑔ℎ𝑓 𝑔ℎ𝑓

This equation is valid for 10−6 ≤ 𝐾/𝐷 ≤ 2𝑥10−2 and 3000 ≤ 𝑅𝑒 ≤ 3𝑥108
2.2 Pipes in series

If a pipeline connecting two reservoirs is made up of several pipes of different diameters and lengths, all
connected in series (i.e. end to end), then the difference in water surface levels is equal to the sum of
head losses in all the sections.
Example

V1, D1, L1 V3, D3, L3

V2, D2, L2

Fig. 2.1: pipes in series

Bernoulli’s equation at A and B

𝑃𝐴 𝑉𝐴2 𝑃𝐵 𝑉𝐵2
+ + 𝑍𝐴 = + + 𝑍𝐵 + 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔

𝑉12 𝑓1 𝐿1 𝑉12 𝑉22 𝑓2 𝐿2 𝑉22 (𝑉2 − 𝑉3 )2 𝑓3 𝐿3 𝑉32 𝑉32

0 + 0 + 𝑍𝐴 = 0 + 0 + 𝑍𝐵 + 0.5 + + 0.5 + + + +
2𝑔 2𝑔𝐷1 2𝑔 2𝑔𝐷2 2𝑔 2𝑔𝐷3 2𝑔

𝑉12 𝑓1 𝐿1 𝑉12 𝑉22 𝑓2 𝐿2 𝑉22 (𝑉2 − 𝑉3 )2 𝑓3 𝐿3 𝑉32 𝑉32

𝐻 = 0.5 + + 0.5 + + + +
2𝑔 2𝑔𝐷1 2𝑔 2𝑔𝐷2 2𝑔 2𝑔𝐷3 2𝑔

where H = difference in level between A and B

Neglecting minor losses

𝑓1 𝐿1 𝑉12 𝑓2 𝐿2 𝑉22 𝑓3 𝐿3 𝑉32

𝐻= + + (a)
2𝑔𝐷1 2𝑔𝐷2 2𝑔𝐷3
Also, Q = Q1 = Q2 = Q3
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑄 = 4 𝐷12 𝑉1 = 4 𝐷22 𝑉2 = 4 𝐷32 𝑉3 (b)
The above two equations are used to solve the problems of pipelines in series.

Method of computation if f value is not given

 To determine H knowing Q, diameters and lengths: Compute Re at each section and find friction
factors of all sections using Moody’s diagram or resistance equations, and then compute H.
  To determine Q knowing H, diameters and lengths: First assume f value for each section, and
compute Q. Find Re for each section and friction factors using Moody’s diagram or resistance
equations. With these new f values, compute a new value of Q. Repeat this procedure until Q
does not change.

Concept of equivalent pipe: Dupuit equation

When a compound pipe is replaced by a single pipe of uniform diameter having head loss and discharge
equal to the loss of head and discharge of a compound pipe consisting of several pipes of different
lengths and diameter, then the single pipe is called equivalent pipe. The uniform diameter of the
equivalent pipe is known as equivalent diameter of the compound pipe.

Let L1,L2,L3 etc are lengths and D1,D2,D3 etc are the diameters respectively of the different pipes of a
compound pipeline, then the total head loss in the compound pipe ,neglecting minor losses, is
𝑓1 𝐿1 𝑉12 𝑓2 𝐿2 𝑉22 𝑓3 𝐿3 𝑉32
ℎ𝐿 = + + +⋯
2𝑔𝐷1 2𝑔𝐷2 2𝑔𝐷3
Again by continuity
Q = a1 V1 = a2 V2 = a3 V3 =………..
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑄 = 𝐷12 𝑉1 = 𝐷22 𝑉2 = 𝐷32 𝑉3 = ⋯
4 4 4
Assuming f1 = f2 = f3 =…. =f
𝑓 𝑄2 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3
ℎ𝐿 = 2
[ 5 + 5 + 5 +⋯]
2𝑔 (𝜋/4) 𝐷1 𝐷2 𝐷3

if D and L be the diameter and length respectively of the equivalent pipe carry same discharge Q and
head loss in the equivalent pipe is same that as that in the compound pipe.

Loss of head in equivalent pipe is

𝑓𝐿𝑉 2 𝑓 𝑄2 𝐿
ℎ𝐿 = =
2𝑔𝐷 2𝑔 (𝜋/4)2 𝐷5
Equating two head loss
𝐿 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3
5
= [ 5 + 5 + 5 + ⋯]
𝐷 𝐷1 𝐷2 𝐷3
This equation is called Dupuit's equation, which may be used to determine the size of the equivalent
pipe.

2.3 Pipes in parallel

When a main pipeline divides into two or more parallel pipes, which again join together downstream,
and continue as a main line the pipes are said to be in parallels. The pipes are connected in parallels in
order to increase the discharge passing through the main.
The rate of discharge in the main line is equal to the sum of discharge in each of the parallels pipes and
loss of head in each parallel pipe is same.

L1, V1, D1

Q1

Q2

L2, V2 , D2

Fig. 2.2: Pipes in parallel

𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2
𝑓1 𝐿1𝑉12 𝑓2 𝐿2 𝑉22
ℎ𝑓 = =
2𝑔𝐷1 2𝑔𝐷2
The various problems which may arise for the pipes in parallel are solved using these equations.
(Estimate f from Moody chart or resistance equations by trial and error approach if not given)

2.4 Siphon

A siphon is a long bent pipe which is used to carry water from a reservoir at a higher elevation to
another reservoir at a lower elevation when two reservoirs are separated by a hill or high level ground.
The rising portion of the siphon is known as the inlet limb, the highest point is known as summit and the
portion between the summit and the lower reservoir is known as outlet limb.

As siphon is laid over a hill, the loss of head due to friction is very large and minor losses may be
neglected. The length of siphon may be taken as the length of its horizontal projection.

Uses of siphon
 To carry water from one reservoir to another reservoir separated by a hill or ridge.
 To empty a tank of water, having no outlet
 To draw a water from a canal having no outlet sluice.
 To connect two water reservoir separated by a valley (inverted siphon)
 To connect two open canals by an inverted siphon laid beneath the canal beds.
2.4.1 Starting of siphon

A siphon can be put in action either by exhausting air thus creating vacuum in it or by filling it with
water. The air can be exhausted by a vacuum pump. The water in the siphon can be poured through an
opening made at the summit which is only possible by closing the outlets at two ends.

While in operation the air separates itself from the flowing water and has the tendency to be collected
at the bend. An air vessel can be provided to get rid of this difficulty; otherwise there will be an
interruption in the flow.

2.4.2 Condition for continuous supply

Some portion of the siphon is above HGL. The vertical distance between the hydraulic gradient and the
center line of the pipe represents the pressure head at any section. If the hydraulic gradient is above the
center line of the pipe, the pressure is above atmospheric. However, if the hydraulic gradient is below
the center line of the pipe, the pressure is below atmospheric or negative. Thus the pressure at the
summit will be the least. Further as the vertical distance between the summit and the hydraulic
gradient increases, the water pressure at this point reduces. Theoretically this pressure may be reduced
to -10.3 m of water (if the atmospheric pressure is 10.3 m of water) or absolute vacuum, because this
limit would correspond to a perfect vacuum and the flow would stop. However, in practice, if the
pressure is reduced to about 2.5 m of water absolute or 7.8m of water vacuum, the dissolved air or
other gases would come out of the solution and collect at the summit of the siphon in sufficient quantity
to form an air-lock, which will obstruct the continuity of the flow, (or the flow will completely stop). A
similar trouble may also be caused by the formation of water vapor in the region of low pressure.

For the continuous supply, following conditions should be met.

 The siphon should be laid so that no section of the pipe will be more than 7.8m above the
hydraulic gradient at the section.
 In order to limit the reduction of the pressure at the summit, the length of the inlet leg of the
siphon is also required to be limited. This is because of the length of inlet leg is very long, a
considerable loss of head due to friction is caused, which further reduces the pressure at the
summit.
2.4.3 Computation of variables for flow through siphon connecting two resrvoirs
B Summit

h Entry loss

TEL

H hf
HGL

Za Exit loss

Zb

Datum

Fig. 2.3: Siphon

Two ends of pipe are submerged in water and the pipe is filled with water. As second end is below the
first end, the discharge will commence. (Note: for some distance from the entrance section of the pipe,
the HGL is not well defined because of the formation of vena-contracta and sudden drop in pressure
head at this section.)

a. Determination of head loss between two tanks

Assuming the siphon to run full, then applying Bernoulli's equation between two points A and C, we get
𝑃𝑎 𝑉𝑎2 𝑃𝑐 𝑉𝑐2
+ + 𝑍𝑎 = + + 𝑍𝑐 + 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔

𝑉 2 𝑉 2 𝑓𝐿𝑉 2
0 + 0 + 𝑍𝑎 = 0 + 0 + 𝑍𝑐 + 0.5 + +
2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔𝐷

V= Velocity of flow, L = Length of siphon, D = Diameter of siphon

𝑓𝐿𝑉 2
Entry loss = 0.5V2/2g, exit loss = V2/2g, loss due to friction (Major loss) = 2𝑔𝐷
𝑉2 𝑓𝐿
𝑍𝑎 − 𝑍𝑐 = (1.5 + )
2𝑔 𝐷
 𝑉2 𝑓𝐿
𝐻= (1.5 + )
2𝑔 𝐷
H= difference in levels of two reservoirs

If minor losses are neglected

𝑓𝐿𝑉 2
𝐻=
2𝑔𝐷

This equation may be used to determine H if the discharge Q is known, or it may be used to determine Q
if H is given.

If the value of f is not given in the problem, the following procedure is used.

 Determination of H: As Q is known, Re can be computed. Then for computed Re and given K/D, f
can be determined from Moody’s diagram or resistance equation.

 Determination of Q: Assume a suitable value of f. Compute Q and Re. For the computed Re and
given K/D, find new f using Moody’s diagram or resistance equations. With the new f value,
compute a new value of Q. Repeat this procedure until Q does not change.

b. Determination of maximum height of summit

Applying Bernoulli's equation is applied between the point A and summit B. (Working in terms of
absolute pressure given the absolute pressure at summit)
𝑃𝑎 𝑉𝑎2 𝑃𝑏 𝑉𝑏2
+ + 𝑍𝑎 = + + 𝑍𝑏 + 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
𝑃𝑎 𝑃𝑏 𝑉 2 𝑉 2 𝑓𝑙𝑉 2
+ 0 + 𝑍𝑎 = + + (𝑍𝑎 + ℎ) + 0.5 +
𝛾 𝛾 2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔𝐷

𝑃𝑎 𝑃𝑏 𝑉 2 𝑓𝑙
ℎ= − − (1.5 + )
𝛾 𝛾 2𝑔 𝐷
Pa = Atmospheric pressure = 10.3 m of water
Pb = Absolute pressure at summit
l = length of inlet leg of siphon

If absolute pressure at summit is given, above expression is used to compute h. If gauge pressure is
given, then take Pa/ = 0.
c. Determination of pressure at summit

Applying Bernoulli's equation is applied between the point A and summit B. (Working in terms of
absolute pressure given the absolute pressure at summit)
𝑃𝑎 𝑉𝑎2 𝑃𝑏 𝑉𝑏2
+ + 𝑍𝑎 = + + 𝑍𝑏 + 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
𝑃𝑎 𝑃𝑏 𝑉 2 𝑉 2 𝑓𝑙𝑉 2
+ 0 + 𝑍𝑎 = + + (𝑍𝑎 + ℎ) + 0.5 +
𝛾 𝛾 2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔𝐷

𝑃𝑏 𝑃𝑎 𝑉2 𝑓𝑙
= −ℎ− (1.5 + )
𝛾 𝛾 2𝑔 𝐷

In the above expression, the pressure is expressed in terms of absolute pressure. In terms of gauge
pressure, Pa/ = 0. Hence pressure at summit is
𝑃𝑏 𝑉2 𝑓𝑙
= −ℎ − (1.5 + )
𝛾 2𝑔 𝐷
(Note: If the end C is discharging to atmosphere, then take velocity at C = Velocity of flow through pipe
in Bernoulli’s equation.)