1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The mode of secret transmission has been a key issue throughout the recorded
human history. Numerous methods have been used for secret transmission. The early
approach to secure data transmission includes wax covered tablets, tattooing on the head
and then growing hair. Later during World War II, invisible inks were used for secret
data transmission. With the introduction of many encryption algorithms by skillful
mathematicians, cryptography became a well established field. Most of the
cryptographic algorithms are key based. Cryptography mainly concentrates on
designing methods to map an original data to some random-looking data which may
attract the hackers. Mainly Cryptographic techniques "scramble" messages so if
intercepted, the messages cannot be understood whereas Steganography, in an essence,
"camouflages" a message to hide its existence and make it seem "invisible" thus
concealing the fact that a message is being sent altogether. An encrypted message may
draw suspicion while an invisible message will not. Also with the development in
digital multimedia the need for security also arises. The introduction of watermarking
techniques was a major breakthrough which was used to provide copyright protection to
software as well as for digital media. As the need for protection of digital media goes
on, researchers start pouring their efforts in this field of steganography, giving many
fruitful results. This work is focused towards secure image transmission. Both the
carrier and the secret are color images.

1.1 DIGITAL DATA SECURITY

Digital multimedia data provides a robust and easy way of editing and
modifying data. The data can be delivered over computer networks with little to no
errors and often without interference. Unfortunately, digital media distribution raises a
concern for digital content owners. Digital data can be copied without any loss in
quality and content. This poses a big problem for the protection of intellectual property
 2

rights of copyright owners. To prevent these, some additional data are incorporated for
identity purpose.

1.2 TECHNOLOGIES FOR MULTIMEDIA DATA SECURITY

The security for multimedia data is of much concern because of its use in every
field. Numerous techniques are used in practice. But the following four are of much
importance:

 Fingerprinting  Watermarking
 Cryptography  Steganography

1.2.1 Fingerprinting

Fingerprinting is an old cryptographic technique. Several hundred years ago

logarithm tables were protected by fingerprinting them. The idea was to introduce tiny
errors in the insignificant digits (i.e. tenth digit of the decimal point) of Log X for a few
random values of X. A different set of X’s was chosen for each copy of the logarithm
table. If an owner of a logarithm table ever sold illegal copies of it, the tiny errors in the
table enabled the police to trace an illegal copy back to its owner.

Now a days, no one is interested in protecting logarithm tables. However the

concept of fingerprinting is still in use. With the increasing popularity of digital data,
there is a strong desire to fingerprint these data as well. Examples of digital data to
which fingerprinting may be applied are documents, images, movies and executables.

1.2.2 Cryptography

Cryptography stores sensitive information or transmit it across insecure

networks (like the internet) so that it cannot be read by anyone except the intended
recipient. It is the science of using mathematics to encrypt and decrypt data. The
objectives include

 Confidentiality : Keeping the content free from unauthorized parties

 Data Integrity : Detecting unauthorized alteration of data
 Authentication : Identifying either entities or data origins
 Non- Repudiation : preventing entities from denying previous actions
 3

1.2.3 Watermarking

Watermarking is a method of protecting digital material. The watermarking

system is based on that a code is embedded in the material. The code can include
information like ownership of the image, right to copy and terminal identification. The
size of the encoded information has to be kept minimal to reduce noise. The two main
requirements on the mark are that it should be irremovable and unalterable, and the
change it introduces to the picture should be negligible. Watermarking has the feature of
robustness against attacks. Even if the existence and method of embedding the data are
known, it may be difficult to destroy the hidden data.

1.2.4 Steganography

Steganography is the art of concealing the existence of information within

seemingly innocuous carriers. With the advent in digital media technologies, the widely
used carriers become image, video and music. As the messages transmitted are
invisible, they won’t draw the suspicion of any one. Steganography and watermarking
can alone be viewed as Information Hiding techniques. The following things are
desirable while discussing about hiding techniques.

The hidden information:

 Shall be very little perceptible

 Should be directly encoded into the media
 Should not be lost if modified by conversion, lossy compression and resampling.

1.3 DIFFERENCE AMONG THE TECHNOLOGIES

 Fingerprinting uses some kind of hash functions to create fingerprint and the
original file remains intact.
 Cryptography is about protecting the meaning of the document.
 Watermarking embeds usually imperceptible or invisible marking or labels in
digital data in the form of bits.
 Steganography is the art of concealing the existence of information
 4

1.4 VIDEO AUTHENTICATION

The following features are desirable to construct an effective video

authentication
1. to be able to determine whether an video has been altered or not.
2. to be able to integrate authentication data with host video rather than as a
separate data file.
3. the embedded authentication data be invisible under normal viewing conditions.
4. to be able to locate alteration made on the video.
5. to allow the watermarked video be stored in lossy-compression format, or more
generally, to distinguish moderate distortion that does not change the high-level
content vs. content tampering.
 5

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

Watermarking is the technique used to embed the some additional data into the
original data.

Bush & funk(1998) viewed fundamentals, concepts , process ,advantages and

limitations of watermarking. Watermarked algorithm must provide a high level of
security, to be completely specified and easy to understand and rely on a key for
security rather than on the algorithm’s secrecy. They also deals about the copyright
protection of video.

Mohanty (1999) present a survey about the different types of information hiding
techniques and their comparisons. Introduction to the digital watermarking and a brief
note about their types. Image watermarking, audio watermarking, video watermarking
and text watermarking.

sadiq & salih(2001) This paper presents a no-reference video quality metric that
blindly estimates the quality of a video. They proposed system which is based on video
watermarking using 8x8 blocks DCT coefficients of YCBCR domain, and for the
generation of watermark, the Geffe generator has been used to generate binary stream
sequence watermark in embedding and extracting processor. Data hiding is achieved by
simple “even-odd” signaling of the DCT coefficients. The comparison process between
the extracted watermark and the generated watermark from Geffe generator was
calculated to conclude the video quality assessment by measuring the watermark
degradation. With these mechanisms, the proposed method is robust against the attacks
of frame dropping, averaging, swapping, and statistical analysis. The results indicate
that the proposed video quality metric outperforms standard Peak Signal to Noise Ratio
(PSNR) and structural similarity and Image Quality (SSIM) metric in estimating the
perceived quality of a video.
 6

Alessandro Piva & Franco Bartolini(2002) Integrating cryptography with

watermarking technologies can provide intellectual property rights protection in an open
network environment such as the Internet. They briefed about two types of ECMS first
one Cryptography-based ECMS in this author wraps the digital object in an encrypted
system and integrates it with an application and the second one is watermarking-based
ECMS it is tightly and robustly embeds IPR-related information into purchased digital
objects (the hidden data can be the name of the copyright owner or a unique code
identifying the document).

Biswas &Touhidul Hasan & DasGupta(2003) An adaptive compressed domain

watermarking method is proposed in the paper. In this technique, multiple binary
images derived from a single watermark image are first embedded in a video sequence.
The spatial spread spectrum watermark is directly incorporated in the compressed bit
streams by modifying the wavelet coefficients. Experimental evidence demonstrates
that the developed approach is efficient and also robust against spatial attacks such as
scaling and frame averaging, and temporal attacks like frame dropping and shifting.

Alan Brunton & Jiying Zhao(2010) In this paper, they proposed a real-time
video watermarking system on programmable graphics hardware. Real-time video
watermarking is important to the use of digital video in legal proceedings, security
surveillance, new reportage and commercial video transactions. The watermarking
scheme implemented here is based on Wong’s scheme for image watermarking, and is
designed to detect and localize any change in the pixels of any frame of the incoming
video stream. We implement this scheme for real-time operation on programmable
graphics hardware. The Graphics Processing Units (GPUs) found on many modern
commodity-level graphics cards have the ability to execute application-defined
sequences of instructions on not only geometric primitives, defined by vertices, but also
on image or texture fragments mapped to rasterized geometric primitives. These
fragment programs, also known as fragment or pixel shaders, execute in hardware and
in parallel on the GPU for each fragment, or pixel, that is rendered, making the GPU
well suited for image and video processing.
 7

Amit M Joshi ,Patrikar &Vivekanand Mishra(2012) H.264 is currently proposed

standard for low bit rate video applications. H.264 provides high quality than any other
previous standards with implementation of integer transformation. The proposed
algorithm has been implemented for video with Integer based Discrete Cosine
Transform for higher speed and low complexity. The blind algorithm based on scene
change detection scheme has been implemented and verified to check robustness against
temporal as well as some standard attacks. The algorithm has been implemented on
VIRTEX-4 FPGA board and results evident the fact of the watermarking algorithm
being efficient in terms of low complexity and high speed.

Kitsos , Sklavos , Provelengios &. Skodras (2012) paper reviewed about the
hardware implementations of six representative stream ciphers are compared in terms of
performance, consumed area and the throughput-to-area ratio. The stream ciphers used
for the comparison are ZUC, Snow3g, Grain V1, Mickey V2, Trivium and E0. ZUC,
Snow3g and E0 have been used for the security part of well known standards, especially
wireless communication protocols. In addition, Grain V1, Mickey V2 and Trivium are
currently selected as the final portfolio of stream ciphers for Profile 2 (Hardware) by the
eStream project. The designs were implemented by using VHDL language and for the
hardware implementations a FPGA device was used. The highest throughput has been
achieved by Snow3g with 3330 Mbps at 104 MHz and the lowest throughput has been
achieved by E0 with 187 Mbps at 187 MHz. Also, the most efficient cipher for
hardware implementation in terms of throughput-to-area ratio is Mickey V2 cipher
while the worst cipher for hardware implementation is Grain V1.

Pia Singh(2013) This paper is about encryption and decryption of images using
a secret key block cipher called 64-bits Blowfish designed to increase security and to
improve performance. This algorithm will be used as a variable key size up to 448 bits.
It employs Feistel network which iterates simple function 16 times. The blowfish
algorithm is safe against unauthorized attack and runs faster than the popular existing
algorithms. The proposed algorithm is designed and realized using MATLAB.
 8

Sonjoy Deb Roy& Xin Li(2013) This paper presents a hardware implementation of a
digital watermarking system that can insert invisible, semi-fragile watermark
information into compressed video streams in real time. The watermark embedding is
processed in the discrete cosine transform domain. To achieve high performance, the
proposed system architecture employs pipeline structure and uses parallelism. Hardware
implementation using field programmable gate array has been done, and an experiment
was carried out using a custom versatile breadboard for overall performance evaluation.
Experimental results show that a hardware-based video authentication system using this
watermarking technique features minimum video quality degradation and can withstand
certain potential attacks, i.e., cover-up attacks, cropping, and segment removal on video
sequences. Furthermore, the proposed hardware based watermarking system features
low power consumption, low cost implementation, high processing speed, and
reliability.
 9

CHAPTER 3

WATERMARKING

3.1 INTRODUCTION

A digital watermark is a kind of marker covertly embedded in a noise-tolerant

signal such as audio or image data. It is typically used to identify ownership of the
copyright of such signal. "Watermarking" is the process of hiding digital information in
a carrier signal the hidden information should, but does not need to contain a relation to
the carrier signal. Digital watermarks may be used to verify the authenticity or integrity
of the carrier signal or to show the identity of its owners. It is prominently used for
tracing copyright infringements and for banknote authentication. Like traditional
watermarks, digital watermarks are only perceptible under certain conditions, i.e. after
using some algorithm, and imperceptible anytime else. If a digital watermark distorts
the carrier signal in a way that it becomes perceivable, it is of no use. Traditional
Watermarks may be applied to visible media (like images or video), whereas in digital
watermarking, the signal may be audio, pictures, video, texts or 3D models. A signal
may carry several different watermarks at the same time. Unlike metadata that is added
to the carrier signal, a digital watermark does not change the size of the carrier signal.

The needed properties of a digital watermark depend on the use case in which it
is applied. For marking media files with copyright information, a digital watermark has
to be rather robust against modifications that can be applied to the carrier signal.
Instead, if integrity has to be ensured, a fragile watermark would be applied.

Both steganography and digital watermarking employ steganographic techniques

to embed data covertly in noisy signals. But whereas steganography aims for
imperceptibility to human senses, digital watermarking tries to control the robustness as
top priority.
 10

3.2 HISTORY OF WATERMARKING

The idea to communicate secretly is as old as communication itself. First stories,

which can be interpreted as early records of covert communication, appear in the old
Greek literature, for example, in Homer’s Iliad, or in tales by Herodotus. The word
“steganography,” which is still in use today, derives from the Greek language and
means covert communication. Kobayashi and Petitcolas et al. have investigated the
history of covert communication in great detail, including the broad use of techniques
for secret and covert communication before and during the two World Wars, and
steganographic methods for analog signals. Although the historical background is very
interesting.
Paper watermarks appeared in the art of handmade papermaking nearly 700
years ago. The oldest watermarked paper found in archives dates back to 1292 and has
its origin in Fabriano, Italy, which is considered the birthplace of watermarks. At the
end of the thirteenth century, about 40 paper mills were sharing the paper marked in
Fabriano and producing paper with different format, quality, and price. They produced
raw, coarse paper which was smoothed and post processed by artisans and sold by
merchants. Competition not only among the paper mills but also among the artisans and
merchants was very high, and it was difficult to keep track of paper provenance and
thus format and quality identification. The introduction of watermarks helped avoiding
any possibility of confusion. After their invention, watermarks quickly spread over Italy
and then over Europe, and although originally used to indicate the paper brand or paper
mill, they later served as indication for paper format, quality, and strength and were also
used to date and authenticate paper. A nice example illustrating the legal power of
watermarks is a case in 1887 in France called “Des Decorations” . The watermarks of
two letters, presented as pieces of evidence, proved that the letters had been predated
and resulted in considerable sensation and, in the end, in the resignation of President
Gr'evy. For more information on paper watermarks, watermark history, and related legal
issues, an extensive listing of over 500 references. The analogy between paper
watermarks, steganography, and digital watermarking is obvious, and in fact, paper
watermarks in money bills or stamps actually inspired the first use of the term
watermarking in the context of digital data.
 11

The idea of digital image watermarking arose independently in 1990 , and

around 1993. Tirkel et al. coined the word “water mark” which became “watermark”
later on. It took a few more years until 1995/1996 before watermarking received
remarkable attention. Since then, digital watermarking has gained a lot of attention and
has evolved very quickly, and while there are a lot of topics open for further research,
practical working methods and systems have been developed.

• 1282 – Paper Watermarks

• 1779 – Counterfeiting

• 1954 – Watermarking music

• 1988 – First use of the term Digital Watermark

• End of 1990s – large interest in watermarking

3.3 WATERMARKING: THE BASICS

In general, any watermarking scheme (algorithm) consists of three parts.

 The watermark.
 The encoder .
 The decoder and comparator .
Let us denote an image by I, a signature by S=s1,s2,...and the watermarked image
by I'.E is an encoder function. It takes an image I and a signature S, and it generates a
new image which is watermarked image I'.
E(I,S)=I'

Figure 3.1 a) Encoder

 12

A decoder function _ takes an image ( can be a watermarked or un-watermarked

image, and possibly corrupted) whose ownership is to be determined and recovers a
signature from the image. In this process an additional image can also be included
which is often the original and un-watermarked version of . This is due to the fact that
some encoding schemes may make use of the original images in the watermarking
process to provide extra robustness against intentional and unintentional corruption of
pixels. Mathematically,

D(J,I)=S'

b)decoder

A watermark must be detectable or extractable to be useful. Depending on the

way the watermark is inserted and depending on the nature of the watermarking
algorithm, the method used can involve very distinct approaches. In some watermarking
schemes, a watermark can be extracted in its exact form, a procedure we call watermark
extraction. In other cases, we can detect only whether a specific given watermarking
signal is present in an image, a procedure we call watermark detection. It should be
noted that watermark extraction can prove ownership whereas watermark detection can
only verify ownership.

3.4 TYPES OF WATERMARKING

Watermarks and watermarking techniques can be divided into various categories

in various ways. The watermarks can be applied in spatial domain. An alternative to
spatial domain watermarking is frequency domain watermarking. It has been pointed
 13

out that the frequency domain methods are more robust than the spatial domain
techniques. Different types of watermarks are shown in the figure 3.2.

Watermarking techniques can be divided into four categories according to the

type of document to be watermarked as follows
 Image Watermarking
 Video Watermarking
 Audio Watermarking
 Text Watermarking

According to the human perception, the digital watermarks can be divide into
three different types as follows.
 Visible watermark
 Invisible-Robust watermark
 Invisible-Fragile watermark
 Dual watermark
 14

Figure 3.2) Types of watermarking techniques

Visible watermark is a secondary translucent overlaid into the primary image.

The watermark appears visible to a casual viewer on a careful inspection. The invisible-
robust watermark is embed in such a way that alternations made to the pixel value is
perceptually not noticed and it can be recovered only with appropriate decoding
mechanism. The invisible-fragile watermark is embedded in such a way that any
manipulation or modification of the image would alter or destroy the watermark. An
invisible robust private watermarking scheme requires the original or reference image
 15

for watermark detection, whereas the public watermarks do not. The class of invisible
robust watermarking schemes that can be attacked by creating a counterfeit original is
called invertible watermarking scheme.

3.5 WATERMARKING AND SECURITY

Watermarking is an effective means of embedding data, thereby protecting the

data from unauthorized or unwanted viewing. But watermarking is one of many ways to
protect the confidentiality of data. It is probably best use in conjunction with another
data- hiding method. When used in combination, these methods can all be a part of a
layered security approach. Some good complementary methods include:

3.5.1 Encryption

Encryption is the process of passing data or plain text through a series of

mathematical operations that generate an alternate form of the original data known as
ciphertext. The encrypted data can only be read by parties who have been given the
necessary key to decrypt the ciphertext back into its original plaintext form. Encryption
doesn't hide data, but it does make it hard to read.

3.5.2 Hidden directories (Windows)

Windows offers this feature, which allows users to hide files. Using this feature
is as easy as changing the properties of a directory to "hidden", and hoping that no one
displays all types of files in their explorer. Hiding directories (Unix) in existing
directories that have a lot of files, such as in the / dev directory on a Unix
implementation, or making a directory that starts with three dots (...) versus the normal
single or double dot.
 16

3.6 REQIUREMENTS OF WATERMARKS

The best watermark technique which it poses this following

3.6.1 Hiding Capacity

Hiding capacity is the size of information that can be hidden relative to the size
of the cover. A larger hiding capacity allows the use of a smaller cover for a message of
fixed size, and thus decreases the bandwidth required to transmit the stego-image.

3.6.2 Perceptual Transparency

The act of hiding the message in the cover necessitates some noise modulation
or distortion of the cover image. It is important that the embedding occur without
significant degradation or loss of perceptual quality of the cover. In a secret
communications application, if an attacker notices some distortion that arouses
suspicion of the presence of hidden data in a stego image, the steganographic encoding
has failed even if the attacker is unable to extract the message. For applications where
the perceptual transparency of embedded data is not critical, allowing more distortion in
the stego-image can increase hiding capacity, robustness, or both.

3.6.3 Robustness

Robustness refers to the ability of embedded data to remain intact if the stego-
image undergoes transformations, such as linear and non-linear filtering, addition of
random noise, sharpening or blurring, scaling and rotations, cropping or decimation,
lossy compression, and conversion from digital to analog form and then reconversion
back to digital form (such as in the case when a hard copy of a stego-image is printed
and then a digital image is formed by subsequently scanning the hardcopy.) Robustness
is critical in copyright protection watermarks because pirates will attempt to filter and
destroy any watermarks embedded in images. Anti-watermarking software is already
available on the Internet and has been shown effective in removing some watermarks.
These techniques can also be used to destroy the message in a stego-image.
 17

3.6.4 Tamper Resistance

Beyond robustness to destruction, tamper-resistance refers to the difficulty for

an attacker to alter or forge a message once it has been embedded in a stego-image, such
as a pirate replacing a copyright mark with one claiming legal ownership. Applications
that demand high robustness usually also demand a strong degree of tamper resistance.
In a copyright protection application, achieving good tamper resistance can be difficult
because a copyright is effective for many years and a watermark must remain resistant
to tampering even when a pirate attempts to modify it using computing technology
decades in the future.

3.6.5 Other Characteristics

Computational complexity of encoding and decoding is another consideration
and individual applications may have additional requirements. For example, for a
copyright protection application, a watermark should be resistant to collusion attacks
where many pirates work together to identify and destroy the mark.

3.7 USES OF WATERMARKING

There are many applications of watermarking are as follows copyright

protection, content identification and management , content protection for audio and
video, broadcast monitoring, locating content online.

3.7.1 Copyright Protection

A secret copyright notice or watermark can be embedded inside an image to

identify it as intellectual property. This is the watermarking scenario where the message
is the watermark. The “watermark” can be a relatively complicated structure. In
addition, when an image is sold or distributed, an identification of the recipient and time
stamp can be embedded to identify potential pirates. A Watermark can also serve to
detect whether the image has been subsequently modified. Detection of an embedded
watermark is performed by a statistical, correlation, or similarity test, or by measuring
other quantity characteristic to the watermark in a stego-image. The insertion and
analysis of watermarks to protect copyrighted material is responsible for the recent
surge of interest in digital steganography and data embedding.
 18

3.7.2 Content Identification and Management

Digital watermarking enables effective content identification by providing a

unique digital identity to all forms of media content in a way that persists with the
content wherever it may travel. Digital watermarks are easily embedded into content
without interfering with the consumer's enjoyment of it. It is imperceptible to humans,
but easily detected and understood by computers, networks and a wide range of
common digital devices. The watermark can carry such information as who owns it,
how it may be used or anything else the owner wants to convey. It can also trigger
predefined actions, including linking to websites or other rich consumer experiences.

3.7.3 Content protection for audio and video

Digital watermarking provides an added layer of security to the content

protection chain to deter unauthorized use of content by embedding watermarks that
identify the permitted uses of the content into the music or motion picture soundtrack
prior to theatrical, packaged media (Blu-ray Discs, DVDs) and online digital
distribution. Devices read the watermark during playback or copying of content. If the
watermark indicates that the use is unauthorized, the playback or copying is stopped or
the audio is muted, and an explanatory message may be displayed.

 Protect audio, film and video entertainment content throughout all

release windows
 Communicate copyright ownership and usage rights of their content
 Ensure content is protected through multiple packaged media and digital
file formats
 Secure content without impacting the consumer entertainment
experience

3.7.4 Broadcast monitoring

Watermarking is an innovative technology that has proven to be highly valuable

to content owners, producers, copyright holders and broadcasters throughout the world.
By embedding a digital watermark in audio or video content at the time of production or
broadcast, it allows content owners, for example, to identify with granular precision
 19

when and where content is broadcast, who is broadcasting and for how long. Digital
Watermarking works by making very subtle modifications to the original asset by
adding some bit data disseminated throughout the content. The modifications are
indiscernible to human senses, but can easily be detected and decoded using dedicated
hardware or software. Being part of the content itself, any attempt to destroy or remove
it will also ruin the quality of the material in which it is embedded. Digital watermarks
can be linked to a database with more complete metadata associated with the content,
depending on the solution requirements. The metadata can be anything related to the
content such as title, type of content, author, etc. In a broadcast monitoring
environment, specialized equipment is used to monitor and track television channels or
radio stations. Upon detection of a watermark, data are analyzed and broadcast details
rapidly confirmed and precisely reported.
 20

CHAPTER 4

SYMMETRIC CIPHERS

4.1 INTRODUCTION

In the cryptographic algorithms that exist in a little bit more in detail, the
symmetric ciphers can be divided into stream ciphers and block ciphers

Figure 4.1)Types of symmetric ciphers

4.1.1 BLOCK CIPHER

In cryptography, a block cipher is a deterministic algorithm operating on fixed-

length groups of bits, called blocks, with an unvarying transformation that is specified
by asymmetric key. Block ciphers are important elementary components in the design
of many cryptographic protocols, and are widely used to implement encryption of bulk
data.

The modern design of block ciphers is based on the concept of

an iterated product cipher. Product ciphers were suggested and analyzed by Claude
Shannon in his seminal 1949 publication Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems as
a means to effectively improve security by combining simple operations such
as substitutions and permutations Iterated product ciphers carry out encryption in
multiple rounds, each of which uses a different sub key derived from the original key.
One widespread implementation of such ciphers is called a Feistel network, named
after Horst Feistel, and notably implemented in the DES cipher. Many other realizations
of block ciphers, such as the AES, are classified as substitution-permutation networks.

A block cipher by itself allows encryption only of a single data block of the cipher's
block length. For a variable-length message, the data must first be partitioned into
 21

separate cipher blocks. In the simplest case, known as the electronic codebook (ECB)
mode, a message is first split into separate blocks of the cipher's block size (possibly
extending the last block with padding bits), and then each block is encrypted and
decrypted independently. However, such a naive method is generally insecure because
equal plaintext blocks will always generate equal ciphertext blocks (for the same key),
so patterns in the plaintext message become evident in the ciphertext output.

To overcome this limitation, several so-called block cipher modes of

operation have been designed and specified in national recommendations such as NIST
800-38A and BSI TR-02102 and international standards such as ISO/IEC 10116. The
general concept is to use randomization of the plaintext data based on an additional
input value, frequently called an initialization vector, to create what is
termed probabilistic encryption. In the popular cipher block chaining (CBC) mode, for
encryption to be secure the initialization vector passed along with the plaintext message
must be a random or pseudo-random value, which is added in an exclusive-or manner to
the first plaintext block before it is being encrypted. The resultant ciphertext block is
then used as the new initialization vector for the next plaintext block. In the cipher
feedback (CFB) mode, which emulates a self-synchronizing stream cipher, the
initialization vector is first encrypted and then added to the plaintext block. The output
feedback (OFB) mode repeatedly encrypts the initialization vector to create a key
stream for the emulation of a synchronous stream cipher. The newer counter (CTR)
mode similarly creates a key stream, but has the advantage of only needing unique and
not (pseudo-)random values as initialization vectors; the needed randomness is derived
internally by using the initialization vector as a block counter and encrypting this
counter for each block.

4.1.2 STREAM CIPHER

A stream cipher is a symmetric key cipher where plaintext digits are combined
with a pseudorandom cipher digit stream (keystream). In a stream cipher each plaintext
digit is encrypted one at a time with the corresponding digit of the keystream, to give a
digit of the ciphertext stream. An alternative name is a state cipher, as the encryption of
each digit is dependent on the current state. In practice, a digit is typically a bit and the
 22

combining operation an exclusive-or (xor).The pseudorandom keystream is typically

generated serially from a random seed value using digital shift registers. The seed value
serves as the cryptographic key for decrypting the ciphertext stream.

Stream ciphers represent a different approach to symmetric encryption from

block ciphers. Block ciphers operate on large blocks of digits with a fixed, unvarying
transformation. This distinction is not always clear-cut: in some modes of operation, a
block cipher primitive is used in such a way that it acts effectively as a stream cipher.
Stream ciphers typically execute at a higher speed than block ciphers and have lower
hardware complexity. However, stream ciphers can be susceptible to serious security
problems if used incorrectly (see stream cipher attacks); in particular, the same starting
state (seed) must never be used twice.

A stream cipher generates successive elements of the keystream based on an

internal state. This state is updated in essentially two ways: if the state changes
independently of the plaintext or ciphertext messages, the cipher is classified as a
synchronous stream cipher. By contrast, self-synchronizing stream ciphers update their
state based on previous ciphertext digits.

 Synchronous stream ciphers

 Self-synchronizing stream ciphers

4.2 KEY GENERATION SCHEMES

In this chapter two key generation techniques were discussed briefly

 Grain stream cipher

 Trivium stream cipher
 23

4.2.1 GRAIN STREAM CIPHER

The stream cipher Grain was designed by Martin Hell, Thomas Johansson, and
Willi Meier .Their main goal was to design an algorithm which is very easy to
implement in hardware and requires only small chip area. It is a bit-oriented
synchronous stream cipher which means that the key stream is generated independently
from the plaintext. In general, a stream cipher consists of two phases. The first phase is
the initialization of the internal state using the secret key and the IV. After that, the state
is repeatedly updated and hence used to generate key-stream bits. The main elements of
the stream cipher Grain are two 80-bit shift registers where one has a linear feedback
(LFSR) and the other a nonlinear feedback (NFSR). The key size is specified with 80
bits and additionally an initial value of 64 bits is required. Unfortunately, the initial
version of Grain (Version 0) had a weakness in the output function which was
discovered during the first evaluation phase.
The basic structure of the algorithm can be seen in Figure 4.2. Two polynomials
of degree 80, f(x) and g(x), are used as feedback function for the feedback shift registers
LFSR and NFSR. The output function h(x) uses as input selected bits from both
feedback shift registers. Additionally, seven bits of NFSR are XORed together and the
result is added to the function h(x). This output is used during the initialization phase as
additional feedback to LFSR and NFSR. During normal operation this value is used as
key stream output.

Fig.4. 2a) Grain stream cipher

 24

4.2.2 IMPLEMENTATION OF GRAIN

The hardware module of Grain was implemented with a 16-bit AMBA APB
interface in a 0.35 μm CMOS process technology. This interface fits to the 16- bit
datapath architecture. The reason for implementing a 16-bit word size was the low-
power design approach as presented in Section 2. The details of the datapath are shown
in Figure 4.2b. It can be seen that the feedback shift registers NFSR and LFSR shift 16
bits per clock cycle. Only a single register is clocked at the same point in time via clock
gating which eases the input of the key and the initial value because the same 16 input
wires are connected to all registers. Additionally, it reduces the mean power
consumption significantly. This comes at the expense of having a temporary register
which stores intermediate results.

Figure 4.2b)Datapath of grain

Additionally, all combinational circuits like the feedback functions g function, f

function, and h function have to be implemented in radix 16. The inputs of these
functions are selected bits from the registers and are not shown in detail in this figure.
The h function in the datapath description also includes the XOR Comparison of Low-
Power Implementations of Trivium and Grain 7 operations of the output function in the
algorithm description. The output of the module is registered and instead of the key
stream the encrypted result of the data input is stored in the register. Instead of a
multiplexer that selects the correct feedback function for the temporary register, AND
 25

gates are used to enable and disable the appropriate inputs. Producing a 16-bit
encryption result after initialization requires 13 clock cycles.

4.2.3 TRIVIUM STREAM CIPHER

The developers of the stream cipher Trivium are Christophe De Canni`ere and
Bart Preneel. This hardware-oriented synchronous stream cipher was designed to
explore how simply a stream cipher could be designed without sacrificing its security. It
is possible to generate up to 264 bits of key stream from an 80-bit key and an initial
value (IV) of 80 bits. The state consists of 288 bits which are denoted as s0, s2, ..., s287.
The pseudo code in Figure 4.3a shows how the algorithm uses 15 specific bits of the
state to generate three variables which are used to update the state and which produce
one bit of the output. During the initialization, which is not shown in the figure, the key
and the IV are loaded to the state and the same update function is applied 1,152 times
without using the output for the key stream. Figure 4.3a schematic of Trivium stream
cipher.

Figure4.3a)schematic of Trivium

4.2.4 IMPLEMENTATION OF STREAM CIPHER

The implementation of the Trivium module has the same 16-bit AMBA APB
interface as the one for Grain. Implementing a radix-16 datapath is also motivated by
the low-power design technique. Figure 4.3b shows the details of the architecture. The
boxes denoted with comb are the combinational logic elements of the algorithm that are
 26

used for updating the state according to the algorithm specification. The 288 flip-flops
for the state are separated in 16-bit registers. Additionally, two temporary registers are
necessary which store intermediate results. The output register is again used for directly
applying the XOR operation of the key stream with the input value. Again, clock gating
is used to only clock one register per clock cycle. During initialization, the key, the IV,
and the constants are loaded into the registers. Then the combinational circuit is used to
update the registers in a kind of pipeline where the temporary registers are used to
prevent overwriting of needed values. The generation of a 16-bit key stream after the
initialization phase requires 22 clock cycles.

Figure4.3b) Datapath of Trivium

In each step of the key stream generation, 15 specific state bits are used to update 3 bits
of the state and to compute 1 bit of key stream zi. The output of Trivium is given by
zi = ai + ai+27 + bi + bi+15 + ci + ci+45 , i = 0,1... (4.1)
The updating functions of three NFSRs are given as follows.
ai+93 = ai+24 + ci + ci+45 + ci+1ci+2 (4.2)
bi+84 = bi+6 + ai + ai+27 + ai+1ai+2 (4.3)
ci+111 = ci+24 + bi + bi+15 + bi+1bi+2 (4.4)
As we compared the power consumption of the both ciphers, comparatively Trivium is
less consumed compared with grain stream cipher.
 27

CHAPTER 5

ENCRYPTION TECHNIQUES

5.1 ENCRYPTION

To make the data secure from various attacks and for the integrity of data we
must encrypt the data before it is transmitted or stored. Government, military, financial
institution, hospitals and private business deals with confidential images about their
patient (in Hospitals), geographical areas (in research ), enemy positions (in defense),
product, financial status. Most of this information is now collected and stored on
electronic computers and transmitted across network to other computer. If these
confidential images about enemy positions, patient and geographical areas fall into the
wrong hands, than such a breach of security could lead to declination of war, wrong
treatment etc. Protecting confidential images is an ethical and legal requirement.

Figure 5.1 Encryption/decryption process

5.2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF ENCRYPTION TECHNIQUES

5.2.1 DATA ENCRYPTION STANDARD (DES)

DES (Data Encryption Standard) was the first encryption standard to be

recommended by NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology). It was
developed by an IBM team around 1974 and adopted as a national standard in 1997.
DES is a 64-bit block cipher under 56-bit key. The algorithm processes with an initial
permutation, sixteen rounds block cipher and a final permutation. DES application is
very popular in commercial, military, and other domains in the last decades. Although
the DES standard is public, the design criteria used are classified. There has been
considerable controversy over the design, particularly in the choice of a 56-bit key.
 28

5.2.2 TRIPLE DES (TDES)

The triple DES (3DES) algorithm was needed as a replacement for DES due to
advances in key searching. TDES uses three round message This provides TDES as a
strongest encryption algorithm since it is extremely hard to break 2^168 possible
combinations. Another option is to use two different keys for the encryption algorithm.
This reduces the memory requirement of keys in TDES. The disadvantage of this
algorithm is that it is too time consuming.

5.2.3 ADVANCED ENCRYPTION STANDARD (AES)

AES was developed by two scientists Joan and Vincent Rijmen in 2000. AES
uses the Rijndael block cipher. Rijndael key and block length can be 128, 192 or 256-
bits. If both the key-length and block length are 128-bit, Rijndael will perform 9
processing rounds. If the block or key is 192-bit, it performs 11 processing rounds. If
either is 256-bit, Rijndael performs 13 processing rounds.

5.2.4 BLOWFISH

Bruce Schneier designed blowfish in 1993 as a fast, free alternative to existing

encryption algorithms. Since then it has been analyzed considerably, and it is slowly
gaining acceptance as a strong encryption algorithm. The Blowfish algorithm has many
advantages. It is suitable and efficient for hardware implementation and no license is
required. The elementary operators of Blowfish algorithm include table lookup, addition
and XOR. The table includes four S-boxes and a P-array. Blowfish is a cipher based on
Feistel rounds, and the design of the F-function used amounts to a simplification of the
principles used in DES to provide the same security with greater speed and efficiency in
software. Blowfish is a 64 bit block cipher and is suggested as a replacement for DES.
Blowfish is a fast algorithm and can encrypt data on 32-bit microprocessors.

5.2.4.1ENCRYPTION PROCESS

Data image as a plaintext and the encryption key are two inputs of encryption
process. In this case, original image data bit stream is divided into the blocks length of
 29

Blowfish algorithm. Image header is excluded to encrypt and the start of the bitmap
pixel or array begins right after the header of the file. The byte elements of the array are
stored in row order from left to right with each row representing one scan line of the
image and the rows of the image are encrypted from top to bottom.

Figure 5.2 Encryption process

5.2.4.2 DECRYPTION PROCESS

The encrypted image is divided into the same block length of Blowfish
algorithm from top to bottom.

Figure 5.3 Decryption process

The first block is entered to the decryption function and the same encryption key
is used to decrypt the image but the application of sub keys is reversed. The process of
decryption is continued with other blocks of the image from top to bottom.
 30

CHAPTER 6

PROPOSED METHODOLOGY

6.1 INTRODUCTION

The proposed work is abstracted from methods proposed by ( Sonjoy Deb Roy,
Xin Li, Yonatan Shoshan, Alexander Fish , 2013) and (Paris Kitsos , Nicolas
Sklavos , George Provelengios , Athanassios N. Skodras 2013). The algorithm by
(Burhanuddin , Aamna Patel, Rozina Choudhary 2012) are combined and made
worthy to improve the watermarking .

The entire method works together to made digital data in secured form. For key
generation Trivium stream cipher technique was used. Blowfish algorithm used for the
encryption/decryption process. Video files to be separated to frames, processed that
frames .DCT was used to find the high pixel value. Watermark was generated by using
Trivium key.
 31

Figure 6.1 Proposed system

The input video files are separated as shown in Figure 6.2. These frames are first
divided into 8 × 8 blocks. By embedding the WM specifically to each 8×8 block, tamper
localization and better detection ratios are achieved. Each of the video frames undergoes
8 × 8 block DCT and quantization.
 32

Figure 6.2 Frames

6.2 TRIVIUM STREAM CIPHER

Trivium is also a bit-oriented stream cipher that has two 80-bit inputs, the Key,
the Initial Vector (IV) and the Input bit. The main functionality of Trivium is quite
simple and consists of two phases, the Initialization and the Keystream generation. The
bits are managed as a group of 288-bit which is called ‘‘Internal state’’ and is denoted
by Si. The pseudo code for the Initialization phase, is given below. The initial value of
the Internal State is also defined:
Initialization
For i = 1 to 4 x 288 do
1. x1 <= S66 _ S93
2. x2 <= S162 _ S177
3. x3 <= S243 _ S288
4. t1 <= x1 _ (S91 AND S92) _ S171
5. t2 <= x2 _ (S175 AND S176) _ S264
6. t3 <= x3 _ (S286 AND S287) _S69
 33

7. S1..S93 <= t3 || S1..S92

8. S94..S177 <= t1 || S94..S176
9. S178..S288 <= t2 || S178..S287
end for;
Set the Initial values
S1..S80 <= Key
S81..S93 <= Set to 0
S94..S173 <= IV
S174..S285 <= Set to 0
S286..S288 <= Set to 1
In the Keystream generation phase, steps (1..9) of Initialization phase take place and
then the cipher outputs one bit every clock cycle. The cipher output is calculated by the
equation
Keystream = x1 _ x2 _ x3.

This Trivium cipher generates the key with respect to four iteration ,each iteration took
288 times and its updated to 1152 times .Figure 6.3 shows the iteration 1 results

Figure 6.3)First Iteration

Trivium cipher which update is state value for each cycle and present bit is depends on
previous one. Figure 6.4 shows histogram plot for comparison of keys at different times.
 34

Figure 6.4)Comparison of keys at different times

6.3 BLOWFISH ALGORITHM

Blowfish is a symmetric block cipher that encrypts data in 8- byte (64-bit)
blocks. The algorithm has two parts, key expansion and data encryption. Key expansion
consists of generating the initial contents of one array (the P-array), namely, eighteen
32-bit sub keys, and four arrays (the S boxes), each of size 256 by 32 bits, from a key of
at most 448 bits (56 bytes).

6.3.1The F function
An algorithm with the Feistel structure for encryption, with 16 rounds of
confusion and diffusion. Mathematically the functions can be expressed as below: Take
a block of 64 bits and divide it into two equal halves: L and R.
Then define the iterated block cipher when the outputs Li and Ri of the i'th round are
determined from the outputs Li-1 and Ri-1 of the previous round:
Li = Li-1
Ri = Li-1 F (Ri-1, Ki)
where Ki is the sub-key used in the ith round and F is specific to the particular
algorithm.
The F Function, regarded as the primary source of algorithm security, combines two
simple functions: addition modulo two (XOR) and addition modulo 232.
 35

Blowfish algorithm follows as,

Divide XL (32 Bits) into four 8-bit quarters: a, b, c, and d.
F (XL) = {(S1[a] + S2[b]) S3[c]} + S[d] )}, Where + means addition modulo 232, and
means exclusive OR. The addresses a, b, c and d are 8-bits wide, while the S-box
outputs are 32-bits wide.
The process of data encryption can be described as in the pseudo code below:
Divide X into two 32-bit halves XL and XR
For i=1 to 16:

XL = XL Pi

XR = F (XL) XR
Swap XL and XR
End for
Swap XL and XR (Undo the last swap.)

XR = XR P17

XL = XL P18
Recombine XL and XR
Output X (64-bit data block: cipher text)

a) b)
Figure6.5 a)Input image b)encrypt image

CHAPTER 7
 36

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

A watermarking system is proposed to embed a secret image into the video

based on the key generation scheme and encryption algorithm. Trivium key generation
scheme is used here to generates the key and the blowfish algorithm is used for
encryption which has the key size(bits) of 32-448 and block size(bits) of 64.

7.1 FUTURE WORK

Implementation of this watermarking system in hardware to embed the

watermark data into the video by using different specifications and different devices
were used for implementation and it is also used for real time scenarios .

REFERENCES

1. V. M. Potdar, S. Han, and E. Chang, “A survey of digital image watermarking

techniques,” in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Ind. Informatics, Aug. 2005, pp. 709–716.
 37

2. D. Gwenael and J. L. Dugelay, “A guide tour of video watermarking, ”Signal

Process. Image Commun., vol. 18, no. 4, pp. 263–282, Apr. 2003.

3. A. Piva, F. Bartolini, and M. Barni, “Managing copyright in open networks,” IEEE

Trans. Internet Comput., vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 18–26, May–Jun. 2002.

4. X. Li, Y. Shoshan, A. Fish, G. A. Jullien, and O. Yadid-Pecht, “Hardware

implementations of video watermarking,” in International Book Series on Information
Science and Computing, no. 5. Sofia, Bulgaria: Inst. Inform. Theories Applicat. FOI
ITHEA, Jun. 2008, pp. 9–16 (supplement to the Int. J. Inform. Technol. Knowledge, vol.
2, 2008).

5. I. J. Cox, J. Kilian, F. T. Leighton, and T. Shamoon, “Secure spread spectrum

watermarking for multimedia,” IEEE Trans. Image Process., vol. 6, no. 12, pp. 1673–
1687, Dec. 1997.

6. S. P. Mohanty. (1999). Digital Watermarking: A Tutorial Review [Online]. Available:

http://www.linkpdf.com/download/dl/digital-watermarking-a-tutorial-review-.pdf

9. F. Hartung and B. Girod, “Watermarking of uncompressed and compressed video,”

IEEE Trans. Signal Process., vol. 66, no. 3, pp. 283–302,May 1998.

10. A. Shan and E. Salari, “Real-time digital video watermarking,” in Proc. Dig. Tech.
Papers: Int. Conf. Consumer Electron., Jun. 2002, pp. 12–13.

11. L. Qiao and K. Nahrstedt, “Watermarking methods for MPEG encoded video:
Toward resolving rightful ownership,” in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Multimedia Comput.
Syst., Jun. 1998, pp. 276–285.

12. L. D. Strycker, P. Termont, J. Vandewege, J. Haitsma, A. Kalker, M. Maes, and G.

Depovere, “Implementation of a real-time digital watermarking process for broadcast
 38

monitoring on Trimedia VLIW processor,” Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng. Vision, Image Signal
Process., vol.147, no. 4, pp. 371–376, Aug. 2000.

13. N. J. Mathai, A. Sheikholesami, and D. Kundur, “Hardware implementation

perspectives of digital video watermarking algorithms,” IEEE Trans. Signal Process.,
vol. 51, no. 4, pp. 925–938, Apr. 2003.

14. N. J. Mathai, A. Sheikholesami, and D. Kundur, “VLSI implementation of a real

time video watermark embedder and detector,” in Proc. Int. Symp. Circuits Syst., vol. 2.
May 2003, pp. 772–775.

15. T. H. Tsai and C. Y. Wu, “An implementation of configurable digital watermarking

systems in MPEG video encoder,” in Proc. Int. Conf. Consumer Electron., Jun. 2003,
pp. 216–217.

16. M. Maes, T. Kalker, J. P. Linnartz, J. Talstra, G. Depoyere, and Ja.Haitsma, “Digital

watermarking for DVD video copy protection,” IEEE Signal Process. Mag., vol. 17, no.
5, pp. 47–57, Sep. 2000.

17. X. Wu, J. Hu, Z. Gu, and J. Huang, “A secure semi fragile watermarking for image
authentication based on integer wavelet transform with parameters,” in Proc. Australian
Workshop Grid Comput E-Research, vol. 44. 2005, pp. 75–80.

18. K. Jack, Video Demystified: A Handbook for the Digital Engineer, 2nd ed. Eagle
Rock, VA: LLH Technology Publishing, 2001.

19. I. E. G. Richardson, H.264 and MPEG-4 Video Compression. Chichester, U.K.:

Wiley, 2003.

20. F. Bartolini, M. Barni, A. Tefas, and I. Pitas, “Image authentication techniques for
surveillance applications,” Proc. IEEE, vol. 89, no. 10, pp. 1403–1418, Oct. 2001.
 39

21. J. Dittmann, T. Fiebig, R. Steinmetz, S. Fischer, and I. Rimac, “Combined video and
audio watermarking: Embedding content information in multimedia data,” in Proc.
SPIE Security Watermarking Multimedia Contents II, vol. 3971. Jan. 2000, pp. 455–
464.

22. Y. Shoshan, A. Fish, G. A. Jullien, and O. Yadid- Pecht, “Hardware implementation

of a DCT watermark for CMOS image sensors,” in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Electron.
Circuits Syst., Aug. 2008, pp. 368–371.

23 V. M. Potdar , S. Han, and E. Chang, “A survey of digital image watermarking

techniques,” in Proc. 3rd IEEE Int. Conf. Ind. Informatics,2005, pp. 709–716.

24. F. Petitcolas, R. J. Anderson, and M. G. Kuhn, “Information hiding: A survey,”

Proc. IEEE, vol. 87, no. 7, pp. 1062–1078, 1999.

25. F. Arnault , T. Berger, and A. Necer, “A new class of stream ciphers combining
LFSR and FCSR architectures,” in Proc. Adv. Cryptology INDOCRYPT, LNCS 2551.
2002, pp. 22–33.

26. Brunton .A, Jiying Zhao, “Real-Time Watermarking on Programmable Graphics

Hardware,” Electrical and Computer Engineering, 2005 Canadian Conference, pp. 1312
– 1315.

27. A. M. Joshi, R. M. Patrikar, V. Mishra “Design of Low Complexity Video

Watermarking Algorithm based on Integer DCT ,” proceedings of the Signal Processing
and Communications (SPCOM) ,pp.1-5,2012.

28. A. T. Sadiq, W. M. Salih,“ Uncompressed Video Quality Metric Based on

Watermarking Technique,” Communications, Signal Processing, and their Applications
(ICCSPA),pp.1-6,2013.
40