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Chapter

Perspective Chapter: Power Quality

and Hosting Capacity
Muhyaddin Rawa, Ziad M. Ali and Shady H.E. Abdel Aleem

Abstract

With the increasing prevalence of distributed generation (DG) and power

electronic-based technologies, consumers will have more alternatives for obtain-
ing energy from different public or private sources. The issues will be with power
quality (PQ ), pricing, and reliability. Shortly, maintaining acceptable power quality
levels above certain acceptable thresholds will be challenging because of the special
difficulties brought on by nonlinear loads and novel types of load equipment. The
significance of current and voltage quality issues increases even further in such an
environment of competition. The chapter is dedicated to presenting an overview of
PQ definitions, disturbances, causes, and standards. Harmonic description, sources,
effects, and harmonic filtering techniques are also presented. Then, renewable-based
DGs and HC studies—types, challenges, and solutions, are demonstrated. Further, a
literature overview of the existing solutions under consideration (harmonic manage-
ment) is presented and discussed.

Keywords: distributed generation, filters, harmonics, harmonics distortion, hosting

capacity, optimization, power quality

1. Introduction

Improving electrical power quality is an intention agreed on by consumers and

electrical utilities. The primary goals in terms of power quality (PQ ) are generating
clean power—that is, power that is not distorted—and cost-effectively delivering it
to customers with adequate technical performance. Advancements in semiconduc-
tor technology have brought about harmonic pollution and other PQ concerns, a
range of nonlinear load types, and the installation of renewable energy resources
that rely on power electronic-based equipment (rectifiers and inverters) for their
operations. It became clear that harmonics management is now an essential issue
in power systems rather than a secondary concern [1, 2]. Power grid performance
can be adversely affected by several factors, including overloading and increased
heating of lines and cables, frequency-dependent equipment, diminished voltage
quality, decreased transmission efficiency, an increase in energy losses during
transmission and distribution, and deterioration of true and displacement power
factors of loads [3].
Modern sophisticated converters with frequency-coupling dynamics also intro-
duce harmonic instability (e.g., resonance, amplification of voltage or current,
1
Power Quality and Harmonics Management in Modern Power Systems

or unusual harmonics in the high-frequency spectrum) [4]. This means that PQ is so

essential to contemporary energy systems.
As distributed generation (DGs) become more prevalent and utilize power
electronic-based technologies, consumers will have more options when it comes to
purchasing energy from various public or private sources. The cost, reliability, and
quality of electricity will be the problems. Maintaining acceptable PQ levels above
specific acceptable limits will be a major challenge in the upcoming decades due to
the unique challenges presented by new types of load equipment and nonlinear loads.
In such a competitive scenario, the importance of PQ issues becomes even more
significant than before [5]. Furthermore, since they can now create and sell electric-
ity through their DGs (prosumers), consumers connected to an electrical grid are
no longer considered consumers in the context of the deregulated power market and
many energy providers. Enhancing the PQ performance of the systems thus gets more
difficult due to new and developing complications.
PQ provides several justifications to the various electric entities’ stakeholders.
Some perceive PQ as the voltage quality, others as the current quality (based on
amperage), and others as the system’s dependability. PQ , for example, is defined as
“the powering and grounding concept of sensitive electronic equipment in a manner
appropriate for the equipment” in IEEE Standard 1100 [6].
Put simply, each entity defines it according to its own perspective. It is possible to
determine the cause and responsibility of a disturbance wrongly when a general term
like PQ has an ambiguous definition. This was obvious in the surveys carried out by
the Georgian Power Company [7, 8] for the causes of PQ disturbances. These surveys
clearly showed how divergent the utility and customer perspectives are from one
another. But both attribute two-thirds of the problems to lightning and other natural
occurrences [9, 10]. This indicates that, under typical circumstances, PQ maintains
a nearly pure sinusoidal waveform of voltages and currents. Generally speaking,
deviations of the voltage from the conventional waveform—which is typically defined
as a sinusoidal waveform with constant frequency and magnitude—are the main
focus of the quality of voltage (QoV). The electric current’s deviations from the usual
waveform are the main focus of quality of current (QoC) [9]. However, relying solely
on voltage or current to define PQ is imprecise because any divergence in voltage will
result in a variation in current from its nominal value and vice versa [11]. Accordingly,
PQ should combine both current and voltage qualities and is better described as
technical limits that enable equipment to function in its prearranged way without
significant operational losses to maintain its lifetime [9–12].

2. Power quality disturbances

PQ disturbances address various power system issues, including notching, voltage

fluctuations, voltage flickers, harmonics, sub-harmonics, inter-harmonics, supra-
harmonics, transients (oscillatory and impulsive), voltage sags, interruptions, voltage
swells, imbalance, undervoltages, overvoltages, noise, and harmonics [9]. Even
though each of them is a crucial topic in and of itself, the power system harmonics
problem is regarded as the most significant and well-known PQ issue. This is because
numerous studies have identified harmonics as the most serious cause of frequent PQ
disturbances, impacting both consumers and utilities. Distribution system operators
typically presume that harmonics and imbalances are the cause of PQ issues when
they occur. Figure 1 illustrates the various PQ issues [8–10]. Any PQ evaluation
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Perspective Chapter: Power Quality and Hosting Capacity
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.1004572

Figure 1.
Illustration of the common PQ issues.

procedure can be implemented with general steps, such as identifying the sources of
the disturbances and considering potential harmonic management solutions up to the
point of solution optimization. Figure 2 examines a generic PQ diagnostic, assess-
ment, and mitigation process [9, 13].
Depending on the region of the utility, standards and guidelines are typically used
to categorize and identify problems. By enumerating the relevant characteristics, such
as amplitude, frequency, spectrum, modulation, source impedance, notch depth,
notch area, duration, rate of occurrence, and others, IEEE Std. 1159-2019 (as an
example) classifies PQ or electromagnetic phenomenon.
The PQ indices were developed to provide a quantitative measure of the disrup-
tiveness of disturbances; however, with the advancement of technology and changes
in some systems’ susceptibility to disturbances, the appropriateness of some PQ
indices needs to be reevaluated. In addition, while some PQ indices have already been

Figure 2.
PQ appraisal procedure.

3
Power Quality and Harmonics Management in Modern Power Systems

defined or redefined in standards and their updates, others remain missing, especially
for high and extra-high voltage or high-frequency systems [14, 15].
It is now crucial to develop criteria for limiting issues from PQ degradation due to
the growing usage of nonlinear loads and renewable energy-based equipment with
power electronic converters. The following are the primary PQ problems associated
with DGs being connected to the power grid: DC injection, harmonics, voltage swells
and sags, poor voltage regulation, power factor, flickering and fluctuating voltage,
voltage imbalance, and prolonged interruptions. Further details regarding these prob-
lems, as well as technology and strategies for lessening the effects of DGs on PQ , are
available in [16–18]. Egyptian Transmission/Distribution Codes, the Grid Connection
Code for Solar Energy Plants, the International Electrotechnical Commission
(IEC), the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), the American
National Standards Institute (ANSI), the National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST), the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), the European
Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC), the National Electrical
Manufacturers Association (NEMA), the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI),
Underwriters Laboratories (UL), and ESKOM for South African standards are just
a few of the national and international organizations that have developed PQ stan-
dards. IEC and IEEE are the two prominent organizations that define PQ standards.
PQ standards are referred to as electromagnetic-compatibility (EMC) standards by
some. A number of EMC standards (series) and technical reports have been released
by the IEC; the majority are included in the IEC 61000 series [19–24]. Numerous EMC
standards that provide a thorough summary of IEEE PQ standards have been accepted
by the IEC. The IEEE 519 recommendations are the most well-known substitute for
the IEC standards in many countries [25, 26].
The goal of these standards is to restrict customers’ access to harmonic distortion
and the associated issues it causes, as well as the utility’s voltage harmonic distortion
boundaries. These guidelines divide the obligation of limiting harmonic propagation
between utilities and end users. Customers and end users are typically in control of
controlling the injection of harmonic currents, and utilities, regulators, and operators
are in charge of figuring out the voltage distortion in the supply system at the point of
common coupling (PCC).

3. Power system harmonics: definition

Typically, “any periodically distorted waveform can be represented as a sum of pure

sine waves in which the frequency of each sinusoid is an integer multiple of the fun-
damental frequency of the distorted wave.” The multiple-frequency has been named
the fundamental’s harmonic component, in which the so-called Fourier series refers
to the summation of these sinusoids [27, 28]. If the fundamental frequency (f1) is 50
Hertz, the 5th harmonic is 5*50 Hz or 250 Hz. Classically, amplitudes of the harmonic
currents are expressed as a percentage of the fundamental current amplitude (If), so
that I3 = If /3, I5 = If /5, I7 = If /7, and so on. In line with the literature, in electric power
system analysis, high-order harmonics above 25, i.e., the range from 25 to 50, are
insignificant. It should be mentioned that harmonics above the 25th order are preva-
lent in telecommunication system studies. High-order harmonics might cause interfer-
ence with power-electronic equipment; however, these harmonics are not critical to
power system equipment [29]. It should be mentioned that recently supra-harmonics
(distortion in the frequency range between 2 kHz and 150 kHz) [30] initiated to be
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Perspective Chapter: Power Quality and Hosting Capacity
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.1004572

considered in a few studies; however, they are not achievable in harmonic analysis in
power systems due to the absence of legal restrictions for electric harmonic distortions
in the very high-frequency range [31].

4. Harmonics sources and effects

One might refer to a load as nonlinear or non-ohm’s law compliant when the
current carried by the load is not proportionate to the applied voltage. This kind
of load’s current has a non-sinusoidal waveform or distorted current. This current
distortion will generate a voltage distortion when there is a high impedance in the
path between the source and the nonlinear load. On the contrary, one can say that
loads with the current linearly proportional to the applied voltage are linear loads
(linear relationship) [9, 10]. These days, the majority of loads are nonlinear in nature
due to the widespread use of power-electronic-based components in power systems,
even in our homes with our laptops, small appliances, fluorescent and light-emitting
diode (LED) lamps, and printers. The load itself (design or component) and the
nonlinear load’s interaction with the distribution system determine how severe the
harmonics produced by these loads are [25, 32]. As the primary sources of harmonic
voltages and currents in power systems, several groups of power components can
be grouped and organized as follows [9, 10]: transformers, electric motors, and
generators (magnetic core-based equipment); induction furnaces, arc furnaces, and
arc welders (equipment provides heating); and power-electronic-based devices.
The way the power system is connected or composed is another classification.
Furthermore, rather than the series-connected parts (linear series elements), the
shunt-connected elements (loads, for example) are where the nonlinearities in the
system arise. The magnetizing impedance (shunt-connected branch) of the well-
known T model serves as the harmonic source inside a transformer, while the leakage
impedance stands in for linear components. The most usual harmonic sources
are—converters (inverters and rectifiers) within drives or renewables-based devices,
slots and teeth field distribution in synchronous generator, power and distribution
transformers’ magnetizing circuits, rotating machines’ excitation currents, printing
machines, lamps (fluorescent, compact fluorescent, gas discharging lighting-low
pressure/high pressure Sodium vapor, high-pressure mercury vapor and LED),
flexible alternating current (AC) transmission systems, FACTS, and distributed
FACTS (D-FACTS), uninterruptible power supplies, switch-mode power supplies,
pulse modulation (or other forms) has been proposed for active power and voltage
control in transmission circuits, electrolysis-based loads, converters usually used in
variable speed drives (VSDs), converters used in grid-connected or islanded solar
photovoltaic (PV) and wind systems, arc and induction welders, arc and conduc-
tion furnaces, and ovens used in electric heating, energy conservation device (soft
starters, electronics ballast, and fan regulators), ballasts of the fluorescent discharge
lamps, thyristor-controlled reactors, induction motors operating in or near to their
saturation regions, converters in high-voltage direct current (HVDC) systems,
UPSs, static VAR compensator and devices, and components in charging stations
of electric vehicles (EVs). To sum up, most of these harmonic sources are power
electronic-based devices.
The expected range of harmonics’ impact is degradation in power system equip-
ment’s performance to their severe failure. The most common consequences of power
system harmonics on the different electrical system sectors are explored in Figure 3.
5
Power Quality and Harmonics Management in Modern Power Systems

Figure 3.
Consequences of harmonics on components of the power system.

The most common harmonic problems in plants are summarized below [33, 34].

• Current flowing in neutral wires with an overheating problem

• High distorted currents will lead to excessive energy losses (thus high electricity
consumption and costs)

• Unreasonable failure of equipment

• Motors’ disturbance

• Overloading of frequency-dependent conductors

• Blow of fuses and mal-operation in the performance of protection devices

• Watt-hour metering’s errors

• Interference with telecommunication systems (above the 25th order)

• Data loss in data-transmission networks

• Mal-operation in the performance of the control devices

• A voltage or current amplification (by series and parallel harmonic resonance)

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Perspective Chapter: Power Quality and Hosting Capacity
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.1004572

• Harmonic instability (malfunctioning of voltage and malfunctioning of genera-

tor regulators)

• Noise in transformers

• Noise and vibrations in rotating machines

• Lockups of the programmable controllers

Usually, problems appear when a system’s capacitance results in resonance with

inductance at characteristic harmonic orders that intensely increases the distortion
beyond the standard, acceptable values, as originate in industrial power systems
because of the power factor correction capacitors that are frequently used and can
cause a high degree of resonance severity or harmonic amplification. Such a privilege
necessitates special considerations concerning harmonics filtering to avoid failures
and nuisance tripping of fuses or breakers associated with capacitors [33, 34]. Adding
filters that start with the lowest significant harmonic order (usually the third- or the
fifth-order) is necessary to avoid harmonic resonance problems. If one wants to use a
seventh harmonic order filter, one should introduce a fifth harmonic filter.
Further, analysis of the impedance-frequency dependencies for all reasonable
operating contingencies should be done (in which a frequency scan should be con-
ducted at each node if any harmonic source exists).

5. Harmonics mitigation

Since most electrical loads in use today are nonlinear, it is usually helpful to study
reasonable harmonic solutions by systematically addressing electrical system-related
concerns. When an issue arises, the fundamental solutions for harmonic control are
to either add filters to sink the system’s harmonic currents or stop them from entering
the system, or reduce the harmonic currents generated by the load [9, 35].
Different attempts have been used to solve harmonics issues either to lessen their
impacts on the power system or to reduce the harmonic distortion itself in the power
grids, such as [36]:

• Derating transformers, motors, cables, and generators to be able to withstand the

distorted over currents caused by harmonics

• The grounding of electrical equipment to cancel the severe 3rd harmonic and
strengthen the neutral wire size

• Applying harmonic mitigation schemes such as active, passive, and hybrid filters

• Using multi-pulse converters

The harmonic filters can be classified as shunt filters or series filters based on the
harmonic filter connected to the system. The shunt filters work by short-circuiting
harmonic currents, which diverts the electric currents out of the arrangement. They
must be placed as close as possible to the source of distortion. Shunt filtering is the
most common way of filtering because of its economic aspects. Also, a shunt filter
7
Power Quality and Harmonics Management in Modern Power Systems

inclines to correct the load actual and displacement power factors and mitigate har-
monic currents [29]. The other way is to put on a series-connected filter that helps in
blocking harmonic currents. Nevertheless, series-connected filters must be planned to
withstand the rated line current as they are connected in series with the system. Also,
series-connected filters may produce substantial power losses because of the high cur-
rents. Given the high cost of the series-connected filters, the most real-world applied
method is shunt-connected filters. Several contributions are dedicated to determining
the most suitable location of the filters in electrical power networks. Filters at appro-
priate places (close to the source of harmonic generation) can be applied to mitigate
considerable harmonic currents at the start, and the harmonics propagation to the
common coupling point (PCC) is considerably reduced.
On the contrary, the harmonic flow occurs when the filters are far from the
harmonic-producing loads. Harmonic filters are also categorized into three broad
categories: passive, active, and hybrid active/passive filters. Figure 4 presents the
primary ways of connecting harmonic filters at the PCC.
Passive filters comprise inductive (L), capacitive (C), and resistive (R) compo-
nents arranged and lumped together in precise configurations to regulate harmonics.
They are commonly used in practice because they are considerably inexpensive com-
pared with other active/hybrid filters. Nonetheless, they have the disadvantages of
negatively interrelating with power systems and threatening the utility (source) and
the loads (within the plant or neighbors) by harmonic resonance hazards [29]. Also,
their filtering performance is sensitive to the variation of the source impedance [37].
The active harmonic filtering method was a reasonably innovative methodology
for eliminating harmonics compared to the passive filtering techniques. Compact
constructed active filters provide reliable system performance with good harmonic
lessening. However, they are based on power electronic components; thus, they are
more costly than passive filters. The basic concept of active filters introduces equal
magnitudes of the current/voltage harmonics generated by nonlinear loads with
180° phase angle difference; consequently, they cancel each other when their phasor
is summed. In addition, they do not resonate with the system [9, 34, 35, 38, 39]. By
definition, active filters are designed based on converter type, topology, and the num-
ber of phases. The converter type can be either a current source-based inverter that
employs an inductor to store energy or a voltage source-based inverter that employs a
capacitor to store energy [9, 34, 35, 38, 39]. The arrangement can be shunt-connected
types, series-connected types, or a combination of both connections. Active filters
have frequency limitations, cannot withstand large currents and are sensitive to noise.
Also, they have problems with high-power ratings (>0.5 MVA).

Figure 4.
Basic connections of harmonic filters.

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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.1004572

Nowadays, both active and passive filters can be used in the presence of multiple
pulse converters governed by harmonics = Integer * pulse ± 1, where pulse is the pulse
number and Integer = 1, 2, 3, etc. Harmonic current distortions of 6, 12, and 18 pulse
converters are higher (in THD percentage) than 80%, 15%, and 12%, respectively.
Multiple pulse converters of THD less than 5% are expensive to the manufacturers.
A straightforward technique to decrease harmonics is to increase the pulse num-
bers of converters. The lessening of harmonics with the increase of pulse number is
guaranteed. Disadvantages of multiple pulse converters include sensitivity to voltage
imbalance, optimal cancelation only with symmetric drive loading (they do not oper-
ate well with even harmonics), and not being easy to retrofit [23, 40].
Hybrid filters benefit from passive and active filters through series or parallel
combinations. A passive filter helps to reduce the rating of the used active filter
and its function in harmonic mitigation and improvement of power factors. The
role of the active filter is to isolate the generated harmonics of both load and utility.
Other harmonic management solutions concerning harmonic correction equipment
types, such as the neutral blocking filters or the zigzag transformers, are solutions
to eliminate the 3rd harmonic current from the load. Typically, they are suitable for
computer/switch-mode power supplies. Other solutions have a kind of immunity to
harmonic distortion, such as the oversized neutral/derated transformers, K–rated
transformers, and phase shifting. They are more suitable for fresh/new designs in the
planning stage; they do not have power factor correction benefits [41, 42]. They are
much more superlative for commercial applications than industrial applications [42].

6. Renewable energy resources and their PQ issues

Within the framework of sustainable development, adding renewable energy

sources to distribution or transmission systems has several advantages. These include
promoting the use of green energy, diversifying energy sources, reducing green-
house gas emissions, gaining political advantages, fostering social development, and
providing economic support. There are also numerous technical advantages, such as
improved power quality, reduced power loss, improved voltage, and increased load
stability.
Distributed generators can be a renewable or non-renewable source of generation
and can be networked (grid-connected) or act as a stand-alone system. Due to their
low investment costs and small sizes, DGs show an imperative role in modern energy
system planning [43]. DGs can be classified based on several issues such as [44, 45]—
generated power (AC or DC); technology (Renewable (non-fossil fuel-based and
non-renewable (fossil fuel-based)); supply duration (long duration, short duration,
moderate but unsteady duration); capacity (micro decentralized DGs (1 W–5 kW),
small decentralized or centralized DGs (5 kW–5 MW), medium centralized DGs
(5 MW–50 MW), and large centralized DGs (50 MW–300 MW); grid interface
(Inverter-based and non-inverter-based DGs)); power flow control (set to constant
power factor for small DGs, and the bus at which the DG is connected is treated as
a PQ bus, or set to constant voltage for large DGs and the bus at which the DG is
connected is treated as a PV bus); and power delivering capability (deliver only active
power at unity PF, deliver only reactive power at zero PF, DGs deliver active power
but consumes reactive power, or deliver both active and reactive powers).
The energy flow and voltage conditions at customers and utility equipment are
greatly impacted by the addition of DGs to distribution networks. Depending on the
9
Power Quality and Harmonics Management in Modern Power Systems

distribution networks, DG characteristics, and operating parameters, these effects

could be either beneficial or detrimental [46, 47]. However, if renewable energy
sources are not allocated properly, their unchecked growth could cause issues for power
systems. Some common issues include overloading transformers, increasing power
loss, malfunctioning or failing protection schemes, excessive harmonic distortion
levels brought on by the combination of nonlinear loads and inverter-based renewable
energy sources, as well as over- and under-voltages. When the rating of DGs surpasses
the maximum permitted degree of penetration of renewables, these challenges arise.

7. Hosting capacity (HC): problems and solutions

When the system surpasses the maximum allowable hosting (HC) capacity
criteria, DGs integration issues arise [47]. To decide on the addition of renewables,
various customary rules of thumb were employed in the past. Instantaneous penetra-
tion (IP) was the term used to describe a definition that was previously introduced
and was similar to the HC. IP has been described as the ratio of the output of renew-
able energy to the power of the system load within a given time or brief interval. It
was not, however, frequently applied as the HC definition. These days, the inclusion
of renewables can be determined by HC. Because of its significance, HC has been
integrated into popular simulation programs as Siemens, CYME, ETAP, DIGSilent,
and EPRI (DRIVE). Figure 5 examines a case study of determining HC in relation
to penetration level using a generic performance metric, along with related issues
and solutions. The type of problem that has emerged determines these performance
measures. As can be seen from the figure, overvoltage, overloading and subsequent
power loss complexities, PQ concerns, and protection issues are the four primary
problematic issues [48, 49].
To guarantee that the power system functions satisfactorily, the HC approach
compiles the technical limitations implemented by operators and customers.

Figure 5.
HC determination by utilizing common solutions, troublesome problems, and a general performance metric.

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Perspective Chapter: Power Quality and Hosting Capacity
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.1004572

This indicates more to the HC calculation than a single, static calculation based on
a single performance parameter. On the other hand, HC would be determined for a
number of performance indicators, including PQ , thermal overload capacity, voltage
variations and frequency fluctuations, system stability, and others.
Ismael et al. provide a thorough overview of HC’s advancements, assessment
procedures, and improved technology in [47]. Decisions from real case studies, power
quality markets, and the practical experience (rule-of-thumb) of distribution system
operators are given and discussed [47]. The authors in [50] also presented a detailed
analysis of HC—theory and its influences on power networks, challenges, and
solutions.
In the literature, numerous strategies have been put into practice to raise the HC of
distribution systems. The most popular methods are:

• Renewables curtailment (when investors and operators are asked to reduce the
amount of renewable energy they produce in order to maintain system working
limits) [51]. To achieve the best possible power curtailment, system and
renewable plant operators must have creative communication techniques and
facilities.

• Use of energy storage devices to boost the system performance and permit its
consistent act without renewables ceiling [52, 53]. Comparable benefits are pro-
vided by energy storage, which are challenging to provide with other approaches.
But the primary drawback is the high cost of energy storage.

• Reconfiguring of nodes of RDS changes the status of the operating switches by

controlling tie-lines, sectionalizes, and soft open points can reduce power losses,
transfer loads between feeders, improve the nodes’ voltage profile, and improve
HC, PQ , and reliability [54] of the system. Reconfiguration can be employed
in the planning stage of power systems (called static reconfiguration) or in the
operation phase of power systems (called dynamic reconfiguration). The static
reconfiguration can considerably enhance HC, but the dynamic reconfiguration
can only improve HC in case of the availability of an adequate number of con-
trolled switches.

• Use of harmonic mitigation techniques, as proposed in this thesis, such as shunt

capacitor banks [55], static VAR compensators [56], D-FACTs, and harmonic fil-
ters (dominantly passive or hybrid filters) to lessen harmonic distortion, support
reactive power, correct the power factor and improve PQ performance of power
systems operating under non-sinusoidal conditions [48, 57].

• Use of voltage regulators/conditioners, reactive power compensators, and OLTCs

(on-load tap changers) to improve voltage profiles and, sequentially, support
reactive power and enhance the HC of the system [58].

• Reinforcement of weakened or congested systems [59] can also be made to

increase HC. In this regard, reinforcement means using machines with a higher
rating, larger conductor sizes that have lower electrical resistance) or using
efficient equipment. This is considered one of the practical techniques used in
congested systems: support the voltage profile, achieve better hosting capacity,
relieve the electrical system congestions, and reduce network losses.
11
Power Quality and Harmonics Management in Modern Power Systems

• Interbreeding of diverse solutions to attain the best possible HC values in intel-

ligent power grids [60], especially in severely deteriorated systems or in projects
with high budgets.

To summarize, the following steps have to be performed to enhance the HC of a

power system:

• Evaluate the initial HC within the network.

• Check the operational limits according to the international standards or national

practice codes.

• Employ a proper HC enhancement technique.

• Re-evaluate the new HC value.

The complete HC procedure—evaluation and improvement—is summarized in

Figure 6.
Analytic HC calculation procedure means a precise process is done by iteratively
increasing the penetration of renewables in a well-defined step at a carefully chosen
bus, carrying out load flow calculations, and inspecting the operating limits at each
iteration until they exceed the acceptable values; henceforth, finding the HC of that
bus. Then, another bus is selected in sequence, and the same process is repeated till all
the system busses are examined. This may suffer from the computational burden.
The stochastic HC calculation procedure means developing multiple scenarios in a
probabilistic manner to overcome the uncertainties of the problem. It should be men-
tioned that this method is time-dependent based on the accuracy levels considered.
Finally, a streamlined HC calculation procedure provides easy, quick screens that
assist the operator in deciding whether it is required to make further detailed studies
or not. However, this method suffers from accuracy issues, particularly in complex
systems.

Figure 6.
HC calculation procedure.

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Perspective Chapter: Power Quality and Hosting Capacity
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.1004572

In the past, harmonic distortion was not one of the main interests of operators
because of the assumption, at that time, that distributed generation units are har-
monic-free. Later, it was realized that this assumption is not true as the combination
of harmonics between distributed generation units and non-linear loads could create
severe problems.
The authors in [61] used a passive harmonic filter, a C-type passive filter, to
maximize the HC of a network that utilizes dispersed generators (PV units) in a
harmonically distorted distribution system using the genetic algorithm. From the
analysis presented, it was apparent that the system’s HC goes down with the rise in the
grid-side voltage-distortion and the nonlinear load level. The HC level was affected
more by the non-linear load level than grid-side voltage distortion. Also, the same
authors used a single-tuned filter in [49] to do the same, and similar conclusions were
figured out in [49] to validate that harmonic filters can solve the problems arising
from harmonic distortion and enhance HC at the same time. Ghaffarzadeh and
Sadeghi in [62] presented an effective method for the simultaneous settlement of
inverter-based DG systems and capacitors because of harmonic distortion. However,
HC was not discussed in detail in that work. Further, the authors in [63] investigated
the use of passive filters in different single-objective optimization problems in the
context of HC improvement along with THD lessening. The analysis revealed that
HC improvement and voltage THD lessening were conflicting in optimization and
that a multi-objective optimization may be needed to solve the problem. Similarly,
a few other works are also reported, making an effort to improve HC using pas-
sive harmonic filtering techniques [48, 64], but in a single-objective optimization
framework. Further, hybrid harmonic distortion mitigation is presented in [65] to
improve distributed generation-based systems’ HC in harmonic-polluted conditions,
in which the hybrid filter was a better substitute to realize a higher penetration level
of renewables than purely passive filters, regardless of the cost of filtering and the
limited rating of the active filters used. To summarize, the main focus of researchers
is clearly moving to empower distribution systems with highly penetrated renewables
while offering multi-functionality facilities (a trade-off between different goals).
Accordingly, multi-objective optimization should be used to improve the HC while
limiting harmonics and improving the PQ performance of such distorted systems.

8. Summary

• The integration of distributed generation and renewable energy sources into

distribution systems has sparked a growing interest in understanding the HC of
these systems while ensuring reliability, PQ , and sustainability.

• Traditional assumptions that distributed generation units are harmonic-free

have been challenged as it became evident that the combination of harmonics
between these units and nonlinear loads can lead to severe PQ problems. To
overcome the uncertainties associated with HC calculations, researchers have
developed stochastic procedures that consider multiple probabilistic scenarios.
These approaches provide a more comprehensive understanding of system
performance and aid in decision-making processes.

• Harmonic distortion, once not a primary concern for operators, has now
emerged as a critical issue. Passive harmonic filters have been employed to
13
Power Quality and Harmonics Management in Modern Power Systems

maximize HC and mitigate harmonic distortion. The analysis presented in

various studies has demonstrated that the HC of a distribution system decreases
with increasing grid-side voltage distortion and nonlinear load levels. Moreover,
it has been observed that nonlinear load levels have a more significant impact
on HC than grid-side voltage distortion. These findings highlight the effective-
ness of harmonic filters in addressing the problems arising from harmonic
distortion and enhancing HC simultaneously. However, optimizing HC and
improving power quality pose complex challenges. Single-objective optimization
approaches may not suffice, as there can be conflicting objectives. Researchers
have found that HC improvement and voltage total harmonic distortion
(THD) reduction tend to be conflicting goals in optimization. Consequently,
multi-objective optimization techniques have been proposed to strike a balance
between HC improvement, harmonic reduction, and voltage THD lessening.

• The drive toward sustainability has urged researchers to seek solutions that
enable distribution systems to accommodate highly penetrated renewables while
offering multi-functionality. Hybrid harmonic distortion mitigation techniques
have emerged as a promising approach. By combining passive and active filters,
these techniques can achieve higher levels of renewable energy penetration,
regardless of the cost of filtering and limitations of the active filters used. This
integration of renewables and hybrid filtering not only enhances HC but also
contributes to the long-term sustainability goals of the system.

In summary, the convergence of HC, reliability, PQ , and sustainability requires

the adoption of advanced techniques, including stochastic HC calculation, passive
and hybrid harmonic filtering, and multi-objective optimization. By considering
these factors together, distribution systems can effectively accommodate higher levels
of renewable generation, ensure high-quality power supply, improve system reliabil-
ity, and contribute to long-term sustainability objectives. These research efforts pave
the way for the empowerment of distribution systems with renewable energy while
maintaining the necessary functionality and performance standards.

14
Perspective Chapter: Power Quality and Hosting Capacity
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.1004572

Author details

Muhyaddin Rawa1,2, Ziad M. Ali3,4 and Shady H.E. Abdel Aleem5*

1 Smart Grids Research Group, Center of Research Excellence in Renewable Energy

and Power Systems, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

2 Faculty of Engineering, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,

King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

3 Electrical Engineering Department, College of Engineering, Prince Sattam bin

Abdulaziz University, Wadi Addawaser, Saudi Arabia

4 Aswan Faculty of Engineering, Electrical Engineering Department, Aswan

University, Aswan, Egypt

5 Department of Electrical Engineering, Institute of Aviation Engineering and

Technology, Giza, Egypt

*Address all correspondence to: shady.abdelaleem@iaet.edu.eg

© 2024 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of
the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0),
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided
the original work is properly cited.
15
Power Quality and Harmonics Management in Modern Power Systems

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