IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE

Irrigation

Irrigation is generally defined as the artificial application of water to the

soil for the purpose of supplying the moisture essential for plant growth.
Irrigation water is supplied to supplement the water available from
rainfall.
Purpose of Irrigation

Generally, irrigation is carried out for the following purposes.

• To add water to the soil in order to supply moisture essential for

plant growth
• To provide crop insurance against short duration drought
• To cool the soil and atmosphere thereby making the environment
more favourable for plant growth.
• To wash out or dilute salt in the soil
• To soften tillage pan and clods
• To facilitate the functioning of some micro organisms
• To enhance fertilizer application – fertigation

Importance of Irrigation

The following are the importance of irrigation

i. Increase crop yield

ii. Provide means of production of special crops e.g. wheat, maize etc.
iii. Provide employment for farmers during dry season
iv. Increase the economy of a nation through export
v. Increase additional income to the farmer
vi. Intensification of land use
Forms of Irrigation

Irrigation forms are of two types depending on the way the water is
applied to the crops in the field. These are:

i. Gravitation form of irrigation: This is the application of water

to the field in a natural form. The water flow naturally or it is
guided to the field from the source to the field without any use of
force. Surface irrigation uses gravitational force to apply water to
crop field.
ii. Pressurized pump form of irrigation: This is the application of
water to the field using artificial force to direct or pump the water
to the field. The sub surface, sprinkler and drip irrigation uses
this form of irrigation through the use of pumping machine which
pumps water to the field of crops.

Important terms and definitions

i. Water requirement
The water requirement (WR) of a crop may be defined as the quantity of
water, regardless of its source, required by a crop in a given period for
its normal growth and development under field conditions at a specific
place. Water requirement includes the losses due to evapo-transpiration
(ET) or consumptive use (CU) plus the losses during the application of
irrigation water and the amount required for special operations such as
land preparation, transplanting, leaching, etc. it may thus be formulated
as follows: WR = ET or CU + application losses + special needs.

ii. Irrigation requirement l

The field irrigation requirement (IR) of a crop, therefore, refers to the
water requirement of the crop, excluding effective rainfall and the
contribution from soil profile, and may be formulated as:
IR =WR –(ER+S).
A farm irrigation requirement depends on the irrigation needs of the
individual crops, their area and losses in the farm water distribution
systems, mainly by seepage.

iii. Net irrigation requirement

This is the amount of irrigation water required to bring the soil moisture
level in the effective root zone to field capacity. Thus it is the difference
between field capacity and the soil moisture content in the root zone
before starting irrigation.

iv. Gross irrigation requirement

This is the total amount of water applied through irrigation. In other
words, it is the net irrigation requirement plus losses in water application
and other losses. Gross irrigation requirement can be determined for a
field, a farm, an outlet command area, or an irrigation project, depending
on the need, by considering the appropriate losses at various stages of
the crop growth. Gross irrigation requirement in field = net irrigation requirement
divided by irrigation efficiency.

v. Irrigation efficiency
Irrigation efficiency is a measure of the amount of water delivered by
irrigation that actually ends up as available water to the plant. To
illustrate the point, let us assume a rooting depth of 1.5 m. ideally, the
soil should be wetted evenly down to a depth of at least 4 m. In practice
this is rarely attained. Irrigation efficiency is a measure of how close the
water delivery system comes to achieving this ideal situation. It gives a
measure of the amount of water effectively delivered to a farm and
varies from soil to soil.
Factors influencing irrigation efficiency
- The principal factors influencing irrigation efficiency are the
design of the irrigation system

- The degree of land preparation

- And the skills and care of the irrigator.

Water is lost from the distribution system in several ways, by evaporation,

unwanted wetting of banks of delivery ditches, deep percolation, seepage and
run-off. In sprinkler system, for example, the tendency for high evaporation
reduces irrigation efficiency. Any factor
which causes loss of water will also reduce irrigation efficiency.

Ways of minimising the loss of irrigation water

- These losses can be minimised by adequate planning of the
irrigation system
- Proper design of the irrigation method
- Proper land preparation
- Efficient operation of the system.

vi. Irrigation frequency

This refers to the number of days between any two subsequent
irrigations during periods without rainfall. It depends on the
consumptive use rate of a crop and the amount of available moisture in
the crop root zone. It is a function of crop, soil and climate. Sandy soils
are irrigated more often than fine-textured soils. Moisture use rate
increases as the crop grows and the days become longer and hotter. In
general, irrigation should start when about 50% of the available moisture
has been used from the zone in which most of the roots are concentrated.

vii. Irrigation scheduling

The number and timing of irrigation vary widely for different crops.
Earlier concept for scheduling were based on the soil water regime in
which the water content at field capacity (the upper limit of the regime)
was considered as 100% available for crop growth, and that at the
permanent wilting point as 0% available. About 50% available water
was accepted as the lower limit of the regime and it was taken as a
criterion for scheduling irrigation. Later on it was realised that climatic
parameters play a predominant role in governing the water needs of
crops. This leads to the concept of evapo-transpiration, which has been
used as the criterion for timing irrigations. The latest approach for
scheduling irrigation is the plant water status itself. This may be
considered as an ideal criterion as the plant is a good integrator of soil,
water and climatic factors.

3.2. IRRIGATION METHODS

Irrigation methods vary in different parts of the world and on different

farms in the same area because of differences in soil, topography, water
supply, crops and customs. There are four methods of irrigation:
- surface irrigation (flooding, check basin method, border strip
method, furrow method and corrugated method)
- overhead irrigation (sprinkler irrigation)
- sub-surface irrigation
- drip irrigation.

3.2.1. Surface irrigation

In the surface irrigation method, water is applied directly to the soil
surface from a channel located at the upper reach of the field. Highly
efficient irrigation can be achieved in surface methods by an appropriate
combination of the size of the irrigation stream, the size, shape and slope
of the irrigation bed, the infiltration rate of the soil and plant population.
Surface irrigation could be made more efficient by observing the
following

- The water distribution system should be properly constructed to

provide adequate control of water to the fields.
- The land should be well prepared to permit the uniform
distribution of water over the fields.
- Fine textured soils with low infiltration rate require smaller
streams to avoid excessive losses due to run-off at the
downstream end and deep percolation at the lower reaches.
- Coarse-textured soils with high infiltration rates require larger
streams to spread over the entire strip rapidly and avoid excessive
losses due to percolation at the upper ridges.

Advantages of surface irrigation

1. Adaptability: Surface irrigation can be used on nearly all types
of soil and crops. The system can be designed to accommodate a
wide range of stream sizes and still maintain high water
application efficiency.

2. Flexibility: Surface irrigation systems permit ample latitude to

meet emergencies. The capacity of surface system is efficient to
permit an entire farm to be irrigated in a small time period.

3. Economy: It is usually inexpensive to operate because of low

power requirements. Water is usually applied directly to the
farmland by gravity flow from the irrigation projects canals and
laterals. Where water is pumped from wells, rivers, storage
reservoirs or other sources of supply, only enough power to raise
the water slightly above the land surface to be irrigated is needed.
3.2.2. Types of Surface Irrigation Systems

Surface irrigation systems may be grouped into two broad

classifications:

i. Complete flooding of the soil surface which includes flooding

from field ditches, flooding strips between border dikes, and
flooding in basins or checks. In this method the entire land
surface in the area being irrigated is covered with water.

ii. Partial flooding or furrow method where the entire irrigated

area is only partially flooded. Closely spaced furrows (small
ditches) contain and distribute the water which moves both
laterally and downward from the furrow to moisten the plant root
zone.

Flooding method of irrigation is most suitable for

- Land having such regular surfaces that the other surface irrigation
methods are impractical.
- Areas where irrigation water is abundant and inexpensive.
- Crops such as rice which require standing water during most
parts of their growing season.

3.2.3. Complete Flooding Systems of Irrigation

1. Check basin method

This is the simplest and most common method of irrigation. It consists
of applying irrigation water to the level areas enclosed by ridges. Fairly
level fields are well graded and then divided by ridges into rectangular
or square basins of 3 x 2 m to 30 x 30 m, so that each has a nearly level
surface. The size of the basin depends on the soil type and head of
stream available. The water is retained in the basins and then slowly
percolates into the soil.
When irrigating orchards, square basins may be used as for other crops,
but when the plants are widely spaced, the ring method of basin
irrigation may be used. The rings are circular basins formed around each
tree.

Advantage of Check basin method

- An advantage of the ring method is that the entire area is not
flooded, thus obtaining high water use efficiency.

Suitability of Check basin method

- Check basin irrigation is suited to smooth, gentle and uniform
land slopes and for soils with moderate to slow infiltration rates.
- The method is especially well suited to irrigating grain and
fodder crops in heavy soils where water is absorbed very slowly
and is required to stand for a relatively long time to ensure
adequate irrigation.

2. Border strip method

The well leveled and graded land is divided into a number of long
parallel strips called borders that are separated by low ridges. Each
border strip should be level and should have a uniform gentle slope in
the direction of water flow. Each border is irrigated by allowing the
water to flow from the upper end of the border in a thin sheet. The water
moves towards the lower end with a non-corrosive velocity and covers
the entire width of the border. When the advancing water reaches the
lower end, the stream is turned to the second strip. The water
temporarily stored in the border moves down the strip and infiltrates the
soil, thus completing the irrigation.

Suitability of Border strip method

- This method of irrigation is more suitable for soils with
moderately low to moderately high infiltration rates.
- This method is suitable for irrigating close-growing crops such as
wheat, barley and fodder crops.
- It’s not suitable for rice which requires standing water during the
greater part of the growing season.

3.2.4. Partial Flooding Methods

.i. Furrow method

With furrow irrigation, small channels or furrows are used to convey the
water over the soil surface in small individual parallel streams.
Infiltration occurs through the sides and bottom of the furrow containing
water. From the point of infiltration, the water moves both laterally and
vertically downward to moisten the plant root zone. The degree of
flooding of the land surface depends on the shape, size and spacing of
the furrows, the land slope and hydraulic roughness of the furrow.
Furrows are made between the crops rows and the crops are grown on
the ridges. With furrow irrigation it is difficult to prevent some erosion.
On steep slopes, the furrows should be laid out on the contour, i.e.
across the slopes.

Suitability of Furrow method

- Nearly all row crops such as maize, sorghum, groundnuts, cotton,
tobacco, potatoes and sugar cane are irrigated by the furrow
method.
- Furrow method is suitable for most soils except sandy soils that
have a very high infiltration rate and provide poor lateral
distribution of water between the furrows.

.ii. Corrugation method

This is a partial flooding method, as the water does not cover the entire
field surface. The stream of water is guided to flow through small
furrows called corrugations evenly spaced across the field. The water
spread laterally, saturating the area between the corrugations. The main
difference between this and regular furrow irrigation is that more but
smaller furrows are used and the crop rows are not necessarily related to
the irrigation furrows. The corrugations are made after sowing but
before germination have taken place. The corrugations are U-shaped or
V-shaped channels (furrows) of about 6-10 cm deep, spaced 50- 150 cm
apart, running down the slope from field ditches, or preferably from
portable gated pipes made of aluminium or hosepipes, in either case
with outlet tubes. The length of the corrugations varies from 40 to 120 m
and slope is usually 2- 6%.
The entire soil surface is wetted slowly by the capillary movement of the
water which flows in the corrugation.

Advantages of Corrugation method

-This method of wetting the soil minimises the crusting effect on
the surface soil, which may be a problem when the entire surface
is flooded.

- The movable pipes make the method more efficient.

- The advantage of this method is that it makes it possible to
irrigate on relatively steep slopes without causing erosion.

Suitability of Corrugation method

- This method is suited to close-growing crops and for pasture
growing on steep slopes.
- It’s most suitable for fine - to moderately coarse-textured soils.
- It is not recommended for saline soils or when the irrigation
water has a high salt content.

Disadvantages
- The method is very conducive to increasing salinity.
- This method has a high requirement as each field must be
corrugated at least once every year.
- Field operation is difficult due to rough surface.

3.2.5. Overhead Irrigation

Sprinkler irrigation
In this method, the irrigation water is applied to the crop above the
ground surface in the form of spray. A sprinkler irrigation system
consists of a pump to develop the desired operating pressure and main
lines, laterals and risers to convey the water. Sprinkler head or nozzles
discharge the water in the form of spray. For sprinkler irrigation, the
water must be clean and free of sand, debris and large amounts of
dissolved salts and a stable supply of water must always be available.

Factors to consider when selecting a sprinkler

- The sprinkler should have a capacity to meet the water

requirements of the crop.
- Should apply water at a rate that does not exceed the minimum
intake rate of the soil.
-The sprinkler should be able to apply water with some minimum
economic uniformity.
- Should minimise the total annual cost of irrigation.
- Produce a crop that economically justifies the use of the system.

Types of sprinkler system

1. Rotating sprinkler heads are spaced equally along the lateral

lines. The lateral lines remain in one place until required amount
of water has been applied and are moved the same distance for
each successive setting.

2. Perforated pipes: water is pumped through very small, closely

spaced orifices in the pipe. These perforated pipes form the
lateral lines and provide fairly uniform distribution along both
sides of the pipe.

Suitability of sprinkler system

1.Sprinkler irrigation is both technically and economically very
suitable for terrain that is too uneven for surface irrigation, as
well as for sandy soils.

2.This method can be used for nearly all crops except rice and jute.
3.It is not suitable for heavy clay soils where the infiltration rate is
very low.

Advantages of sprinkler system

i. Soluble fertilisers, herbicides and fungicides can be applied to the
irrigation water economically.
ii. It is used to protect crops against frost or high temperatures that
reduce the quality and quantity of the produce.
iii. Water application can be more uniform and carried out with
greater precision with sprinkler system than with surface
irrigation, except during times of high wind.
iv. Water use efficiency is also greater with sprinkler irrigation.
v. Sprinkler during the hot hours of the day may improve the
microclimate, prevent
transient wilting, and increase stomatal opening
and thereby improving the photosynthetic effectiveness.
vi. The elimination of the field ditches required for surface irrigation
increases the net area available for crop production and reduces
water losses to seepage and percolation.
vii. This method does not interfere with the movement of farm
 machinery

Disadvantage of sprinkler system

i.The capital investment for equipment is relatively high.

ii.Water loss due to evaporation and the interception of water by the

foliage is greater with sprinklers than with surface irrigation
method.
iv. It is not well suited to very windy areas.

3.2.6 Subsurface Irrigation

In subsurface irrigation, water is applied below the ground surface by
maintaining an artificial water table at a predetermined depth, depending
upon the soil texture and rooting depth of the plant roots. Water reaches
the plant roots through capillary action. Water may be introduced either
through correctly spaced open ditches in field or underground pipelines
such as tile drains or mole drains. The depth of open ditches or trenches
varies from 30- 100 cm and they are spaced about 15- 30 m apart. The
water application system consists of field supply channels, ditches or
trenches suitably spaced to cover the field adequately and drainage
ditches for the disposal of excess water.

Types of subsurface irrigation

1.Open ditches system. It is most widely used sub-surface system.
Feeder ditches are excavated on the contour and spaced close
enough to ensure control of water table. They are connected to a
supply ditch that runs down the predominant field slope and has
control structure as needed to maintain the desired water level in
the feeder ditches. The lower ends are connected by an outlet tile
which is used to carry excess irrigation water and storm water to
a satisfactory outlet.
2.Perforated tubes. (Drip irrigation). The perforated tube is
buried 4” – 8” under the ground depending on the type of crop to
be grown. It is generally used for row crops especially cotton.
Water is pumped through these tubes under a low pressure and it
oozes out through the numerous tiny holes to supply the roots. At
this slow rate of application, water percolates immediately
downwards and sideways into the soil.

Advantages of drip irrigation

i. There is considerable saving in water by adopting this method
since the water can be applied almost precisely to the root zone
and there is no need to wet the entire area between the crops.
ii. It permits the application of fertiliser through the system.
iii. It minimises such conventional losses as deep percolation, run-off
and soil water evaporation.

iv. The system has a greater advantage over other sub-surface

irrigation systems because it is easily laid down and can be
removed at any time after the crop has been harvested.

Suitability of subsurface irrigation method

- This method can be used for most soils with a low water-holding
capacity and a high infiltration rate.
- Subsurface irrigation is suited to soils having reasonably uniform
texture and permeable enough for water to move rapidly both
horizontally and vertically within and for some distance below
the crop’s root zone.
- This method is suited to irrigating vegetables, most field crops,
small grains, pasture grass, most forage crops and flowers.
Advantages of subsurface irrigation
i. Effective on soils having low water holding capacity and high
intake rates where other methods are impracticable due to labour,
equipment and water costs.
ii. Dispersion of weed seeds is reduced, thus reducing weed control
costs.
iii. Evaporative loss of water from land surface is minimal.
iv. Special tillage and frequent land preparation for conveying
surface water is eliminated, thus less damage to soil structure.
v. The amount of water for irrigation can be controlled and even
distribution is possible.
vi. Normal farm operations can be carried out without interference or
major alteration of the lay-out.

Disadvantages of subsurface irrigation

i. Subsurface irrigation tends to cause salt accumulation in the root
zone.
ii. Requires a more complex combination of physical conditions not
readily found in nature.
iii. Drainage and leaching practices must be more intensive to assure
adequate salinity control.
iv. It is expensive and should be used only for high-value crops.

3.3. Water Management in Irrigation Scheme

The important aspects of a comprehensive irrigation development
programme are:

- integrated development of water resources

- efficient method of conveyance and distribution of water
- judicious methods of water application
- proper soil management practices
- cropping pattern for high water-use efficiency
- proper timing of irrigation based on the development stages of
the plant
- removal of excess water.

i. Integrated development of water resources

Watershed management and harvesting are important aspects of water
resources development programme. Loss of water by seepage and
evaporation from farm tanks can be minimised by lining and covering
reservoirs with plastic, artificial rubber or chemical.

ii. Efficient methods of conveyance and distribution of water

For efficient water use, irrigation channels should be stable, have
negligible scour and negligible deposition of sediments. To achieve this,
irrigation channels and canals are lined with suitable materials which
include concrete, rock masonry, brick, bentonite-earth mixtures, natural
clays of low permeability, and various rubber, plastic and asphalt
compound. If canals and channels are not lined, or not properly lined,
weeds and willows will grow on the canal banks, and moss and other
aquatic plants will grow in the canals. These greatly retard water
velocity and so decrease canal capacity. Silt and clay sedimentation in
canal also restrict water flow.

iii. Judicious methods of water application

Whatever the method of irrigation, the essential requirement in water
use is the application of right amount of water and its uniform
distribution in the field so as to wet the root zone to its storage capacity.
Excessive depth of application would result in low efficiency.

iv. Proper soil management practices

Soil management practices which relates to irrigation are land grading,
land preparation and cultivation practices. These aim at obtaining a
uniform distribution of irrigation water on the farm, storing large
amounts of rainwater within the root zone, and improving the soil
structure for increased water availability.

v. Cropping pattern for high water-use efficiency

An efficient cropping pattern must ensure the most efficient use of land,
fertiliser, irrigation water and other inputs. In the cropping pattern, the
selection of crops and varieties is most important. A crop or variety
should be short-duration, photo-insensitive, have a low water
requirement, be fertiliser-responsive and high yielding, all of which may
enable the farmer to increase the intensity of cropping and thus raise the
production per unit input.
Proper timing of irrigation based on the development stages of the plant.
To raise a good crop of rice about 2000mm of water is required. Of this
1500mm is lost by percolation during land preparation. This huge loss
can be prevented and the water used during the growing period of rice.
The loss of water through percolation can be minimised by the
incorporation of a small quantity of bentonite in the top 25 cm of soil.

vi. Removal of excess water

A large mass of land is water-logged due to seepage from canals. There
should be a proper drainage programme to drain out excess water either
into the canal or to a distant place to be used as irrigation water, but with
proper salinity-checking devices.

3.4. DRAINAGE

Drainage may be defined as the means by which soil and subsoil -water
is controlled in, and removed from, the root zone in relation to the health
and vigour of the crop. A soil may need artificial drainage because the
water table is high or because of excess surface water. In both cases, all
the pore spaces are filled with water and aeration is poor. The result is
reduced root development and possibly an accumulation or
concentration of ions such as manganese.
The major sources of excess water that make drainage necessary
are:
- seepage losses from reservoirs or canals
- deep percolation loss from irrigated lands
- flooding of low lands
- flow of groundwater towards waterlogged lands in the arid region.

Aims of drainage
The basic aim of field drainage is to assist land to get rid of water from
the upper layers of the soil in a manner that will maintain the conditions
which provide aeration, warmth and adequate moisture within the root
zone of the crop. The adequate drainage of crop-producing lands
requires a general lowering of shallow water tables.

Ways of lowering the water table include:

- eliminating or controlling sources of excess water
- improving natural drainage facilities
- providing man-made artificial drainage systems such as open
channel drains, covered clay or concrete pipes pumping ground water.

Benefits of drainage
- Draining cultivatable land promotes a number of environmental
conditions in the soil that are favourable to higher plants and the micro
flora and fauna.
- It improves soil aggregation or granulation and thus encourages
aeration, better plant root development, biological activity and nutrient
uptake.
- Providing more available soil moisture and plant food by increasing the depth of
the root zone soil.
- It decreases losses of soil nitrogen due to denitrification.
- Decreasing soil erosion by increasing water infiltration into soils.
- Leaching excess salts from the soil.
- Assuring higher soil temperatures.

3.4.1 Drainage Systems

There are two main types of drainage systems:

 surface
 subsurface drainage.

1. Surface drainage
Surface drainage involves smoothing the soil surface and creating
enough slope to ensure water run-off.
Lowland areas often receive water from the surrounding uplands.
Impermeable soils may be unable to get rid of excess water by
downward movement through the soil profile. Sometimes excess water
is applied to a field during irrigation. In all of these cases, surface
drainage is used to dispose of the excess water. Ditches are built of
concrete to ensure durability, especially where rapid water movement
occurs. Ditches must be cleaned and weeded periodically.

Disadvantages of surface drainage

- Silt and clay sedimentation and the growth of weeds and willows
restrict the flow of water.
- Surface drains are troublesome to maintain and water distribution
interferes with them.
- Another major disadvantage of surface ditches is that they may
interfere with the use of machinery.

2. Sub-surface drainage

i. Mole drains are cut in the soil at a pre-arranged depth, below the
main root zone. Mole drains are usually 10-15 cm in diameter,
circular or nearly so in cross section, 50- 60 cm deep, and 3-4 m
apart. Some cuts are made in the drains. These cuts assist the
passage of water from the surface and through the soil to the
drains. Mole drains require not only suitable land but proper
grading of the drains and free outlets at the lower ends, leading
into surface cuts of sufficient depth which discharge to main
drainage canals or a natural water course.

ii. Tile drains are formed by hollow cylindrical tiles of 10- 25 cm

internal diameter. The tiles are made of concrete and are laid in
deep trenches cut at predetermined intervals to a depth of 75 cm
or more. When the soil surrounding the tile is saturated with
water, the water seeps into the tile and eventually reaches an
outlet where it is discharged.

Advantages of underground drainage

i. Low maintenance costs.
ii. Unobstructed passage of farm implement over them.
iii. Arable land is not sacrificed as is often the case with surface drainage.
iv. They also indirectly help in providing water for irrigation.
v. Assists in protecting the soil from erosion.
vi. The firmer particles of surface soil carried away in large
quantities and deposited in the trenches and main drains are
cleaned and reformed after some years.

Maintenance of drains
-The maintenance of drainage systems requires the regular
removal of soil and vegetation from the drains.
To keep closed drains clean, it is essential to destroy the
penetrating roots periodically by adding some chemicals to the
drain water. To achieve this, all undesirable vegetation in the
field should be killed with chemicals.