1.2.

VECTOR SPACES
Binary Operation: Let 𝐴 be a non-empty set. Then if the relation 𝑓 ∶ 𝐴 × 𝐴 ⟶ 𝐴
is a function, then 𝑓 is said to be a binary operation or binary composition in 𝐴. That
is, for all (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝐴 × 𝐴 there exists a unique image 𝑓(𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝐴.

Notation: In general there are different types of symbols are used to denote the
binary operation like ⊗,⊙, 𝑜, +, . ,×,⊕ and so on.

Examples
i) Notice that Addition (+), Subtraction (−) and Multiplication (× 𝑜𝑟 . ) are binary
operations in 𝑹, the set of real numbers whereas Division (÷) is not a binary
operation in 𝑹 since division by 0 is not defined.
ii) Let 𝐴 be the set of all 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrices such that each element of any matrix is a
complex number. Then Addition of matrices denoted by + is a binary
operation in 𝐴.
𝑎+𝑏
iii) In 𝑵, the set of Natural numbers, the operation 𝑜 defined by 𝑎𝑜𝑏 = is not
𝑎𝑏
2+3 5
a binary operation in 𝑵 since for 𝑎 = 2, 𝑏 = 3 ∈ 𝑵, 2𝑜3 = = ∉𝑵
2(3) 6

Notes
1) In 1-D space, denoted by 𝑹1 , the elements will be 1-tuple which are real
10 134
constants in 𝑹1 like 2, −3, − , ,…
3 47
2) In 2-D space or Cartesian plane, denoted by 𝑹2 , the elements will be 2-tuples
or ordered pairs in 𝑹2 like (𝑥, 𝑦), (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ), (𝑝, 𝑞), …
3) In 3-D space or Coordinate space, denoted by 𝑹3 , the elements will be 3-tuples
or ordered triples in 𝑹3 like (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧), (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 ), ….
4) In general 𝑛-D space or Euclidean Space, denoted by 𝑹𝑛 , the elements will be
𝑛-tuples in 𝑹𝑛 like (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛−1 , 𝑥𝑛 ), (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛−1 , 𝑎𝑛 ) …..
A particular 𝑛-tuple in 𝑹𝑛 , say 𝒖 = (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , … , 𝑢𝑛−1 , 𝑢𝑛 ) is called a point or
vector. The numbers 𝑢𝑖′ 𝑠 are called the coordinates, components, entries or
elements of 𝒖
Vector addition and Scalar multiplication in 𝑹𝒏
If 𝒖 = (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , … , 𝑢𝑛 ) and 𝒗 = (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , … , 𝑣𝑛 ) be any two vectors in 𝑹𝑛 and 𝑐 be
any scalar, then

Vector addition: 𝒖 + 𝒗 = (𝑢1 + 𝑣1 , 𝑢2 + 𝑣2 , … , 𝑢𝑛 + 𝑣𝑛 )

Scalar Multiplication: 𝑐𝒖 = 𝑐(𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , … , 𝑢𝑛 ) = (𝑐𝑢1 , 𝑐𝑢2 , … , 𝑐𝑢𝑛 )

Field
Let 𝐹 be a non-empty set of scalars and +, . be two binary operations defined on 𝐹.
If (𝐹, +, . ) is said to be a Field, then it has to satisfy the following six properties:

𝑃1 ∶ Closure law w.r.t addition and Multiplication

For any 𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ 𝐹, 𝑢 + 𝑣 ∈ 𝐹 and 𝑢. 𝑣 ∈ 𝐹

𝑃2 ∶ Associative law w.r.t addition and Multiplication

For any 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤 ∈ 𝐹, (𝑢 + 𝑣) + 𝑤 = 𝑢 + (𝑣 + 𝑤) ∈ 𝐹 and

(𝑢. 𝑣). 𝑤 = 𝑢. (𝑣. 𝑤) ∈ 𝐹

𝑃3 ∶ Identity law w.r.t addition and Multiplication

For any 𝑢 ∈ 𝐹 there exists 0 ∈ 𝐹 such that 𝑢 + 0 = 0 + 𝑢 = 𝑢. Then 0 is

called Additive identity in 𝐹.

For any 𝑢 ∈ 𝐹 there exists 1 ∈ 𝐹 such that 𝑢. 1 = 1. 𝑢 = 𝑢. Then 1 is called

Multiplicative identity in 𝐹.

𝑃4 ∶ Inverse law w.r.t addition and Multiplication

For any 𝑢 ∈ 𝐹 there exists −𝑢 ∈ 𝐹 such that 𝑢 + (−𝑢) = (−𝑢) + 𝑢 = 0. Then

−𝑢 is called Additive inverse of 𝑢 in 𝐹
For any 𝑢 ≠ 0 ∈ 𝐹 there exists 𝑢−1 ∈ 𝐹 such that 𝑢𝑢−1 = 𝑢−1 𝑢 = 1. Then
𝑢−1 is called Multiplicative inverse of 𝑢 in 𝐹
𝑃5 ∶ Commutative law w.r.t addition and Multiplication

For any 𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ 𝐹, 𝑢 + 𝑣 = 𝑣 + 𝑢 and 𝑢. 𝑣 = 𝑣. 𝑢

𝑃6 ∶ Distributive laws

Left Distributive law: For any 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤 ∈ 𝐹, 𝑢. (𝑣 + 𝑤) = 𝑢. 𝑣 + 𝑢. 𝑤

Right Distributive law: For any 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤 ∈ 𝐹, (𝑢 + 𝑣). 𝑤 = 𝑢. 𝑤 + 𝑣. 𝑤

Examples: (𝑸, +, . ), (𝑹, +, . ) and (𝑪, +, . ) are all fields.

Notice that (𝒁, +, . ) is not a field since every nonzero element except −1 and 1
1
has no multiplicative inverse. That is, for 2 ∈ 𝒁 but its multiplicative inverse ∉ 𝒁.
2
Similarly, (𝑵, +, . ), (𝑾, +, . ) are also not fields.

Vector Space
Let 𝑉 be a nonempty set whose elements are vectors and 𝐹 be a field of scalars.
Then 𝑉 is said to be a Vector Space over the field 𝑭 or simply 𝑉(𝐹) is said to be a
Vector Space if the following properties hold in 𝑉(𝐹):

𝑃1 ∶ Closure law w.r.t addition

For any 𝒖, 𝒗 ∈ 𝑉, 𝒖 + 𝒗 ∈ 𝑉

𝑃2 ∶ Associative law w.r.t addition

For any 𝒖, 𝒗, 𝒘 ∈ 𝑉, (𝒖 + 𝒗) + 𝒘 = 𝒖 + (𝒗 + 𝒘) ∈ 𝑉

𝑃3 ∶ Identity law w.r.t addition

For any 𝒖 ∈ 𝑉 there exists 𝑶 ∈ 𝑉 such that 𝒖 + 𝑶 = 𝑶 + 𝒖 = 𝒖. Then 𝑶 is

called Additive identity in 𝑉

𝑃4 ∶ Inverse law w.r.t addition

For any 𝒖 ∈ 𝑉 there exists −𝒖 ∈ 𝑉 such that 𝒖 + (−𝒖) = (−𝒖) + 𝒖 = 𝑶.

Then −𝒖 is called Additive inverse of 𝒖 in 𝑉
𝑃5 ∶ Commutative law w.r.t addition

For any 𝒖, 𝒗 ∈ 𝑉, 𝒖 + 𝒗 = 𝒗 + 𝒖

𝑃6 ∶ Scalar Multiplication

i) For any 𝑎 ∈ 𝐹, 𝒖 ∈ 𝑉, 𝑎𝒖 ∈ 𝑉
ii) For any 𝒖, 𝒗 ∈ 𝑉 and 𝑎 ∈ 𝐹, 𝑎(𝒖 + 𝒗) = 𝑎𝒖 + 𝑎𝒗
iii) For any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐹, 𝒖 ∈ 𝑉, 𝑎(𝑏𝒖) = (𝑎𝑏)𝒖 and (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝒖 = 𝑎𝒖 + 𝑏𝒖
iv) For any 1 ∈ 𝐹, 𝒖 ∈ 𝑉, 1. 𝒖 = 𝒖, where 1 is the unity of 𝐹

EXAMPLE-1: Prove that the set 𝑪𝑛 (𝑪) of all 𝑛-tuples of complex numbers with
the binary operations vector addition and scalar multiplication defined as follows
is a vector space over the field of complex numbers 𝑪:

If 𝒖 = (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , … , 𝑢𝑛 ), 𝒗 = (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , … , 𝑣𝑛 ) ∈ 𝑪𝑛 and 𝑎 ∈ 𝑪, then

i) 𝒖 + 𝒗 = (𝑢1 + 𝑣1 , 𝑢2 + 𝑣2 , … , 𝑢𝑛 + 𝑣𝑛 )
ii) 𝑎𝒖 = (𝑎𝑢1 , 𝑎𝑢2 , … , 𝑎𝑢𝑛 )

Proof:

EXAMPLE-2: Let 𝑉 be the set of all ordered pairs of real numbers and 𝐹 be the
field of real numbers with the binary operations addition and scalar multiplication
defined as follows: For any (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) ∈ 𝑉 and 𝑐 ∈ 𝐹, we have

i) (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) + (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) = (3𝑦1 + 3𝑦2 , −𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )

ii) 𝑐(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = (3𝑐𝑦1 , −𝑐𝑥1 )

Then verify that 𝑉(𝐹) is a vector space or not?

Solution:

EXAMPLE-3: Let 𝑉 be the set of all ordered pairs of real numbers and 𝐹 be the
field of real numbers with the binary operations addition and scalar multiplication
defined as follows: For any (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) ∈ 𝑉 and 𝑐 ∈ 𝐹, we have

i) (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) + (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) = (2𝑥1 − 3𝑥2 , 𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )

 𝑐𝑥1 𝑐𝑦1
ii) 𝑐(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = ( , )
3 3

Then verify that 𝑉(𝐹) is a vector space or not?

Solution:

EXAMPLE-4: Let 𝑉 be the set of all ordered pairs of real numbers and 𝐹 be the
field of real numbers with the binary operations addition and scalar multiplication
defined as follows: For any (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) ∈ 𝑉 and 𝑐 ∈ 𝐹, we have

i) (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) + (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) = (𝑥1 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 𝑦2 )

ii) 𝑐(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = (𝑐𝑥1 , 𝑐𝑦1 )

Then verify that 𝑉(𝐹) is a vector space or not?

Solution:

Vector Subspace
Let 𝑉 be a vector space over a field 𝐹 and 𝑊 ≠ ∅, 𝑊 ⊆ 𝑉. Then 𝑊 is said to be a
Vector Subspace of 𝑉 if 𝑊 is itself a vector space over 𝐹 with respect to the same
operations of vector addition and scalar multiplication as defined in 𝑉.

Note: The zero vector space {𝑶} and 𝑉(𝐹) are the trivial subspaces of 𝑉(𝐹).

THEOREM-1: Let 𝑊 is a nonempty subset of a vector space 𝑉(𝐹). Then 𝑊(𝐹) is a

vector subspace of 𝑉(𝐹) if and only if for any 𝑎 ∈ 𝐹 and 𝒖, 𝒗 ∈ 𝑉 ⟹ 𝑎𝒖 + 𝒗 ∈ 𝑊.

Proof:
Necessary Condition: Let 𝑊(𝐹) is a vector subspace of 𝑉(𝐹). Then by the definition
of vector subspace, 𝑊(𝐹) is a vector space. Since 𝑊(𝐹) is a vector space, we have

For any 𝑎 ∈ 𝐹 and 𝒖, 𝒗 ∈ 𝑊, 𝑎𝒖 ∈ 𝑉 and 𝑎𝒖 + 𝒗 ∈ 𝑊

Sufficient Condition: Let 𝑊 is a nonempty subset of a vector space 𝑉(𝐹) which

satisfying the condition that for any 𝑎 ∈ 𝐹 and 𝒖, 𝒗 ∈ 𝑉 ⟹ 𝑎𝒖 + 𝒗 ∈ 𝑊
i) Take 𝑎 = −1, 𝒖 ∈ 𝑊, we have (−1)𝒖 + 𝒖 = −𝒖 + 𝒖 = 𝑶 ∈ 𝑊, that is, the zero
vector 𝑶 lies in 𝑊
ii) For −1 ∈ 𝐹 and 𝒖, 𝑶 ∈ 𝑊, (−1)𝒖 + 𝑶 = −𝒖 ∈ 𝑊, that is, for any 𝒖 ∈ 𝑊 there
exists its additive inverse −𝒖 ∈ 𝑊
iii) For 𝑎 ∈ 𝐹 and 𝒖, 𝑶 ∈ 𝑊, 𝑎𝒖 + 𝑶 = 𝑎𝒖 ∈ 𝑊, that is, 𝑊 is closed with respect to
scalar multiplication.

Notice that the remaining properties of a vector space hold good in 𝑊 since they hold
in 𝑉 of which 𝑊 is a subset.

Thus, 𝑊 is a vector subspace of 𝑉(𝐹).

Hence be proved.

EXAMPLE-3: Prove that 𝑊 = {(𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑) ∈ 𝑹4 | 𝑎 − 𝑏 − 3𝑑 = 0} is a vector

subspace of a vector space 𝑹4 .

Solution:

EXAMPLE-4: Verify that 𝑊 = {𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑹 | (𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑏)} is a vector subspace of a

vector space 𝑹3 or not?

Solution:

Some more examples on the subspaces of a vector space are given below:

i) Let 𝑉 = 𝑀𝑛,𝑛 be the vector space of 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrices. Let 𝑊1 be the subset of all
(upper) triangular matrices and 𝑊2 be the subset of all symmetric matrices.
Then 𝑊1 is a subspace of 𝑉 because 𝑊1 contains the zero matrix 𝑂 and is
closed under matrix addition and scalar multiplication, that is, the sum and
scalar multiple of such triangular matrices are also triangular. Similarly, 𝑊2 is
also a subspace of 𝑉.
ii) Let 𝑉 = 𝑃(𝑡) be a vector space of polynomials. Then the set 𝑃𝑛 (𝑡) of
polynomials of degree at most 𝑛 may be viewed as a subspace of 𝑃(𝑡). Let
𝑄(𝑡) be the collection of polynomials with only even powers of 𝑡 (for example
𝑝1 (𝑡) = 3 + 4𝑡 2 − 5𝑡 6 , 𝑝2 (𝑡) = 6 − 7𝑡 4 + 9𝑡 6 + 3𝑡 12 , … 𝑒𝑡𝑐) may be viewed
as subspace of 𝑃(𝑡).
iii) Let 𝑉 be the vector space of real-valued functions. Then the collection 𝑊1 of
continuous functions and the collection 𝑊2 of differentiable functions are
subspaces of 𝑉.
iv) Let 𝑉 be the set of 𝑛-tuples (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 ) in 𝑹𝑛 with usual addition and scalar
multiplication. Then
➢ 𝑊 consisting of 𝑛-tuples (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 ) with 𝑥1 = 0 is a subspace of 𝑉.
➢ 𝑊 consisting of 𝑛-tuples (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 ) with 𝑥1 ≥ 0 is not a subspace of 𝑉,
since 𝑊 is not closed under scalar multiplication (𝑐𝑥, when 𝑐 is a negative
real number, is not in 𝑊)
➢ 𝑊 consisting of 𝑛-tuples (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 ) with 𝑥2 = 𝑥1 + 1 is not a subspace
of 𝑉, since 𝑊 is not closed under addition since for 𝑥 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 ) with
𝑥2 = 𝑥1 + 1 and 𝑦 = (𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , … , 𝑦𝑛 ) with 𝑦2 = 𝑦1 + 1 be two elements in
𝑊, then 𝑥 + 𝑦 = (𝑥1 + 𝑦1 , 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑦𝑛 ) is not in 𝑊 as 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 =
(𝑥1 + 1) + (𝑦1 + 1) = 𝑥1 + 𝑦1 + 2 ≠ 𝑥1 + 𝑦1 + 1.
v) Let 𝑉 be the set of all real polynomials 𝑃 of degree ≤ 𝑚 with usual addition and
scalar multiplication. Then
➢ 𝑊 consisting of all real polynomials of degree ≤ 𝑚 with 𝑃(0) = 0 is a
subspace of 𝑉
➢ 𝑊 consisting of all real polynomials of degree ≤ 𝑚 with 𝑃(0) = 1 is not a
subspace of 𝑉, since 𝑊 is not closed under addition, that is, if 𝑃, 𝑄 ∈ 𝑊,
then 𝑃 + 𝑄 ∉ 𝑊 because 𝑃(0) + 𝑄(0) = 1 + 1 = 2 ≠ 1.
➢ 𝑊 consisting of all real polynomials of degree ≤ 𝑚 with real positive
coefficients is not a subspace of 𝑉 since 𝑊 is not closed under scalar
multiplication, that is, if 𝑃 is an element of 𝑊, then −𝑃 ∉ 𝑊.
vi) Let 𝑉 be set of all 𝑛 × 𝑛 real square matrices with usual matrix addition and
scalar multiplication. Then
➢ 𝑊 consisting of all symmetric/skew symmetric matrices of order 𝑛 is a
subspace of 𝑉.
➢ 𝑊 consisting of all upper/lower triangular matrices of order 𝑛 is a subspace
of 𝑉.
➢ 𝑊 consisting of all 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrices having real positive elements is not a
subspace of 𝑉 since 𝑊 is not closed under scalar multiplication, that is, if 𝐴
is an element of 𝑊, then −𝐴 ∉ 𝑊.
vii) Let 𝑉 be set of all 𝑛 × 𝑛 complex matrices with usual matrix addition and
scalar multiplication. Then
➢ 𝑊 consisting of all Hermitian matrices of order 𝑛 forms a vector space
when scalars are real numbers and does not form a vector space when
scalars are complex numbers since 𝑊 is not closed under scalar
𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
multiplication, that is, Let 𝐴 = ( ) ∈ 𝑊 and 𝑐 = 𝑖, a scalar.
𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦 𝑏
𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 𝑖𝑎 𝑖𝑥 − 𝑦
Then 𝑐𝐴 = 𝑖𝐴 = 𝑖 ( )=( )∉𝑊
𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦 𝑏 𝑖𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑖𝑏
➢ 𝑊 consisting of all Skew-Hermitian matrices of order 𝑛 forms a vector
space when scalars are real numbers and does not form a vector space
when scalars are complex numbers since 𝑊 is not closed under scalar
𝑖 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
multiplication, that is, Let 𝐴 = ( ) ∈ 𝑊 and 𝑐 = 𝑖, a scalar.
−𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 2𝑖
𝑖 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 −1 𝑖𝑥 − 𝑦
Then 𝑐𝐴 = 𝑖𝐴 = 𝑖 ( )=( )∉𝑊
−𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 2𝑖 −𝑖𝑥 − 𝑦 −2

THEOREM 2: The intersection of any two subspaces of a vector space is a subspace.

That is, If 𝑊1 and 𝑊2 are any two subspaces of a vector space 𝑉(𝐹), then 𝑊1 ∩ 𝑊2 is a
subspace of 𝑉(𝐹).

Note: The intersection of any family of subspaces of a vector space is also a subspace.

THEOREM 3: The union of any two subspaces of a vector space is a subspace if and
only if one is contained in the other. That is,

Let 𝑊1 and 𝑊2 be any two subspaces of a vector space 𝑉(𝐹).Then 𝑊1 ∪ 𝑊2 is a

subspace of a vector space 𝑉(𝐹) if and only if either 𝑊1 ⊆ 𝑊2 or 𝑊2 ⊆ 𝑊1 .

Proof: Necessary Condition: Let 𝑊1 ⊆ 𝑊2 or 𝑊2 ⊆ 𝑊1

Since 𝑊1 and 𝑊2 be any two subspaces of a vector space 𝑉(𝐹), we have

𝑊1 ∪ 𝑊2 = 𝑊1 or 𝑊2 , a subspace

Thus, 𝑊1 ∪ 𝑊2 is a subspace of a vector space 𝑉(𝐹).

Sufficient Condition: Let 𝑊1 ∪ 𝑊2 is a subspace of a vector space 𝑉(𝐹).

Let us assume that 𝑊1 ⊈ 𝑊2 and 𝑊2 ⊈ 𝑊1 . Then we have

𝑊1 ⊈ 𝑊2 ⟹ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑊1 and 𝑥 ∉ 𝑊2 … (1)

𝑊2 ⊈ 𝑊1 ⟹ 𝑦 ∈ 𝑊2 and 𝑦 ∉ 𝑊1 … (2)

Since 𝑊1 ∪ 𝑊2 is a subspace, for any 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑊1 ∪ 𝑊2 and 𝑊1 ∪ 𝑊2 is closed

⟹ 𝑥 + 𝑦 ∈ 𝑊1 ∪ 𝑊2 ⟹ 𝑥 + 𝑦 ∈ 𝑊1 or 𝑥 + 𝑦 ∈ 𝑊2

Again 𝑊1 is subspace and 𝑥 + 𝑦, 𝑥 ∈ 𝑊1 ⟹ 1(𝑥 + 𝑦) + (−1)𝑥 ∈ 𝑊1 ⟹ 𝑦 ∈ 𝑊1 … (3)

𝑊2 is subspace and 𝑥 + 𝑦, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑊2 ⟹ 1(𝑥 + 𝑦) + (−1)𝑦 ∈ 𝑊2 ⟹ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑊2 … (4)

Notice that (3) and (4) are contradictions to (2) and (1) respectively.

Thus, 𝑊1 ⊆ 𝑊2 or 𝑊2 ⊆ 𝑊1 . Hence be proved.