Refresher: Cell Structure

CELLS - Provided the very first insights into the cell

structure
- The basic, fundamental unit of life that is
responsible for all of life’s processes MATTHIAS SCHLEIDEN
- The structural, functional, and biological units of
- Cells are the building blocks of plants
all living beings
- Can replicate itself independently, hence, they THEODOR SCHWANN
are the building blocks of life
- They range in size from 0.0001 mm to nearly - Concluded the both plants and animals are
150 mm across composed of cells
- Provide structure to the body and convert
nutrients taken from the food into energy CELL THEORY
- Lowest level of organization in every life form
Cell Theory was proposed by the German scientists,
CELL ORGANELLES Theodor Schwann, Matthias Schleiden, and Rudolf
- Cellular structures suspended in the cytoplasm Virchow. The cell theory states that:

CELL BIOLOGY • All living species on Earth are composed of cells.

- Study of cells from their basic structure to the • A cell is the basic unit of life.
functions of every cell organelle • All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
MYCOPLASMA A modern version of the cell theory was eventually
- The smallest known cells formulated, and it contains the following postulates:

ROBERT HOOKE • Energy flows within the cells.

- The first to discover cells • Genetic information is passed on from one cell to the
- 1665 other.
- He observed a piece of bottle cork under a • The chemical composition of all the cells is the same.
compound microscope and noticed minuscule
structures that reminded him of small rooms.
- Due to the limited magnification of the FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL
microscope, he concluded that these are non-
living entities. 1. Provides Support and Structure
2. Facilitate Growth Mitosis
ANTON VAN LEEUWENHOEK 3. Allows Transport of Substances
- Observed cells under another compound 4. Energy Production
microscope with higher magnification 5. Aids in Reproduction
- Noted that the cells exhibited some form of
movement (motility)
- Concluded that cells were alive
- “Animalcules”

ROBERT BROWN

- 1831
- Was able to describe the nucleus present in the
cells of orchids
Refresher: Cell Structure
1. Cell membrane
- supports and protects the cell
- controls the movement of substances in and out
of the cells (selective)
- separates the cell from the external
environment
- Is present in all cells
- the outer covering of a cell within which all
other organelles, such as the cytoplasm and
nucleus, are enclosed.
- is also referred to as the plasma membrane.
- By structure, it is a porous membrane (with
pores) which permits the movement of selective
substances in and out of the cell. Besides this,
TWO TYPES OF CELLS (BASED ON CELLULAR STUCTURE)
the cell membrane also protects the cellular
1. PROKARYOTIC CELLS component from damage and leakage.
- Have no nucleus - forms the wall-like structure between two cells
- Have a region within the cell where the genetic as well as between the cell and its surroundings.
material is freely suspended (nucleoid) 2. CELL WALL
- Single-celled microorganisms - Is the most prominent part of the plant’s cell
- 0.1 to 0.5 μm in diameter structure
- The hereditary material can either be DNA or - It is made up of cellulose, hemicellulose and
RNA pectin
- Generally reproduce by binary fission, a form of - It protects the plasma membrane and other
asexual reproduction cellular components
- Are also known to use conjugation – which is - Outermost layer of plant cells
often seen as the prokaryotic equivalent to - Ha rigid and stiff structure
sexual reproduction (however, it is NOT sexual - Provides shape and support to the cells
reproduction) - Protects the cells from mechanical shocks and
2. EUKARYOTIC CELLS injuries
- characterized by a true nucleus 3. CYTOPLASM
- size of the cells ranges between 10–100 μm in - A thick, clear, jelly-like substance present inside
diameter the cell membrane
- category involves plants, fungi, protozoans, and - This is where most of the chemical reactions
animals within the cell take place
- The plasma membrane is responsible for - Is where organelles are suspended
monitoring the transport of nutrients and 4. NUCLEUS
electrolytes in and out of the cells. It is also - Contains the hereditary material of the cell
responsible for cell-to-cell communication. (DNA)
- They reproduce sexually as well as asexually - Sends signals to the cells to grow, mature,
- There are some contrasting features between divide, and die
plant and animal cells. (eg. the plant cell - Is surrounded by the NUCLEAR ENVELOPE that
contains chloroplast, central vacuoles, and other separates the DNA from the rest of the cell.
plastids, whereas the animal cells do not.) - Protects the DNA and is an integral component
of a plant’s cell structure.
5. NUCLEAR ENVELOPE
THE CELL STRUCTURE
Refresher: Cell Structure
- Contains pores lined with protein molecules - Are called the cell’s post office as it is involved in
- Selective the transportation of materials within the cell
6. NUCLEOPLASM - A factory for processing and packaging proteins
- The interior of the nucleus and polysaccharides.
- Contains the DNA - It consists of several flattened sacs, each of
7. NUCLEOLUS which is surrounded by a membrane
- Is the site of ribosome synthesis. - The edges of the sacs often bulge out and
- It is involved in controlling cellular activities and detach as vesicles, sacs that contain cellular
cellular reproduction products.
- Involved in making and assembling the subunits
*Note that the collective term for golgi bodies
of ribosomes
(dictyosomes) in a cell is the Golgi Apparatus
8. NUCLEAR MEMBRANE
- Protects the nucleus by forming a boundary 12. VESICLES
between the nucleus and other cell organelles. - Vesicles transport materials to the plasma
9. CHROMOSOMES membrane, to the outside of the cell, or to
- They play a crucial role in determining the sex of other organelles within the cell.
an individual 13. RIBOSOME
10. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM - Are the protein synthesizers of the cell
- is an extensive network of parallel membranes - Ribosomes are small organelles that are protein-
that extends throughout the cell’s interior manufacturing centers of the cell
- probably continuous with both the plasma - ribosomes use instructions from DNA in the
membrane and the nuclear envelope nucleus to assemble proteins by joining amino
surrounding the nucleus. acids in precise sequences. Some of these
- Is involved in the transportation of substances proteins are used inside the cell; others are ex-
throughout the cell ported for use outside the cell.
- is one of the major manufacturing centers - Each ribosome is composed of two subunits;
of the cell. Many enzymes are associated with each subunit, in turn, consists of RNA and
the ER membranes; these enzymes catalyze protein molecules.
chemical reactions that synthesize biologically - Although ribosomes occur in the nucleus,
important molecules. ER that has ribosomes plastids, and mitochondria, they are most
attached to it is called rough ER and is a site of numerous in the cytoplasm, where they are
protein synthesis; ER without ribosomes is found free—not associated with a particular
known as smooth ER and is associated with lipid organelle—or bound to the endoplasmic
synthesis reticulum.
- ER also synthesizes the membranes for various 14. MITOCHONDRIA
organelles throughout the cell, including the - The powerhouse of the cell
nuclear envelope (recall that the ER is - Produces ATP
continuous with the nuclear envelope) and - vary in shape but often appear as tiny rods.
other cellular organelles such as the Golgi - They are too small to be seen under a student-
apparatus. grade light microscope. Their internal structure
- Plays a primary role in the metabolism of is complex.
carbohydrates, the synthesis of lipids, steroids - Each mitochondrion is bounded by a double
and proteins. membrane.
11. GOLGI BODIES o The inner membrane, because it has a
- dictyosome larger surface area than the outer
membrane, folds inward, with the
Refresher: Cell Structure
folds, called cristae, projecting into the - vacuole is a membrane-bounded sac filled with
interior of the mitochondrion a liquid that contains a variety of materials in
o Some of the enzymes for cellular addition to water—dissolved salts, ions,
respiration are arranged along the pigments, and waste products.
cristae; other respiratory enzymes are 18. CYTOSKELETON
found in the matrix, the fluid inside the - a network of fibers that extends throughout the
inner mitochondrial membrane. cytoplasm and provides structure to a
15. LYSOSOMES eukaryotic cell.
- Protect the cell by engulfing the foreign bodies - is also important in cell movement, includes two
entering the cell and help in cell renewal types of fibers, micro tubules and
- Cell’s suicide bags microfilaments.
16. PLASTIDS o Microtubules
- Large organelles surrounded by a double  involved in the addition of
membrane cellulose to the cell wall
- A group of membrane-bounded organelles  make up the spindle, a special
occurring in photosynthetic eukaryotic cells; structure that moves
includes chloroplasts, leucoplasts, and chromosomes during cell
chromoplasts. division.
a. Chloroplasts o Microfilaments
o Are the most common plastid  Are much thinner than
o Plastids that have a photosynthetic microtubules
function and occur in certain leaf and  can contract and are
stem cells responsible for cytoplasmic
o Contain the enzymes necessary for streaming, the movement of
photosynthesis plus the green pigment cytoplasm within
chlorophyll the cell.
o Usually disc shaped in plant cells but
*Cytoplasmic streaming has a variety of
occur in a variety of shapes in algae.
purposes; for example, the movement of
b. Leucoplasts
cytoplasm in leaf cells helps orient the
o colorless plastids that form and store
chloroplasts for optimal exposure to light, which
starch, oils, or proteins
strikes the leaf cells at different angles during
o are common in seeds and in roots and
the day as the sun crosses the sky.
stems modified for food storage
c. Chromoplasts FLUID MOSAIC MODEL
o Contains pigments that provide yellow,
- Was proposed by S.J. Singer and Garth L.
orange, and red colors to certain
Nicolson.
flowers, such as marigolds, and to ripe
- This model explains animal cells' plasma
fruit, such as tomatoes and red peppers.
membrane structure as a mosaic of components
o Chromoplasts often form from
such as phospholipids, proteins, cholesterol,
chloroplasts when chlorophyll breaks
and carbohydrates. These components give a
down; this happens, for example, when
fluid character to the membranes.
green tomatoes ripen and turn red.
- Each phospholipid has a hydrophilic head
17. VACUOLES
pointing outside and a hydrophobic tail forming
- Store food, water, and other waste materials in
the inside of the bilayer.
the cell
Refresher: Cell Structure
- Cholesterol and proteins are embedded in the 6. CARBOHYDRATES
bilayer which gives the membrane a mosaic - Attached to proteins on outside membrane
look. Each component has a specific function to layers
perform.

FACTORS AFFECTING FLUIDITY OF PLASMA MEMBRANE

1. TEMPERATURE
- Phospholipids are found close together when it
is cold. When it’s hot, they move apart.
2. CHOLESTEROL
- The cholesterol molecules are randomly
distributed along the phospholipid bilayer and
hold it preventing it from separating too far, or
compacting too tightly.
3. SATURATED AND UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS
COMPONENTS OF THE PLASMA MEMBRANE - Fatty acids make up the phospholipid tails.
Saturated fatty acid chains have a single bond
1. PHOSPHOLIPID between the carbon atoms whereas,
- The main fabric of the plasma membrane unsaturated fatty acid chains have double bonds
- Are amphipathic molecules with a hydrophilic between the carbon atoms.
head and a hydrophobic tail - Double bonds make it harder for the chain to
- These are attached to a glycerol molecule by a pack tightly by creating kinks. These kinks
covalent bond increase the fluidity of the membrane.
2. CHOLESTEROL
- Between phospholipid bilayers RESTRICTION TO FLUIDITY OF PLASMA MEMBRANE
- It helps the plasma membrane to retain the
The fluidity of the Plasma membrane is restricted due
fluidity
to:
- Is present between the phospholipids and
prevents the compaction of hydrophilic tails at 1. LIPID RAFTS
low temperatures and their expansion at high - These are the lipid domains found on the
temperatures. external leaflet of the plasma membrane.
3. INTEGRAL PROTEINS Cholesterol, glycosphingolipids, and
- Embedded within phospholipid layers glycosylphosphatidylinositol are the building
- These proteins form channels to allow the blocks of lipid rafts.
movement of large molecules and ions across 2. PROTEIN COMPLEXES
the hydrophobic layer of the membrane. - Proteins and glycoproteins are diffused within
4. PERIPHERAL PROTEINS the plasma membrane. These help in the
- The inner or outer surface of the phospholipid transport of ions and metabolites, cell signaling,
bilayer adhesion, and migration.
- These are found embedded in a single leaflet of
KEY POINTS ON THE FLUID MOSAIC MODEL
the membrane
- They carry signals from one segment of the 1. The plasma membrane comprises amphiphilic,
membrane and relay it to another phospholipid molecules.
5. GLYCOPROTEINS 2. The second important component of the plasma
- They stabilize the membrane and are membrane is integral proteins that are
responsible for intercellular communication integrated completely into the membrane.
Refresher: Cell Structure
3. Carbohydrates are found on the external surface
of the membrane where they are bound to
proteins or lipids.
Refresher: Passage of Materials across
Biological Membranes
water molecules diffuse through the plasma
membrane equally in both directions.
DIFFUSION

- Is the movement of a substance from a region

of higher concentration to a region of lower - Solutions have an equal solute concentration
concentration equal to that in the cell
- Atoms and molecules where they are more
HYPERTONIC
concentrated to where they are less
concentrated - When a cell is placed in a solution with a solute
- Occurs because atoms and molecules are in concentration higher than that within the cell,
constant random motion that makes them the solution is said to be _____.
collide with other particles. - In such a situation, water flows out of the cell
- Is important to cellular function because and into the surrounding solution.
it is responsible for the movement of many
materials throughout the cytoplasm and into HYPOTONIC
and out of cells. - Cell is placed in a solution with a solute
o Ex. Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide, Water concentration lower than that within the cell
o Other materials, however, cannot pass - In such a situation, water flows into the cell
through a cell’s plasma membrane by from the surrounding solution.
diffusion because they are either too
large or too polar.

OSMOSIS

- Is the diffusion of water across a selectively

permeable membrane
- a special kind of diffusion, is the movement TURGOR PRESSURE
of water through a selectively permeable
membrane from a solution with a higher - The internal pressure of water against the cell
concentration of water to a solution with a wall
lower concentration of water. - As turgor pressure increases, an equilibrium is
reached in which the turgor pressure forces
SOLUTION water molecules out of the cell in numbers
equal to that of the molecules coming in by
- Is a mixture in which salts, sugars, and other
osmosis.
materials are dissolved in water.
FACILITATED DIFFUSION
SOLUTES
- Materials diffuse from a region of higher
- The substances dissolved in water (solvent)
concentration to a region of lower
*A cell’s plasma membrane is relatively impermeable to concentration through special passageways in
sugars and salts, but water moves across the membrane the membrane (Carrier proteins)
freely in either direction. - Enhances the diffusion of certain materials, such
as ions, through cell membranes, but always in
ISOTONIC SOLUTION
the direction of the concentration gradient—
- When a cell is placed in a solution with a solute that is, from high to low concentration of that
concentration equal to that inside the cell, material.
Refresher: Passage of Materials across
Biological Membranes
CARRIER PROTEINS

- Channels in the membrane that function as

conveyor belts.

ACTIVE TRANSPORT

- is the assisted movement of a substance from a

lower concentration to a higher concentration
of that substance
- Substances move against the concentration
gradient.
- Occurs with the assistance of carrier proteins
in the membrane that move the substance from
one side of the membrane to the other.

*Diffusion and facilitated diffusion are passive processes

that allow specific substances to move down their
concentration gradients. Active transport requires the
expenditure of the cell’s energy to move specific
substances against their concentration gradients.