WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT

Huygens’ principle
It states that every point on a wave front may be regarded as a source of secondary spherical
wavelets which spread out with the wave velocity. The new wavefront is the envelope of these
secondary wavelets.
Aplications of Huygens principle
(i) Reflection at palne surfaces
Consider a parallel beam of monochromatic light incident on a plane surface
If particles A and B on the same wave fornt in
A
time t, B travels to C while A travels to D
C 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝐷 and < 𝐵𝐴𝐷 =< 𝐵𝐶𝐷 = 90°
Since 𝐵𝐷 is common then < 𝑖 =< 𝑟

i r
B D

(ii) Refraction at plane boundary

Consider a plane wavefront of light AB which is about to cross form one medium into another
If the wave particle at B takes time t to move
to 𝐵1 , then the distance B𝐵1 = 𝐶𝑡.
In the same time interval wave particle at A
Incident wave front B moves to 𝐴1 , distance A𝐴1 = 𝑉𝑡
From triangle A𝐵𝐵1 and 𝐴𝐴1 𝐵1
𝐵𝐵1
sin 𝑖 ( ) 𝐵𝐵1 𝐶𝑡 𝐶
i
B1
𝐴𝐵1
air = = = =
medium A sin 𝑟 𝐴𝐴1 𝐴𝐴1 𝑉𝑡 𝑉
r
( )
r 𝐴𝐵1
𝐶
A1 Refracted wavefront
But 𝑉 = 𝑛, refractive index of the material
𝐶
𝑉=
𝑛
Let C and V be the velocities of light in air and
the medium respectivelt.

Note
When light moves from one medium to another, the frequency of light remains the same
If 𝑓𝑎 and 𝑓 be the frequencies of light in the vacuum (air) and in the medium then
𝑓𝑎 = 𝑓 𝐶 𝑓𝑎 𝜆𝑎 𝐶 𝜆𝑎
𝑛= = 𝑛= =
𝑉 𝑓𝜆 𝑉 𝜆
Example
If the wavelenght of light in air is 620nm, find its wavelenght in a material of refractive index 1.6
Solution
𝐶 𝑓𝑎 𝜆𝑎 620
𝑛= = 1.6 =
𝑉 𝑓𝜆 𝜆
𝜆𝑎 𝜆 = 387.5𝑛𝑚
𝑛=
𝜆

151
 POLARISATION
Light is a transverse wave so its vibrations of electric vector occur in all directions perpendicular
to the diection of propagation of light

Plane of vibration

Unpolarised light

Unpolarised light
This is light whose vibrations of the electric vectors occur in all direcions perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of the wave.
Unpolarised light can be represented as below.

Ray

Where; Electric vibrations perpendicular to the plane

Represent vibrations parallel to the palne

Why sound waves can not be polarised

Sound waves are longitudinal waves, so its vibrations are parallel to the direction of
propagation

Plane Polarised light

This is light whose vibrations of the electric vectors are confined to one plane perpendicular to
the direction of propagation of the wave.
Polarised light can be represented as below.
Ray

Or
Ray

However light can under go partial polarization as shown below

Ray

PRODUCTION OF POLARISED LIGHT

(a) Reflection

 When light is incident on a boundary between

observor

Ordinary light
Polaroid air and glass, part of the light is partially
reflected and the other partially transmitted
Reflected ray
(completely polarised light ) into the denser medium.
 At one angle of incidence (polarizing angle),
ɵ1 ɵ2
Air

Glass r the reflected ray is completely plane-polarised

while the refracted ray is partially plane
polarized and the two rays are perpendicular
Reflected ray (partially
polarised to each other and vibrations in the reflected
ray are parallel to the reflecting surface.
From sneils law: 𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

152
 𝑛𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 = 𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟…………………….(1)
𝑟 + 90 + 𝜃2 = 180
𝑟 = 90 − 𝜃2
By law of reflection 𝜃1 = 𝜃2 = 𝜃
𝑟 = 90 − 𝜃
From (1) 𝑛𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 = 𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛(90 − 𝜃1 )
1𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑛𝑔 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 Brewster’s law
Where 𝜃 − 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑤𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
Examples
1. The polarizing angle of ight incident in air on a glass plate is 56.5°. What is the refractive index of glass
Solution
𝑛𝑔 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝑛𝑔 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛(56.5) 𝑛𝑔 = 1.51
2. A parallel beam of unpolarized light incident on a transparent medium of refractive index 1.62 is
reflected as plane polarized light. Calculate the angle of incidence in air and the angle of refraction in
the medium.
Solution
𝑛𝑔 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝑟 = 90 − 𝜃
−1 (1.62) 𝑟 = 90 − 58.3
𝜃 = tan
𝜃 = 58.3° 𝑟 = 31.7°

Exercise
The polarising angle for light in air incident on a glass plate is 57.5°, what is the refractive index of the
glass? An(1.57)

(b) By scattering
Polarised light
 When plane unpolarised light is incident on
air molecules part of it is scattered.
 The light that passes through the air
Unpolarised light molecules is unpolarised and the light that
is sattered in the direction perpendicular to
the incident ray is polarized totally.
Ordinary light

Polarised light

(c) Double refraction

0  A narrow beam of ordinary light is made
incident on a nicol prism and viewed through
the analyser.
polaroid  The angle of incidence is gradually increased.
 For each angle of incidence, the emergent light
Monochromatic is viewed through the analyser while rotating it
light about an axis perpendicular to the palne of the
analyser.
 At a certain angle of incidence light gets cut off
completely. At this point the emergent light is
completely plane polarized.
Applications of polarization

153
 (a) Measurement of concentration of sugar in solution
Slit
Tube T
Monochromatic observer
light

Nicole prism (P)

Unpolarised light Solution Analyser (A)
 Apparatus is arranged as above.
 With out tube T in place, the analyser A is rotated until the emergent light from T is completely
cut off. The position of A is noted.
 Tube T is filled with a solution to be tested and on looking through A, light can now be seen
 Viewing through the analyzer A, it is rotated until when light is cut off and note this point.
 Measure the angle of rotation 𝜃 of the analyser.
 The concentration of the solution is proportional to the angle of rotation therefore the
concentration can be determined

(b) Reducing glare in sun glasses

Polaroids are used in sun glasses to reduce intensity of incident sunlight and eliminate the
reflected light.
When a polarized quoting is applied on sun glasses, the reflected light is partially or
completely polarized and thus glare is reduced

Other applications include

 Holography
 In phot elasticity for stress analysis
 Used in L.C.D’s

154
 INTERFERNCE
Interference of waves is the superposition of waves from different two coherent soruces resulting
into alternate regions of maximum and minimium intensity.
Where the path difference is an odd multiple of half a wavelength, cancellation occurs resulting
itno minimum intensity. Where the path difference is an integral multiple of a full wavelength,
reineforcement occurs resulting into maximum intensity.

Coherent sources
These are sources whose waves have the same frequency but nearly the same amplitude and a
constant phase difference.
Conditions for observable interference to take place
 Wave trains must have nearly equal amplitudes
 There must be a constant phase relationship between the two wave trains (Wave
sources must be coherent).
 The coherent sources must be close to each other.
 The screen should be as far as possible from the source

Types of interference

 Constructive interference
 Destructive interference

(a) Constructive interference

This is the re-enforcement of the intensities of two coherent sources to give maximum intensity
when two wave distrubances from two sources are superimposed.
It takes place when a crest of one wave meets a crest of another wave and a troug meets a
trough resulting into a large resultant amplitude.

(b) Destructive interference

This is the cancellation of two intensities of two coherent sources to give minimum intensity when
two wave distrubances from two sources are superimposed.
It takes place when a crest of one wave meets a trough of another wave resulting into a small
resultant amplitude.

Path difference
This is the difference in the length of the path taken by two waves from the source to a point of
over lap.
Where they meet, the two waves superpose leading to reinforcement or cancellation. Where the
path difference is an integral multiple of a full wavelength constructive interfence takes place.
Where the path difference is an odd multiple of half a wavelength, destructive interference
takes place.
Consider two coherent sources 𝑠1and 𝑠2
s2

s1 P

Wave forms from 𝑠1and 𝑠2 meet at P after taveling difffernt distances.

Waves from 𝑠1travel a distance 𝑠1 𝑃 while waves from 𝑠2 travel a distance 𝑠2 𝑃
But 𝑠2 𝑃 > 𝑠1 𝑃
𝑠2 𝑃 − 𝑠1 𝑃 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒

155
 If the path difference is zero or a whole number of wavelength. Then the brght band
(constructive interference) will be formed
𝑠2 𝑃 − 𝑠1 𝑃 = 𝑛𝝀 𝑛 = 0,1,2,3 − − − − − − − − − − − −

If the path difference is an odd number of half wavelength. Then the darkband (destructive
interference) will be formed
𝑠2 𝑃 − 𝑠1 𝑃 = (𝑛 − 1⁄2)𝝀 𝑛 = 1,2,3 − − − − − − − − − − − −

Optical path
It is the length in a medium that contains the same number of waves as a given length in a
vacuum. OR
This is the product of the geometrical path length in air and refractive index of the medium
Consider a light travellign from O to A a distance d in air.
Optical path = 𝑛𝑎 𝑑
But 𝑛𝑎 = 1
Optical path = 𝑑
If a thin transparent slab of thickness t and refractive index n is placed between O and A

O A

Optica path between O and A is

Optical path = 𝑛𝑎 (𝑑 − 𝑡) + 𝑛𝑡
𝑛𝑎 = 1
Optical path = 𝑑 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑡
Phase diffference
This is the difference in the phase angles of two wave at a given time
Consider light travelling a distance x in the medium of refractive index n. if the wavelength of
the medium is 𝜆 then, the phase difference, Ø is given by
2𝜋𝑥
Ø=
𝜆
2𝜋
 Phase difference = 𝜆 (𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒)
When crests of two waves meet, then waves are said to be in phase
 Phase difference = 0
Hence constructive interference occurs
When crest and trough of two waves meet, then waves are said to be out of phase
 Phase difference = 𝜋
Hence destructive interference occurs

Production of coherent sources from a single source of light

(a) By division of a wave front
This is the process of obtaining two coherent wave sources from a single wavefront
(i) Using a double slit

156
  S, 𝑠1 and 𝑠2 are narrow slits which are parallel
to each other.
 Waves from source, s diffreact into region and
s1
Screen
travel towards 𝑠1 and 𝑠2
 Diffraction also takes place at 𝑠1 and 𝑠2 and
interference occurs in the region where the
Monochromatic light from 𝑠1 overlaps that from 𝑠2
light s2 s1 and s2- slits
 Since s is narrow, the light which emerges from
source, S
𝑠1 and 𝑠2 comes form the same wave front as
Single slit
A that which emerges from s. thus 𝑠1 and 𝑠2 are
coherent
Double slit B

(ii) Using Fresnel prism

Single slit Biprism  A biprism of very large angle is placed with its
s1
L refracting edge facing a narrow source of
monochromatic light, 𝑠
 Light incident on face L is refracted and
appear to come from a point 𝑆1 and that
Monochromatic Interference
source effect incident on Q appears to come from 𝑆2 due to
refraction.
 The two sources are thus coherent since the
s2 light which emergent originates from the same
Q
wave front

Note : Biprism method is always preferred because it produces brighter fringes since the biprism
converges most of the light on to the screen

(b) By division of amplitude

This is the process of dividing the amplitude into two parts by successive reflections
(i) When light is incident on a boundary of two media

Source  When light is incident on a boundary between

Reflected light air and glass, part of the light is partially
Air reflected and the other partially transmitted
N into the denser medium.
Glass  At N, there is divison of intensity and since
Transmitted light intensity is proportional to the square root of
amplitude, then division of amplitude at N
takes place.
(ii) Using an air wedge
 Monochromatic light is mad incident almost
Glass plate normally onto the upper glass slide.
Light source,  It is partly reflected at X and partly
s
transmitted in the air film and reflected at Y.
Air film
 The light reflected at X and Y are coherent.
x
When they overlap above the upper slide,
they interfere
y
 Where the path difference is an odd mu;tiple
Glass plate of half a wavelenght, bright fringe is formed
and where the path difference is an integral
multiple of a full wavelength, a dark fringe is
formed .

157
 Young’s double slit interference
superimpose in region x and interference takes
place.
When a crest from 𝑠1 meet a crest from 𝑠2 and a
Screen trough from 𝑠1 meets a trough from 𝑠2 then
s1
maximum interference is achieved and a brght
fringe is formed (constructive interference).
P x
Source s When a crest from 𝑠1 meet a trough from 𝑠2 and
a trough from 𝑠1 meets a cest from 𝑠2 then
s2 s1 and s2- slits minimum interference is achieved and a dark
fringe is formed ( destructive interference).
This results into a series of alternating dark and
bright bands which areequally spaced and are
parallel to the slits.
At the central point P waves from 𝑠1 and 𝑠2
When a wave front from the source, s is incident travel equal distances and they arrive at the
on a double slit 𝑠1 and 𝑠2, division of wave front same time (they are in phase). This implies
take place and therefore 𝑠1 and 𝑠2 act as constructive interference hence a bright fringe is
coherent sources. Waves from 𝑠1 and 𝑠2 formed at P

Note;
(i) When one of the double slits is covered, no interference takes place
(ii) When the source of monochromatic light is moved close to the slits, the intensity
increases and bands become brighter
(iii) When the distance between the double slits and single slit is reduced, fringe separation
remains the same but bands become bright since the intensity increases
(iv) When the doube slit separation is reduced, the fringe seapraion increases and when the
slit separation is increased, the fringe separation decreases unitl a stage is reached when
no fringes are observed

Effect of using white light other than monochromatic light

Sets of coloured fringes are seen on the screen. The central fringe is white, with coloured fringes on
either side. For each set, blue fringes is nearest to the central one while red is furthest.

Effect of widening the single slit,s

The fringes gradually disappear. The slit s is now equivalent to a large number of slits each producing
its own fringe system on the screen. The fringe systems overlap producing uniform illumination

Effect of narrowing the double slit separation

 When the slit separation is large (𝑎 ≫ 𝜆), bright band of approximately the same width as
the slit is observed.
 As the slit width is reduced so that 𝑎 ≈ 𝝀, a diffraction pattern is observed. A central white
band having dark bands on either sides is obtained. The dark bands have coloured fringes
running from blue to red, the blue fringes being nearest to the direction position
 As the slit width is reduced further (𝑎 < 𝜆), the central bright band widens and extends well
into the geometrical shadow of the slit.
 When the slit finally closes, no light passes through.

Derivation of fringe separation

158
 P 𝑎𝑦
𝐵𝑁 = 𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑑𝑛 ……………………(2)
For nth bright fringe at P
A yn 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐵𝑁 = 𝑛𝝀 … (𝟑)
ɵ where 𝜆 − 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔ℎ𝑡
ɵ 𝑎𝑦
a M
O  𝑑𝑛 = 𝑛𝝀
N 𝑛𝝀
B screen 𝑦𝑛 = 𝑎
𝑑 ……………………….(4)
For (𝑛 + 1)𝑡ℎ bright fringe
d (𝑛+1)𝝀
𝑦𝑛+1 = 𝑎 𝑑……………………….(5)
Fringe separation
Suppose waves from A and B superpose at P 𝒚 = 𝑦𝑛+1 − 𝑦𝑛
to form a bright fringe (𝑛 + 1)𝝀 𝑛𝝀
𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐵𝑁 = 𝐵𝑃 − 𝐴𝑃 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 … (𝟏) 𝒚= 𝑑− 𝑑
𝑎 𝑎
For 𝑑 ≫ 𝑎 , 𝜃 is very small in radians and 𝝀𝒅
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≈ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝒚=
𝑎
For dark fringes
Suppose waves from A and B superpose at P 1 𝝀𝑑
𝑦𝑛 = (𝑛 + ) ……………………….(4)
to form a dark fringe 2 𝑎
𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐵𝑁 = 𝐵𝑃 − 𝐴𝑃 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 … (𝟏) 𝑡ℎ
For (𝑛 + 1) dark fringe
For 𝑑 ≫ 𝑎 , 𝜃 is very small in radians and 1 𝝀𝑑
𝑦𝑛+1 = (𝑛 + 1 + ) ……………………….(5)
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≈ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 2 𝑎
𝑎𝑦𝑛 Fringe separation
𝐵𝑁 = 𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑑 ……………………(2)
𝒚 = 𝑦𝑛+1 − 𝑦𝑛
For nth dark fringe at P 1 𝝀𝑑 1 𝝀𝑑
1 𝒚 = (𝑛 + 1 + ) − (𝑛 + )
𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐵𝑁 = (𝑛 + ) 𝝀 … (𝟑) 2 𝑎 2 𝑎
2 𝝀𝒅
where 𝜆 − 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝒚=
𝑎𝑦𝑛 1 𝑎
 = (𝑛 + ) 𝝀
𝑑 2

Examples
1. In Youngs double slit experiment, 21 bright fringes occupying a distance of 3.6mm were visible on
the screen. The distance of the screen form the double slit was 29cm and the wavelength of light
used in the experiment was 5.5𝑥10−7 𝑚. Calculate the separation of the slits.
Solution
3.6𝑥10−3 𝒚 𝝀 5.5𝑥10−7 𝑥29𝑥10−2
𝑦= = 𝒂=
21 𝒅 𝑎 0.171𝑥10−3
y= 0.171𝑥10−3 𝑚 𝒂 = 9.327𝑥10−4 𝑚
2. In Youngs double slit experiment, the slits are separated by 0.28mm and the screen is 4m away.
The distance betwee the 4th bright fringe and the central fringe is 1.2cm. Find the wavelength of
light used in the experiment.
Solution
Fringe separation; 4𝝀 0𝝀 4𝑥4𝑥𝝀
𝑛𝝀 𝑦= 𝑑− 𝑑 1.2𝑥10−2 =
𝑦𝑛 = 𝑑 𝑎 𝑎 0.28𝑥10−3
𝑎 4𝝀 𝜆 = 2.1𝑥10−7 𝑚
𝑦 = 𝑦4 − 𝑦0 ∆𝑦 = 𝑑
𝑎
3. In Youngs double slit experiment, the 6th bright fringe is formed 4mm away from the center of the
fringe system when the wave length of the light used is 6.0𝑥10−7 𝑚. Calculate the separation of the
two slits if the distance from the slits to the screen is 60cm.
Solution

159
 𝑛𝝀 6𝝀
𝑦𝑛 = 𝑑 𝑦= 𝑑
𝑎 𝑎
𝑦 = 𝑦6 − 𝑦0 −3
6𝑥6.0𝑥10−7 𝑥0.6
6𝝀 0𝝀 4𝑥10 =
𝑦= 𝑑− 𝑑 𝑎
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 = 5.4𝑥10−4 𝑚
4. In Youngs double slit experiment, the 8th bright fringe is formed 5mm away from the center of the
fringe system when the wave length of the light used is 6.2𝑥10−7 𝑚. Calculate the separation of the
two slits if the distance from the slits to the screen is 80cm.
Solution
𝑛𝝀 𝟖𝝀
𝑦𝑛 = 𝑑 𝑦= 𝑑
𝑎 𝑎
𝑦 = 𝑦8 − 𝑦0 −3
8𝑥6.2𝑥10−7 𝑥0.8
𝟖𝝀 0𝝀 5𝑥10 =
𝑦= 𝑑− 𝑑 𝑎
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 = 7.94𝑥10−4 𝑚
5. In Youngs double slit experiment, the slits 0.2mm apart and are placed a distance of 1m from the
screen. The slits are illuminated with light of wavelength 550nm. Calculate the distance between
the 4th and 2nd bright fringes of interference patterns.
Solution
Bright fringe position; 4𝝀 2𝝀 2𝑥550𝑥10−9 𝑥1
𝑛𝝀 𝑦= 𝑑− 𝑑 𝑦=
𝑦𝑛 = 𝑑 𝑎 𝑎 0.2𝑥10−3
𝑎 2𝝀 𝑦 = 5.5𝑥10 −3
𝑚
𝑦 = 𝑦4 − 𝑦2 𝑦 = 𝑑
𝑎
6. In Youngs double slit experiment, the distance between adjacent bright fringes is 10 −3 𝑚. If the
distance between the slits and the screen is doubled, the slit separation halved and light of
wavelength 650nm changed to light of wavelenght 400nm. Find the new separation of the fringes.
Solution
𝝀 400𝑥10−9 (2𝑑)
𝑦= 𝑑 𝑦= … . (2) 400𝑥10−9 (2𝑑)
𝑎 1 [ 1 ]
Case 1: ( 𝑎) (2 𝑎)
2 𝑦
650𝑥10−9 𝑑 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2 ÷ 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1 =
650𝑥10−9 𝑑
10 −3 = … . (1) 10 −3
𝑎 [ 𝑎 ]
Case 2: 𝑦 = 492𝑚

Exercise
1. In Young’s double-slit experiment, the 5 bright fringe is formed 7 mm away from the centre of the
th

fringe system when the wavelength of light used is 4.6 𝑥 10−7 m. Calculate the separation of the two
slits if the distance from the slits to the screen is 90 cm. An(𝟐. 𝟗𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝒎)
2. Two slits 0.5mm apart are placed at a distance of 1.1m from the screen. The slits are illuminated with
light of wavelength 580nm. Calculate the distance between the sixth and second bright fringes of the
interference pattern. An(𝟓. 𝟏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒎)
3. In Young’s experiment, an interference pattern in which the tenth bright fringe was 3.4 cm from the
centre of the pattern was obtained. The distance between the slits and the screen was 2.0m while the
screen separation was 0.34mm. Find the wavelength of the light source An(𝟓. 𝟕𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝒎)

Experiment to measure wavelength of light using Youngs double slit interference

160
 Perspex screen
with a scale
 A monochromatic light is used to illuminate
double slits 𝑠1 and 𝑠2.
 The microscope is placed at such a distance d
s1
that fringes are observed in its field of view
a
Eye
 The number of bright fringes in a fixed length
Monochromatic
on the screen is counted and the fringe
light
source, S
s2 Powered separation y is determined
microscope
 Measure the distance d using a meter rule.
Single slit
 Measure the slit separation a using a travelling
Double slit
d microscope.
 Wavelelnght of light can be calculate from
𝑦𝑎
 Apparatus is arranged as above. 𝝀=
𝑑

Comparing wavelenght of red light and blue light

 Apparatus is arranged as above.
 A source of white light is used and a red filter filter is palced infornt of the slit, s
 The number of bright fringes in a fixed length on the screen is counted and the fringe separation 𝑦𝑟 is
determined
 The filter is now replaced by a blue one and the experiment repeated, and the fringe separation 𝑦𝑏
determined.
𝑦𝑎
 It is found that 𝑦𝑟 > 𝑦𝑏 and since 𝝀 = 𝑑 then 𝜆 ∝ 𝑦
 Wavelenght of red light is greater than that of
 blue light

Interference in thin films

 It is partly reflected at the bottom part of X
and partly transmitted into the air film and
Glass plate
Light source, reflected at the top surface of Y.
s  The light reflected at X and Y are coherent.
t When they overlap above the upper slide,
x Air film they interfere
 Where the path difference is an odd multiple
ɵ of half a wavelenght, bright fringe is formed
and where the path difference is an integral
y
Glass plate
multiple of a full wavelength, a dark fringe is
formed.
 Monochromatic light is mad incident almost
normally onto the upper glass slide.
Note : when white light is used coloured fringes are observed

Derivation of fringe separation

Consider two slides inclined at an angle 𝜃
For n dark fringes
Path difference,2𝑡𝑛 = 𝑛𝝀 … … … … . (𝟏) 𝝀
where n=1,2,3….. 𝑡𝑛+1 − 𝑡𝑛 =
2
For (𝑛 + 1)𝑡ℎ dark fringes 𝑡𝑛+1 − 𝑡𝑛
𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽 =
2𝑡𝑛+1 = (𝑛 + 1)𝝀 … … … … … … … . (𝟐) 𝑦𝑛+1 − 𝑦𝑛
where 𝑛 =0,1,2….. 𝑦𝑛+1 − 𝑦𝑛 = 𝑦
Eqn 2- Eqn 1 𝝀
2𝑡𝑛+1 − 2𝑡𝑛 = (𝑛 + 1)𝝀 − 𝑛𝝀 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽 =
2𝑦
Since 𝜃 is very small in radians, 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃

161
 𝝀
𝒚=
2𝜽
For n bright fringes
1 𝑡𝑛+1 − 𝑡𝑛
Path difference,2𝑡𝑛 = (𝑛 − 2) 𝝀 … … … … . (𝟏) 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽 =
𝑦𝑛+1 − 𝑦𝑛
For (𝑛 + 1)𝑡ℎ dark fringes
1 𝑦𝑛+1 − 𝑦𝑛 = 𝑦
2𝑡𝑛+1 = (𝑛 + 1 − ) 𝝀 … … … … … … … . (𝟐) 𝝀
2 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽 =
Eqn 2- Eqn 1 2𝑦
1 1 Since 𝜃 is very small in radians, 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃
2𝑡𝑛+1 − 2𝑡𝑛 = (𝑛 + 1 − ) 𝝀 − (𝑛 − ) 𝝀 𝝀
2 2 𝒚=
𝝀 2𝜽
𝑡𝑛+1 − 𝑡𝑛 =
2
Examples
1. Two glass slides in contact at one end are separated by a wire to form an air wedge. When the
wedge is illuminated normally by light of wavelenght 5.6𝑥10−7 𝑚 a total of 20 firnges occupying
a distance of 15mm are obtained. Calculate the angle of the wedge.
Solution
15𝑥10−3 5.6𝑥10−7
𝑦= = 0.75𝑥10−3 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
20 2𝑥0.75𝑥10−3
𝜆 𝜃 = 0.021°
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 =
2𝑦
2. Two glass slides in contact at one end are separated by a wire of diameter 0.04mm at the other
end to form awave fringes observed when light of wavelenght 5𝑥10−7 𝑚 is incident normally onto
the slides. Find the number of dark fringes tha can be observed
Solution
For dark fringes 2𝑥0.04𝑥10−3
2𝑡𝑛 = 𝑛𝜆 𝑛 =
5𝑥10−7
𝑛 = 160 𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑘 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠
3. Two glass slides in contact at one end are separated by a sheet of paper 16cm from the the line of
contact, to form an air wedge. When the wedge is illuminated normally by light of wavelenght
5.8𝑥10−7 𝑚 interference firnges of separation 2.0mm are obtained in reflection. Calculate the
thickness of the paper.
Solution
𝝀 𝑡 5.8𝑥10−7 𝑥16𝑥10−2
𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽 = = −2 𝒚=
2𝑦 16𝑥10 2𝑥2.0𝑥10−3
𝝀 𝑡 𝒚 = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟐𝑥10−5 𝑚
=
2𝑦 16𝑥10−2
4. Two glass slides in contact at one end are separated by a metal foil 12.5cm from the the line of
contact, to form an air wedge. When the wedge is illuminated normally by light of wavelenght
5.4𝑥10−7 𝑚 interference firnges of separation 15mm are obtained. Calculate the thickness of the
metal foil.
Solution
𝝀 𝑡 5.4𝑥10−7 𝑥12.5𝑥10−2
𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽 = = 𝒚 =
2𝑦 12.5𝑥10−2 2𝑥1.5𝑥10−3
𝝀 𝑡 𝒚 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟓𝑥10−5 𝑚
=
2𝑦 12.5𝑥10−2
5. Two glass slides 12cm long are in contact at one end and separated by a metal wire of diameter
2.5𝑥10−3 𝑐𝑚 at the other end. When the slides are illuminated normally as shown below with the
light of wavelenhgt 500nm, a fringe system is observed

162
 wire
Light source,
s
t

12cm

Calculate;
(i) Fringe separation
(ii) Number of dark fringes formed
(iii) Number of bright finges formed
Solution
𝝀 𝑡
(i) 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽 = 2𝑦 = 12𝑥10−2 (ii) For dark fringes 1
2𝑡𝑛 = 𝑛𝜆 2𝑡𝑛 = (𝑛 + ) 𝝀
𝝀 𝑡 2
= 2𝑥2.5𝑥10−5 2𝑡𝑛 1
2𝑦 12𝑥10 −2 𝑛 = 𝑛= −
500𝑥10−9 𝝀 2
500𝑥10−9 𝑥12𝑥10−2 𝑛 = 100 𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑘 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠 2𝑥2.5𝑥10−5 1
𝒚= 𝑛= −
2𝑥2.5𝑥10−5 500𝑥10−9 2
𝒚 = 𝟏. 2𝑥10−3 𝑚 (iii) For bright fringes 𝑛 = 99 𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠

Exercise
1. Two glass slides in contact at one end are separated by a metal foil 12.50 cm from the line of contact,
to form an air-wedge. When the air-wedge is illuminated normally by light of wavelength 5.4 x 10 – 7 m
interference fringes of separation 1.5 mm are found in reflection. Find the thickness of the metal foil. An
(𝟐. 𝟐𝟓𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝒎)
2. An air wedge is formed by placing two glass slides of length 5.0 cm in contact at one end and a wire
at the other end as shown in figure 2

Monochromatic light

Wire

Glass slides

Viewing from vertically above, 10 dark fringes are observed to occupy a distance of 2.5 mm when the
slides are illuminated with light of wavelength 500 nm.
(i) Explain briefly how the fringes are formed
(ii) Determine the diameter of the wire

Briefly explain why interference effect are not observed in thick films (air wedges)
1
 Bright fringes occur when the path difference for the wavelength is equal to (𝑛 − ) 𝝀 where
2
𝑛 = 1,2,3…
 When the film is thick, each colour attains this path difference forming bright band. The
different colours thus overlap leading to uniform white illumination ( blurring of the fringes).

NEWTON’S RINGS

163
 layer of air between the lens and the plate
Microscope, m acts as an air wedge.
 Monochromatic light is reflected by glass plate
G such that it falls normally on an air film
formed between the convex lens and the flat
glass plate.
 Light reflected upwards and transmitted
Monochromatic light through G is observed through a travelling
Sheet of glass, G microscope M. A series of dark and brght rings
is observed. Light rays from P and A interfere
Convex lens of long focal length
constructively if the path difference is
1
2𝑡𝑛 = (𝑛 − 2) 𝝀, 𝒏 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑 … …
Flat glass plate Air film  If rays interfere destructively if the path
P difference is 2𝑡𝑛 = 𝑛𝝀, 𝒏 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑 … …
A
 Thus interference patterns observed consist of
a series of dark and bright rings with a central
 When a convex lens of long focal length is sport being dark
made to rest on an optical flat glass plates, a

Appearance of colours on an air film

 Colours on an oil film on a water surface appear due to interference of light
 When light from the sky meets the oil film, it is partially reflected and partially
refracted. The refracted light is totally internally reflected at the oil- water boundary.
 When the colours reach the eye, they interfere. The interference colours for which the
waves are in phase are seen while those for which they are out of phase are not seen.
The particular colour seen depends in the positon of the eye

Applications of interference
(a) Used in testing the flatness of glass surface
Eye  The surface under test is made to for an air
wedge with a plane galss surface of standard
smoothness
 When a parallel beam of monochromatic light
Sheet of glass, G Light source
from source s is reflected from the glass G, it
Test specimen falls almost normally to the air wedge
 Interference fringes caused by the air wedge
Air film
between the plate are observed
Standard specimen
 Irregularities in the surface of the test
specimen will show up when unparalllel,
equal spaced fringes are formed.
(b) Blooming of lenses

 When light is incident on a lense, some percentage of the light is reflected from each
surface. This reults into reduction in intesniyt of light due to losss of light being
transmitted. This reduces clarity of the finaal image produced.
 This defect therefore can be reduced by evaporating a thin coating of magnesium
fluoride unot the lense surface. This process is called blooming

164
 DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT
This is the spreading of waves beyond geometrical boundaries leading to interference

Diffraction grating
This is a transparent plate with many equidistant small parallel lines drawn on it using a diamond pencil

Explanation of formation of fringes by transmission grating

 Light is diffracted through spaces of the grating
D into region D where they superpose.
A  Where the resultant path difference of wave
ɵ C through a pair f consecautive slits is an integral
Wave front d multiple of full wavelength, constructive
B interference occurs and a bright band is
formed. Where the resultant path difference is
an odd multiple of half a wavelenght,
grating destructive inteference occurs and a dark band
 Consider a transmission grating of narrow slits is formed
AB whose width is compared to the  This spreading of light along the obstacle
wavelength of light illuminated normally by beyond the geometrical shadow leading to
monochromatic light interference pattern is called diffraction.

Effect of increasing the number of narrow slits in the diffraction grating on intensity
 When number of slits are increased, the intensity of the principal maxima increases and the
subsidiary decreases.
 The interference at the principal maxima are always constructive hence intensity increases.
Interference at the subsidiary maxima are destructive hence intensity decreases

Note;
(i) For diffraction grating
 Lines are ruled on glass
 The spaces transmit light
(ii) For reflection grating
 Lines are ruled on a polished metal
 The spaces reflect light

Condition for diffraction maxima

Consider a transmission diffraction grating of spacing d illuminated normally with light of wavelength 𝜆.
Path difference between waves form A and B(distance BC)= 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
For diffraction maxima, path difference = 𝑛𝝀
𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛𝝀 where 𝒏 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐

Examples
1. Sodium light of wavelenght 589nm falls normally on a diffraction grating which has 600 lines per
mm. calculate the angle between the directions in which the first order maxima, on the same side
of the straight through positions are observed.
Solution
𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛𝝀 1 600
But 𝑑 = 10−3 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 and for first
𝟏
𝜽 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (𝒏𝝀𝒙 ) ordr maxima 𝑛 = 1
𝒅 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (1𝑥589𝑥10−9 𝑥600𝑥103 )
𝜃 = 20.70°

165
 2. When monochromatic light of wavelenght 600nm is incident normally on a transmission grating,
the second order diffraction image is observed at an angle of 30°. Determine the number of lines
per centimeter on the grating
Solution
𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛𝝀 1
𝟏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 4.17𝑥105 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑑
= 1
𝒅 𝑛𝝀 = 4.17𝑥103 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑚
𝟏 𝑠𝑖𝑛30 𝑑
=
𝒅 2𝑥𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟗
3. A diffraction grating of 600 lines per mm is illuminated normally by monochromatic, the first order
maxima is observed at an angle of 20°. Find the;
(i) The wavelenght of the light
(ii) number of diffracton maxima possible
Solution
(i) 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛𝝀 𝝀 = 5.7𝑥10−7 𝑚
𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (ii) 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝝀
𝝀=
𝒏 But 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1
1 600 𝑑
𝑑
= 10−3 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 and for first 𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
order 𝑛 = 1 𝝀
−3 10−3
10 ( 600 )
( 600 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛20
𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 2.92
𝝀= 5.7𝑥10−7
𝟏 Maxima value 𝑛 = 2
4. A diffraction grating of 500 lines per mm is illuminated normally by light of wavelenght 526nm.
Find the total number of images seen
Solution
𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝝀 10−3
( )
But 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1 500
𝑑 𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 3.8
526𝑥10−9
𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 = Total number of images seen is 7
𝝀
1 500
= 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑑 10−3

Uses of diffraction
(i) Measurement of the wavelenght of light usng a diffraction graitn
(ii) Used in spectrographic studies
(iii) Used in holograms(3-D photographs)
Measurement of wavelength of light using diffraction grating
 The telescope is adjusted to focus parallel light.
Diffraction grating The collimator is adjusted to produce parallel
collimator light and the table is leveled.
 The grating is placed on the table so that its
plane is perpendicular to the incident light
 Zero order image is now received at the
telescope. This position on 𝑇1 on the scale is
noted. The telescope is now turned in one
direction until the first order image is obtained.
Source of monochromatic light Telescope The angle 𝜃1 of rotation form position 𝑇1 is
Table recorded.
 The telescope is restored to position 𝑇2 and
rotated in the opposite direction until the first

166
1 Reference Books
ˆ 1. Optics by Eugene Hecth(5th Edition)

ˆ 2. Introduction to Optics by Frank Pedrotti and Leno Pedrotti(2nd edition)

ˆ 3. Modern Optics by Robert Guenther

ˆ 4.Introduction to modern Optics by Grant R. Fowles(2nd edition)

2 WAVE MOTION
What is a wave? A wave is a disturbance or a form of energy, which propagates
through a medium without any transfer of matter or change of form. The particles of
the medium do not travel along with the wave. They instead oscillate to and fro about
the equilibrium position as the wave passes by. Only the disturbance is propagated.
When the disturbance arrives at a point, it sets into motion the particles at that
location. The disturbance gives the particles kinetic energy and momentum.

2.1 Classes of Waves

There are generally two classes of waves. These are

ˆ (i) Transverse waves: the particles of the medium oscillate perpendicularly to

the direction of propagation of the waves. Examples include waves on stretched
strings, electric waves, magnetic waves, etc.

ˆ (ii) Longitudinal waves: the particles of the medium oscillate parallel to the
direction of propagation of the wave. Examples include sound waves, waves in
pipes.

2.2 Wave equation

Let us consider a wave pulse of arbitrary shape traveling on a stretched string along
′ ′
the x-axis as sown in Figure 1. Let the shape of the wave be described by y = f (x )
′ ′ ′
fixed to a coordinate system O (x , y ). Let the wave move with a uniform speed c
along the x axis with respect to the fixed coordinate system O(x, y). As the wave
pulse moves, it is assumed that its shape is unchanged. A point N on the wave pulse
′ ′
can be described by either of the coordinates x or x , where x = x − ct.
The y- coordinate is identical in either coordinate system. In the stationary coordinate
′
system’s frame, the moving coordinate can be described by the function y = y =
′
f (x ) = f (x − ct). Hence the function now describes the wave is of the form y =
f (x–ct). If the pulse moves to the left, the sign of velocity c changes and hence
′
y = f (x + ct). Note: We have assumed that at t = 0, x = x .
Generally, we may write y = f (x ± ct). Since y is a function of two variables x and t,
we can use the chain rule of partial differentiation.
Let S be given by Equation(1).

S = x ± ct −→ y = f (S) (1)

1
Figure 1: A wave of arbitrary shape traveling along a stretched spring with a velocity
c in the + x – direction

and
∂S ∂S
= 1 −→ = ±c (2)
∂x ∂t
∂y ∂f ∂S
= × .
∂x ∂S ∂x
∂y ∂f
−→ = (3)
∂x ∂S
Take second derivative of Equation(3)
∂ 2y
 
∂ ∂y ∂ ∂f ∂S
2
= = ( ) .
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂S ∂S ∂x
∂ 2y ∂ 2f
 
∂ ∂f
=⇒ = = (4)
∂x2 ∂S ∂S ∂S 2
also
∂y ∂f ∂S ∂f
= × = ±c (5)
∂t ∂S ∂t ∂S
∂ 2y 2
 
∂ ∂y ∂S ∂ ∂f 2∂ f
= = (±c ) × ±c = c .
∂t2 ∂S ∂t ∂t ∂S ∂S ∂S 2
∂ 2y 2
2∂ f
=⇒ = c .
∂t2 ∂S 2
∂ 2y 1 ∂ 2y
= (6)
∂x2 c2 ∂x2
Equation(6) is the wave equation.
In general
1 ∂ 2ψ
∇2 ψ = ,
c2 ∂t2
where
2 ∂2 ∂2 ∂2
∇ = + + .
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ 1 ∂ 2y
+ + = ,
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 c2 ∂x2
c = vp is the phase velocity

2
2.3 Harmonic waves
Harmonic waves involve the sine or cosine functions. These waves can be written in a
uniform way as
ψ(x, t) = A sin(k(x ± vt) + ε),
or
ψ(x, t) = A cos(k(x ± vt) + ε) (7)
where A is known as the amplitude of the wave, k is the propagation number, and
ε is the initial phase, or epoch angle. These are periodic waves, representing smooth
pulses that repeat themselves endlessly. Such waves are often generated by undamped
oscillators undergoing simple harmonic motion. More importantly, the sine and cosine
functions together form a complete set of functions; that is, a linear combination of
terms like those in (7) can be found to represent any actual periodic wave form. Such
a series of terms is called a Fourier series. The argument of the sine or cosine, which
is an angle that depends on space and time, is called the phase,ϕ. So, in Equation(7)
we have
ϕ = k(x ± vt) + ε (8)
When x and t change together in such a way that ϕ is constant, the displacement
ψ = A sin ϕ is also a constant. The condition of constant phase evidently describes
the motion of a fixed point on the wave form. Thus, if ϕ is constant
dx
dϕ = 0 = k(dx ± vdt) ⇒ = ±v (9)
dt
This is the speed of the profile or phase velocity. Take an initial boundary condition
t = 0, x = 0, ψ = ψo ⇒ ψo = A sin ε
ψo
ε = arcsin( ) (10)
A
Common forms of harmonic waves

y = A sin(k(x ± vt).

v = f λ.
2π
y = A sin( (x ± λf t).
λ
x
y = A sin 2π( ± f t).
λ
2π
k= ,
λ
x t
y = A sin 2π( ± ).
λ T
ω = 2πf .
y = A sin(kx ± wt).

3
Figure 2: λ is the wave length. It is the distance between two adjacent points, which
are in the same state of disturbance. A is the amplitude, the maximum displacement
of a wave from its equilibrium position.

2.4 Solution to the wave equation

The mathematical expression fora sinusoidal wave travelling along a stretched string
can be written in various ways such as

y = A sin(k(x − vt)) (11)

Sinusoidal waves are periodic or repetitive → increasing all x by λ in Equation (7)

should reproduce the same wave.Mathematically, the wave is reproduced because the
argument of the sine function is advanced by 2π.

A sin(k · x + k · λ + k · vt + ε) = A sin(k · x + k · vt + ε + 2π).

Comparing the LHS and RHS gives: k · λ = 2π

2π
⇒k= (12)
λ
Alternatively, if the wave is viewed from a fixed position, it is periodic in time with a
repetitive temporal unit called the period,T . Increasing all t by T , the wave form is
exactly reproduced, so that

A sin(k · x + k · vt + k · T + ε) = A sin(k · x + k · vt + ε + 2π).

⇒ k · vT = 2π ⇒ v = f λ The frequency is given by

1
f= (13)
T
The angular frequency is given by

ω = 2πf (14)

The wave number is given by

1
κ= (15)
λ

4
2.5 Examples
A sinusoidal wave moving along a string is described by the equation y(x, t) = 0.0020 sin(10x−
120t) in S.I units, where y is in meters is the transverse displacement in the distance
along the string in meters and t is the time in seconds. Find: the amplitude of the
transverse displacement of the string, the wavelength of the travelling wave, the fre-
quency of oscillation, speed of propagation of the wave

2.6 Representation of Waves using Complex numbers

√
Take a complex number z = x + iy, where i or j = −1. The absolute value of

Figure 3: Argand diagram.

modulus is given by
r 2 = x2 + y 2 .
Resolving x and y on the Argand diagram

⇒ x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ.

⇒ z = r(cos θ + i sin θ).

By Euler’s equation
z = reiθ = r(cos θ + i sin θ).
where θ = tan−1 xy
Complex conjugate

z ∗ = x − iy = r(cos θ − i sin θ) = re−iθ .

eiθ + e−iθ
cos θ = .
2

5
 eiθ − e−iθ
sin θ = .
2i
Euler’s formula for simple harmonic waves
⃗
ψ = Aei(k·⃗x−ωt+ε ) = A cos(⃗k · ⃗x − ωt + ε) + iA sin(⃗k · ⃗x − ωt + ε).

2.7 Plane waves

A plane wave exists at a given time when all the surfaces on which a disturbance
has a constant phase form a set of planes, each perpendicular to the direction of
propagation. The equation of a plane perpendicular to a vector ⃗k and passing through
a point (xo , yo , zo ) is given by
(⃗r − r⃗o ) · ⃗k = 0 (16)
⃗r = xî + y ĵ + z k̂.
r⃗o = xo î + yo ĵ + zo k̂.
and
⃗k = kx î + ky ĵ + kz k̂.
kx (x − xo ) + ky (y − yo ) + kz (z − zo ) = 0.
kx x + ky y + kz z = c(constant).
Therefore the equation of the plane perpendicular to ⃗k is
⃗k · ⃗r = constant.

A set of planes over which ψ(⃗r) varies in space sinusoidally given as

ψ(⃗r) = A sin(⃗k · ⃗r)

or
ψ(⃗r) = A cos(⃗k · ⃗r)
or
⃗
ψ(⃗r) = Aei(k·⃗r) .
We can also have lane harmonic waves and are periodic. Introducing time dependency
we have
⃗
ψ(⃗r, t) = Aei(k·⃗r−ωt) (17)

2.8 Spherical waves

Surfaces of constant phase are spheres and the direction of waves depends on r̂ → ⃗k =
kr̂.
r 2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2 ,
where x = r sin θ cos ϕ, y = r sin θ sin ϕ and z = r cos θ
p
x2 + y 2
θ = tan− .
z
y
ϕ = tan− .
x
6
 Figure 4: Geometry of spherical coordinates.

The Laplacian operator in spherical coordinates is given by

∂2
   
2 1 ∂ 2 ∂ 1 ∂ ∂ 1
∇ = 2 r + 2 sin θ + 2 2 .
r ∂r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂ϕ2
We consider waves that are spherically symmetric
→ ψ(⃗r) = ψ(r, θ, ϕ) = ψ(r).
Then, the Laplacian of ψ(r) is given by
 
2 1 ∂ 2 ∂ψ
∇ ψ(r) = 2 r (18)
r ∂r ∂r
The Equation 18 can be expressed as
1 ∂2
∇2 ψ(r) = (rψ).
r ∂r2
The differential equation can be written as
1 ∂2 1 ∂2
(rψ) = (rψ) (19)
r ∂r2 v 2 ∂t2
This is a one dimensional wave equation whose space variable is r and the wave function
is rψ The solution to equation (19) is
rψ(r, t) = f (r − vt).
or
f (r − vt)
ψ(r, t) = .
r
7
This represents a spherical wave progressing radially outward from the origin at a
constant speed v, with an arbitrary function form f . Another solution for the wave
converging towards the origin is given by

g(r + vt)
ψ(r, t) = .
r
The general solution to Equation(19) is of the form

f (r − vt) g(r + vt)

ψ(r, t) = C1 + C2 (20)
r r
A special case of the general solution is the harmonic spherical wave
C i(kr−ωt)
ψ(r, t) = e .
r
where C is the source strength. The amplitude is a function of r and the term 1r
serves as the attenuator. The intensity of the wave is proportional to the square of
the amplitude →
C2
Intensity ∝ 2 .
r
1
Powerdensity(powerperunitarea)ofthewave ∝ 2 .
r

8
WAVE OPTICS Lecture Notes

WAVE OPTICS Ex: [We know that if spring wave loses energy due to
friction while traveling v, f , λ do not change.
1. Wave Theory of Light Amplitude decreases.]
(by Huygens, Fresnel, Young, etc…) For EM wave there is no friction. So why is the
• In geometric optics we learnt light is a stream of brightness (amplitude) decreasing as we go away from
straight-going particles (Newton proposed that first) the source?
• Then we learnt light is a form of EM wave.
• But we had learnt all waves have common
characteristic properties such as:
Reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction…
• Therefore light waves must have all these
properties. Now we will learn:
* Reflection,
* Refraction, light
* Dispersion, source
* Interference,
* Diffraction and Note: Frequency, wavelength and speed of light waves
* Polarization of light waves. do not change as they propagate away from the source.
• Actually Huygens had already said light was a form Only amplitude decreases.
of wave motion, long before Maxwell speculated about [Otherwise a blue light source would be observed as
EM waves. red from far away]

2. Properties of Light Waves Ex: Can we say “intensity” in place of “brightness”?

• Light waves are transverse [we already know this {Remind definition and unit of intensity if needed.
from EM waves] Also remind energy transmitted by a wave on a coil
• Amplitude of light wave can mean amplitude of spring was proportional to amplitude squared}
electric or magnetic field component, because they are
Sebat Kyrgyz – Turkish High Schools

always proportional (E=cB) [But when we speak about Ex: Find the relation between the intensity of light and
amplitude of light waves we generally have electric distance from the source.
field component in mind. This is because most of the
optical phenomena are caused by this component] 3. Refraction of Light Waves
• Color of light is determined by frequency (or
wavelength) light waves. N

red orange yellow green blue violet f1 v1

lower frequency higher frequency λ1 θ1 n1
longer λ shorter λ n2
θ2 v2
• Brightness of a light wave is determined by
amplitude of light wave. λ2
Brightness ~ (Amplitude)2 f2

So: Sinθ1 v1 λ1 n2
Bright red light: Dim red light: = = = = n12
Sinθ 2 v 2 λ2 n1

λ
λ Rule: When a wave changes medium,
a) Frequency does not change
b) Speed changes
Therefore:
vair vglass
f = f

Bright blue light: Dim blue light:

λair λglass

Both observers count the same number of wave crests

in one second.
f = f

1
WAVE OPTICS Lecture Notes

Special case: If light is coming from air sources become completely out of phase, central line
λ becomes a node, (say) 0.36 second later they become
λglass = air because nair=1 in phase again and central line is an antinode. So we
nglass
will not see any interference pattern]
Caution: Drawing this figure for a
light wave does NOT mean that light rays move up and Question: [When we have two wave sources on water,
down in the air. [The figure is trying to say that electric we see several nodes on water surface where waves
field at a point is increasing and decreasing from two sources cancel]. Why don’t we ever see light
(oscillating) as the light passes by. This oscillation waves from two lamps cancel each other and some
itself is called light. points in the room become dark (= node)?
Remember: In water waves, Answer: {Explain the reason, why two light bulbs (or
any other ordinary light sources) can never be
v coherent, then ask the students to find a way for
obtaining two coherent light sources}

5.a. Young’s Experiment

each water molecule is moving up and down as a crest To obtain two coherent light sources Thomas Young
or trough passes by. But we do not say the water wave used one single light source and made the light pass
is following a sinusoidal path. When we are asked to through two slits (slit = a long narrow opening). Now
draw the path of the wave, we draw a straight arrow each slit is like a light source.
showing direction of motion in general, not motion of
particles. And since the wave is transverse, direction of Note: To obtain a better visible interference pattern
motion is perpendicular to up-down motion of sources must be monochromatic (of one color = having
particles.] single λ).
4. Dispersion of Light Waves
Dispersion means dependence of index of refraction of
Sebat Kyrgyz – Turkish High Schools

a medium on the frequency (or wavelength) of the s1

incident light.
That is, for example: s0
nglass ≠ 1.5 = constant
s2
nglass = n (λ)
for red light nglass= 1.513
for blue light nglass= 1.528 slits
Therefore: screen
white
On the screen we see: We simply draw:
air
glass dark
bright

blue red

5. Interference of Light Waves

Coherence:
If two wave sources are “coherent” they always have
the same phase difference between them. [If they are in Note: These dark and bright bands are called “fringes”.
phase at the beginning, they are always in phase. If Remember: Node for water ⇒ Dark for light
they start 180° out of phase they will still be 180° out
Antinode for water ⇒ Bright for light
of phase 10 minutes later]
[If two waves are coherent at a point in space, they [Actually there are no definite boundaries between
always have the same phase difference at this point in dark and bright fringes. Only the center of a dark fringe
space]
is totally dark and center of a bright fringe is maximum
• If two wave sources are coherent, the interference
bright]
pattern is stable and observable. [Nodes and antinodes
will always be at the same place, we will be able to see
Class demo: Hold a thin glass plate over the flame of a
them] candle. When it is black enough draw two slits with a
• If two wave sources are incoherent, the interference
razor blade. Illuminate the slits with a laser beam. Use
pattern is not observable. [Think about central line in
a white paper 1 meter away as the screen.
ripple tank. Suppose now the sources are in phase, and
central line is an antinode, (say) 0.23 second later

2
WAVE OPTICS Lecture Notes

Path difference (δ): Condition for dark-bright:

P
P
r1 δ ≡ r1 − r2
s1 s1
r2

s2 d δ = 3λ - 2.5λ = 0.5 λ
A

s2 δ
slits
screen
P
Finding δ from geometry:
Approximation: s1

s1 P d
A
θ δ = 1.5 λ
d s2 δ

s2 δ A dark bright
δ = 0.5 λ δ=0
L δ = 1.5 λ δ=1λ
Sebat Kyrgyz – Turkish High Schools

δ = 2.5 λ δ=2λ
[d: Distance between sources
L: slits-screen distance]
Since L ~ 1 meter Dark Bright
d ~ 0.1 mm;  1
L>>>d so we can take s1 P & s2 P δ = m − λ δ = mλ
 2
therefore: |s1P| ≈ |AP|  1
therefore: s2 A = r1 − r2 = δ d Sinθ =  m −  λ d Sinθ = mλ
 2
therefore: δ = d Sinθ y  1 y
d = m − λ d = mλ
L  2 L
[This formula seems to be totally useless, because we  λL  1  λL 
ym =   m −  ym =  m
can not even see θ let alone measuring it. But:]  d  2  d 
How to measure Sinθ: m = 0N ,1, 2,3...
m = 1, 2,3... central
line
P

s1 ~L y for dark
θ for bright
d θ central
line m=3
m=2
s2 δ m=2
m=1
m=1
L y
m=0
slits m=-1
screen
d: Distance between slits laser m=-2
L: Slits-screen distance
y: Distance from central line to a point on a fringe
y
δ = d Sinθ ⇔ δ = d
L Note: Central line is bright
Note: We have m=2 for dark, m=2 for bright
Note: y starts from central line
Note: m is always integer

3
WAVE OPTICS Lecture Notes

Fringe width (∆y): Ex: Suppose while performing double-slit experiment,

the space between the slits and the screen is filled with
water. How does the interference pattern change?
m=2
∆y Ex: A double-slit arrangement is illuminated first with
y2 red, then with blue light.
m=1 a) Which one has wider fringes?
y1 Central b) Which one produces more fringes?
line
m=1 ∆y Ex: What happens if we use white light in place of
monochromatic light in Young’s experiment?
Answer: Think about light of two color only (red-blue)
m=2
only red: only blue: together:
[Since there is no definite boundaries between dark and
bright fringes, we take the region between two absolute
darks (at the center of the dark fringe) as the width of a
bright fringe.]

∆y=y2-y1
λL  1   λ L  1 
∆y =   2 −  −  1 − 
 d  2    d  2  

λL
∆y =
d Intensity Distribution:
Sebat Kyrgyz – Turkish High Schools

I
Note: Units used for λ.
1 µm = 10-6 m (micrometer)
1 nm = 10-9 m (nanometer)
D
1 A = 10-10 m (angstrom)

Ex:

Color A nm m
Rule: In double-slit interference, all fringes are equally
red 6000 600 6 x 10-7
bright and wide. {Actually we are neglecting
blue 4000 400 4 x 10-7
diffraction effects for the time being. We take the slits
sufficiently small themselves so as to make diffraction
Ex: 6000 A laser light passes through two slits 0.1 mm effects negligible. See N-slit diffraction}
apart and reaches the screen placed 2 m away.
a) Find fringe width 6. Diffraction
b) Find position of second dark Diffraction is bending of waves around an obstacle
c) Find position of third bright (barrier) [or spreading of waves passing through a
{Draw figure after solution} narrow slit]

Ex: Laser light (5000 A) passes through a double slit [We had seen diffraction with water waves
arrangement 0.05 mm apart. The screen is 1 m away
from slits.
a) Find fringe separation (=fringe width)
b) Find distance between 2nd bright and 3rd dark on
opposite sides. a
{Draw figure during solution}
λ
Ex: What can we do to obtain a better visible pattern in
Young’s experiment?
{Explain effect of changing λ, d and L on ∆y. Draw λ
two example patterns for small and large d} Diffraction amount depends on proportion.
a
If a>>λ diffraction is negligible.
[Result: Slits closer, fringe centers distant. Slits distant,
fringe centers closer]

4
WAVE OPTICS Lecture Notes

Now condition for first dark:

λ a λ
δ = ⇒ Sinθ =
2 2 2
a Sin θ = λ (first dark)

[First dark is important, because between two first

darks we have the central bright, which receives nearly
all the light energy passing through the slit]
Same phenomenon is observable with light waves. if we divide the slit into 4, 6, 8, (even number) equal
Since λ of light is very small, the openning must also parts [and set δ=λ/2 we will have (a/4)Sinθ=λ/2,
be very small, something like 0.1 mm] (a/6)Sinθ=λ/2, (a/8)Sinθ=λ/2…] we get condition for
other darks {explain relation between even number and
Single slit diffraction: dark}:

Dark Bright
a Sinθ = mλ a Sinθ=(m+1/2)λ
ym ym  1
a = mλ a = m + λ
L L  2
λL λL  1
ym = m ym = m+ 
a a  2
m=1,2,3… m=1,2,3…
[We don’t have m=0 for central bright. Central bright
is determined by position of first darks]
Sebat Kyrgyz – Turkish High Schools

[Most of the light energy is concentrated at the central

maximum. Actually it is possible to say that all the Ex: How have we found condition for brights?
light passing through the slit is spread as wide as the Sol: Divide the slit into 3, 5, 7, (odd number) parts:
central maximum simply omitting the other bright For first bright (m=1) we divide the slit into 3 equal
fringes] portions. [Because “dividing” into 1portion gives us
the central bright]
Actual pattern: We simply draw: 3
2
1
3
2
1
3
a 3 2
1

a 3 θ

a 3
a
δ = Sinθ
3

a λ
For first bright (m=1) δ = Sinθ = waves from two
3 2
[We still have dark fringes althought there is only one portions cancel but the remaining third portion
slit. Therefore light waves coming from different illuminates the point on screen. So for first bright
portions of the slit must be canceling]
3  1
m = 1 ⇒ a Sinθ = λ =  m +  λ
If we divide the slit into two equal portions: 2  2

3
2
Ex: Derive fringe seperation formula ∆y=?
1
to point P λL
3
∆y = [same between centers of brights and darks,
a 2 2
a
θ 1 only central bright 2∆y]
θ
a 2
Ex: 5000 A monochromatic light passes through a slit
a having 0.05 mm width. How much does it spread?
δ = Sinθ
2

5
WAVE OPTICS Lecture Notes

Sol: θ1 for first dark: [Imagine otherwise, we would be able to send mors
a Sinθ=mλ code messages to an astronout on the moon by using a
λ simple diode laser.]
m=1⇒ a Sinθ = λ Sinθ1 (dark ) =
a
* We don’t have sharp shadows of objects even with a
Sinθ1=5 x 10-7 / 10-5 =0.05 point light source.
θ1≈ 3°
Ex: Diffraction from an edge (not a slit)

m=1 dark
point source

3°
3°

m=1 dark
object screen shadow

L
Ex: What is the minimum slit width for no diffraction
minimum (dark fringe) to be observed?

If there wasn’t diffraction: Note: Boundary between geometric optics and wave
optics:
There is no definite limit. Depends on:
- Width of light source
- Distance light travels
{Explain using the example below}

Bright spot as Ex: What is the maximum slit width for diffraction?
Sebat Kyrgyz – Turkish High Schools

wide as the slit

[Answer: If the light source is coherent, diffraction
L always occurs for all openings even if the slit is large.
λ
But according to formula: Sin θ = (first dark) , if
a
Ex: Monochromatic light (λ=6000 A) passes through a
slit 0.1 mm wide and illuminates a screen 2 m away. a>>λ, then θ is very small. So diffraction effect
Find width of central bright on screen. becomes negligible over small distances. The light
Answer: follows nearly a straight path as wide as the slit for
2∆y= 12 mm =1.2 cm small distances if the slit dimension is large. But over
large distances a small angle causes a a large
seperation. If we are trying to send a 5 mm wide laser
ray from earth to moon for example, the spreading of
the beam will be ~ 0.01°, which is negligible at the
1.2 cm
beginning. But when it reaches the moon, the beam
0.1 mm bright will be as wide as ~ 80 km!.]
fringe
7. Resolving Power
2m Two light sources are seen as a single source if they are
far away enaugh. [Many bright dots in the night sky are
actually star pairs – not sinle stars. Enother example
If there wasn’t diffractionthere would be a bright spot can be the two headlights of a car approaching from a
0.1 mm wide on the screen. distance]
The reason is diffraction. When light from the sources
Ex: Laser light having 6000 A wavelength passes passes through the pupil of the eye, [which is a circular
through a slit 0.2 mm wide. On a screen placed 1 m opening of ~2-3 mm] diffraction occurs. The retina acts
away find as a screen.
a) Distance from central line to second bright If there was not diffraction:
b) Distance between second dark and third bright on
different sides.

Ex: What are the effects of diffraction?

* We can not send a light ray along a straight path for a
long distance. It will spread and lose intensity. sources
[Actually this is the case for any type of EM wave]
screen

6
WAVE OPTICS Lecture Notes

Because of diffraction: 8. Diffraction Grating

{Demo: N-slit diffraction java applet}
[The diffraction grating is a more useful device to
analyse lights sources, because the interference
θ maximums (bright fringes) are thin lines, making the
measurements easier]
sources
screen
When θ gets smaller patterns overlap and seen as one: d to point P
on screen

resolved not resolved

(seen as one) Intensity
δ = d Sinθ
Rule: Two sources seen as one when central bright of Therefore; m’th BRIGHT fringe:
one pattern is on the first dark of the other. d Sinθ = m λ (m = 0, 1, 2, 3 …)

Therefore: d θ [Therefore we can use two slit formulas]

δ
[We are not writing formula for dark
fringe because dark friges are actullly
wide dark bands between two bright
lines]
Sebat Kyrgyz – Turkish High Schools

m=1
Ex: A diffraction grating has 500 slits in 1 cm.
L a) Find slit spacing
x θ b) Find λ of monochromatic light if first maximum
sources (bright fringe) occurs 3.5 cm from the central line on a
screen 1 m away.

Ex: Monochromatic light of 650 nm wavelength is

screen incident on diffraction grating having 2x10-6 m slit
First dark: spacing.
d Sinθ = λ ⇒ a) How many bright lines will be observed?
λ x λ b) What is the angular position of the first diffraction
Sinθ = > two sources seen
a L a fringe ?
x λ x λ
= (just resolved) < seen as one source Ex: What is the path difference for the light waves
L a L a forming the bright fringe at 30° from the central
bright? Slit spacing of the diffraction grating is 0.05
{Actually these formulas are for slits, and can be used mm.
for a cat for example. For circular apertures we have a
factor of 1.22 which we neglected here} Ex: A diffraction grating is illuminated by mixed red
and blue light. Second bright of red coincides with the
Ex: From what distance can we see two headlights of a
third bright of blue. Find λblue=?, if λred= 6000 A.
car as two?
Distance between lights 1.5 m, take λ=5000A. Ex: How many slits in 1 mm must a diffraction grating
[The actual distance is much smaller due to other (such have, if it is to be used to analyse light having
as atmosheric conditions. Diffraction is the ultimate
wavelength around 0.5 µm?
limit in our ‘seeing’ power and since there are always
other factors limiting our vision we are seldom limited
by diffraction effects]

[Ex: Explain whys we can’t ever see an atom with

normal light no matter how powerful a microscope we
use. That is, explain how diffraction puts a limit to
seeing small objects]

Ex: Explain why very large dishes are used for

radiotelescopes.

7
WAVE OPTICS Lecture Notes

9. Interference in thin films No phase

difference
Extreme case 1:

this side bright this side dark crest

crest
(no transmission)

Glass
Air
light of Free end crest
single λ
soap film

Extreme case 2: [Rule: light rays undergo 180° phase change upon
this side dark reflection from an optically denser (with greater index
this side bright
(no reflection) of refraction) medium.]

Formula:
For observer looking from above:
light of 180° phase no phase
single λ difference
difference
soap film

In intermediate cases light is partly transmitted, partly

reflected. d
{Ask students: soap bubble is normally transparent,
how can it stop light. Why soap bubble? Is it because it [So between two reflected rays there is 180° phase diff]
is very thin?} λ
Sebat Kyrgyz – Turkish High Schools

180D phase difference ⇔ path difference

2
A soap bubble has two sides:
reflected 2
For destructive interference (dark):
1 λair
Path difference = (m − )λ film λ film =
reflected 1 2 n film
{Explain 2d}
λ film 1
2d ± = (m − )λ film
 2 2
equivalent
path difference

incident side 1 side 2 [We can add or subtruct λ/2. This just means we take
one wave as being λ/2 in front of or behind the other,
Light rays reflecting from two sides can cancel or which is not important because the situation is
reinforce according to phase difference between them. symmetrical. We will use the minus sign, because
when we use the minus sign, we can start from m=0 ⇒
Rule: zero thickness. Otherwise we would start from
Remember waves on a spring. Light waves have the m = -1,which is possible but not very nice. Remember
same property. m is just a counting number, 1st order dark, 2nd order
180° phase dark etc.]
difference
Looking from above:
180° crest [Looking from above means the light source and the
phase
diff
observer are on the same side of the soap film]
trough
Air 2d = mλ film ⇔ Dark m = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4…
Fixed end
Glass
Therefore:
crest
 1
2d =  m −  λ film ⇔ Bright m = 1, 2, 3, 4…
 2
[m=0 ⇒ zero thickness. How can this happen? We will
see in a minute]

8
WAVE OPTICS Lecture Notes

For observer looking from below: {Film thickness is adjusted to wavelength of yellow
light, since it is the most intense component of
sunlight}

Ex: Solar cells are also coated with thin films. Why?
d
Ex: Thin coating. Find the formula for thickness of
film, if no light of wavelength λ is to reflect back.
no phase light (λ)
no phase difference
difference
d
film (n=1.2)
glass (n=1.6)
observer

For destructive interference (dark):

1 Solution:
Path difference = (m − )λ film 180° phase
2 difference
180° phase
difference
 1 Dark:
2d =  m −  λ film ⇔ Dark m = 1, 2, 3, 4…
 2
n=1  1
2d =  m −  λ
Therefore:  2
n=1.2 d
2d = mλ film ⇔ Bright m = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4… m = 1, 2,3...

Formulas changed place n=1.5

Sebat Kyrgyz – Turkish High Schools

Therefore:
One side dark ⇔ other side bright.
10. Air Wedge
Ex: 6000 A laser light is incident on a soap film
(n=1.5). What is the minimum thickness of the film for
the light not to be able to pass to other side.
Ex: 6000 A laser light is incident on a soap film
(n=1.5). What is the minimum thickness of the film for
the light not to reflect back from the film surface.

Ex: 6000 A laser light is incident on a soap film

(n=1.5). Find three different thicknesses the film might
have, if the light is not reflecting back.

Ex: Film of changing thickness. [If you hold a soap

film vertically lower side becomes thicker.]

red light

m=4
m=3 (dark)
(bright)
m=0
(dark)
d4 (dark)

d3 (bright)

Ex: Explain why we see many different colors over a

soap film.

Ex: Lenses used in a camera are generally coated with

a thin film of definite thickness. Why?

9
 𝛼 is the angle subtended at an unaided eye by the object.

NOTE:

Unaided eye is when the object is viewed without using an instrument.

Microscopes
These are used to view near objects
𝛼1
Angular magnification of microscopes 𝑚 =
𝛼
𝛼 is the angle subtended at the eye object at the near point when microscope is not used.
𝛼 1 is the angle subtended at the eye by image when microscope is used.
In normal adjustment or use, the microscope forms the image at the near point.

Simple microscope / magnifying glass

This consists of a single convex lens with the distance between the object and the lens less than or equal
to the focal length of the lens.

Simple microscope with image at near point (normal adjustment )

A simple microscope in normal adjustment consists of a converging lens set in such a way that it forms a
virtual magnified erect image of an object placed between the principal focus and the optical centre of
the lens at the least distance of distinct vision as shown.

h1 α a
o D α s
h
α1
I o
F
ℎ
Eye 𝛼 ≈ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 = 𝐷
D

ℎ1
ℎ1
𝛼 1 ( 𝐷 ) ℎ1
For small angles in radians: 𝛼 1 ≈ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 1 = 𝑚= = =
𝐷 𝛼 ℎ ℎ
𝐷
If 𝛼 is the angle subtended at the eye by the
object at the near point hence
Before using a microscope, the object is first ℎ1
viewed at the near point of the eye by unaided 𝑚=
ℎ
eye as shown: 𝑣
but 𝑚 = 𝑓 − 1
𝐷
There fore angular magnification, 𝑚 = 𝑓
−1
where 𝑣 = 𝐷

EXAMPLE:

89
 Calculate the angular magnification produced by a magnifying glass of focal length 5cm adjusted such
that an image is formed at a distance of 25cm in front of it.
Solution:
𝐷 𝒎 = −𝟔
𝑚 = 𝑓 − 1 but 𝐷 = −25𝑐𝑚
Thus the required angular magnification is 6
−25
𝑚= −1
5
Explain why chromatic aberration is not experienced in magnifying glass

various coloured virtual images corresponding

to say red and violet rays are formed at slightly
different positions Ir and Iv respectively as
shown. These images subtend the same angle
at the eye and therefore appear superimposed.
Thus the virtual image seen in a simple
microscope is almost free from chromatic
When an object O is viewed through a aberration.
converging lens used as a magnifying glass,

Simple microscope with final image at infinity (not in normal adjustment )

This simple microscope consists of a converging lens which forms an erect virtual magnified image at
infinity of an object placed at the principal focus of the lens as shown.
ℎ
For small angles in radians: 𝛼 1 ≈ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 1 = 𝑓
ℎ
𝛼 ≈ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 =
h 𝐷
α1 ℎ
𝛼 1 (𝑓) 𝐷
F F

f Eye 𝑚= = =
𝛼 ℎ 𝑓
𝐷
𝐷
𝛼1
Hence angular magnification, 𝑚 = 𝑓
Angular magnification, 𝑚 = 𝛼

Note: (i) Angular magnification is higher when a simple microscope forms the image at infinity
(ii) For higher magnification, use lenses of short focal length.

Example
1. A thin converging lens of focal length 10.0cm is used as a magnifying glass. In one instance it is
required that the final image to be formed at infinity and the other to be formed at 30.0cm from the
lens. Find;
(i) Angular magnification when the image is at infinity
(ii) Position of the object when the image is at 30cm from the lens and its angular magnification
Solution

(i) 𝑚=
𝐷 1 1 1 𝐷
𝑓 = + 𝑚= −1
−25 10 𝑢 30 𝑓
𝑚= = −2.5 𝑣 = 15𝑐𝑚 −25
1
10
1 1
𝑚= − 1 = −3.5
10
(ii) = +
𝑓 𝑢 𝑣

90
 Compound microscopes
This is used to give a greater magnifying power than the simple microscope. It of two converging
lenses, namely the objective (which is near the object) and the eye piece, near the eye.
Compound microscope in normal adjustment.

A compound microscope consists of two converging lenses of short focal lengths. This enables a high
angular magnification to be obtained.

In normal adjustment, the objective of a compound microscope forms a real inverted image of the
object at a point distance less than Fe from the eyepiece. This intermediate image formed acts as a real
object for the eye piece which thus forms a virtual magnified image at a distance of distinct vision from
the eye piece as shown.

Objective lens
Eye piece lens piece so that 𝛼’ is the angle subtended at the
vo uE
eye by the final image I2.
𝛼1
h Angular magnification, 𝑚 =
FO FE 𝛼
I2 α I1 ℎ2
o FO h1 α1 For small angles in radians: 𝛼 1 ≈ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 1 =
𝐷
ℎ
𝛼 ≈ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 =
h2 𝐷
ℎ 2
𝛼 1 ( 𝐷 ) ℎ2
𝑚= = =
𝛼 ℎ ℎ
𝐷
D Multiplying ℎ1 and dividing by ℎ1
ℎ2 ℎ1
𝑚= 𝑥
ℎ ℎ1
The objective lens forms a real image I1, of the
object O . I1 is formed at a point nearer the eye ℎ2 ℎ1
𝑚= 𝑥
piece than the principal focus fe of the eye ℎ1 ℎ
piece. 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑜 𝑥𝑚𝐸
𝑣𝑜 𝐷
The eye piece acts as a magnifying glass. It 𝑚 = ( − 1) 𝑥 ( − 1)
forms a virtual image I2 of I1. The observer’s 𝑓𝑂 𝑓𝐸
eyes should be taken to be close to the eye

Note : For higher angular magnification, both the eye piece and the objective should have short focal
lengths.

Compound microscope not in normal adjustment

The objective forms a real inverted image of the object at the principle focus Fe of the eye piece which
thus forms a final virtual magnified image at infinity as shown.

91
 Objective lens
Eye piece lens The angle 𝛼’ subtended by the final image by
vo fE the eye piece is
𝛼1
h
α FO F Angular magnification, 𝑚 =
I1 E 𝛼
o h1 α1 ℎ
FO
For small angles in radians: 𝛼 1 ≈ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 1 = 𝑓 1
𝐸
ℎ
𝛼 ≈ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 =
𝐷
ℎ1
𝛼 1 (𝑓𝐸 ) 𝐷 ℎ1
𝑚= = = 𝑥
𝛼 ℎ 𝑓𝐸 ℎ
𝐷
𝑚 = 𝑚𝑜 𝑥𝑚𝐸
The separation of the object and the eye piece is 𝑣𝑜 𝐷
such that the object forms an image of the object 𝑚 = ( − 1) 𝑥 ( )
at the principle focus Fe of the eye piece, hence 𝑓𝑂 𝑓𝐸
the eye piece focuses the final image at infinity.
EXAMPLES:
1. The objective of a compound microscope has a focal length of 2cm while the eyepiece has a focal
length of 5cm. An object is placed at a distance of 2.5cm in front of the objective. The distance of the
eyepiece from the objective is adjusted so that the final image is 25cm in front of the eyepiece. Find
the distance between the lenses and the magnifying power of the microscope.
Solution:

1 1 1
= +
2 2.5 𝑣𝑂
𝑣𝑂 = 10𝑐𝑚
The required lens Separation
= 𝑣𝑂 + 𝑢𝐸 = (10 + 4 ∙ 2) 𝑐𝑚 = 𝟏𝟒𝟐𝒄𝒎
The required magnifying power
𝑚 = 𝑚𝑜 𝑥𝑚𝐸
Consider the action of the eyepiece 10 25
𝑉𝐸 = −25𝑐𝑚 and 𝑓𝐸 = 5𝑐𝑚 𝑚= 𝑥
2.5 4.167
1 1 1 𝑚 = 24
= +
𝑓 𝑢 𝑣 Alternatively
1 1 1 𝑣 𝐷
= + 𝑚 = (𝑓𝑜 − 1) 𝑥 (𝑓 − 1) where D = -25cm
5 𝑢𝐸 −25 𝑂 𝐸

𝑢𝐸 = 4.167𝑐𝑚 10 −25
𝑚 = ( − 1) 𝑥 ( − 1)
Consider the action of the objective 2 5
𝑢𝑜 = 25𝑐𝑚 and 𝑓𝑂 = 2𝑐𝑚   𝑴 = −𝟐𝟒 Thus the
1 1 1 required magnifying power M = 24
= +
𝑓 𝑢 𝑣
2. A compound microscope has an eyepiece of focal length 25cm and an objective of focal length 16cm.
If the distance between the objective and the eye piece is 22cm, calculate the magnifying power
produced when the object is at infinity.
Solution

92
 Thus the image distance in the objective
= (22 – 25) 𝑐𝑚 = 𝟏𝟗𝟓𝒄𝒎
𝑣 𝐷
𝑚 = (𝑓𝑜 − 1) 𝑥 (𝑓 ) where 𝑫 = −𝟐𝟓𝒄𝒎
𝑂 𝐸
19.5 −25
𝑚=( − 1) 𝑥 ( )
1.6 2.5
  𝑴 = −111875
For the image to be at infinity, the object must
be at the focal point of the eyepiece Thus the required magnifying power
𝑴 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟖𝟕𝟓

TELESCOPES
Telescopes are used to view distant objects. The angular magnification of a telescope is the ratio of the
angle subtended by the final image at the aided eye to the angle subtended by the object at the un
aided eye. In normal adjustment, the final image is at infinity.

REFRACTING ASTRONAMICAL TELESCOPE IN NORMAL ADJUSTMENT

A telescope is in normal adjustment when the final image of a distant object is formed at infinity.
An astronomical telescope consists of f two converging lenses; one is an objective of long focal length
and the other an eyepiece of short focal length. This enables a high angular magnification to be
obtained.
In normal adjustment, the objective forms a real inverted image of a distant object at its focal point Fo
situated exactly at the principal focus Fe of the eyepiece. This intermediate image acts as a real object
for the eyepiece to give rise to a final virtual image at infinity as shown.

Eye piece lens 𝛼1

Objective lens Angular magnification, 𝑚 =
fo fE 𝛼
ℎ
For small angles in radians: 𝛼 1 ≈ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 1 = 𝑓 1
𝐸
α FO FE
I1
ℎ1
o α h1 α1 𝛼 ≈ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 =
FO 𝑓𝑂
ℎ1
𝛼 1 (𝑓𝐸 ) 𝑓𝑂
𝑚= = =
𝛼 ℎ1
( ) 𝑓𝐸
𝑓𝑂
𝑓𝑂
𝑚=
𝑓𝐸
In normal adjustment, the image of the distant For a high magnifying power, the objective
object formed by the objective lens lies in the focal should have a long focal length and the
plane of both the objective and the eye piece. eyepiece a short focal length.

Hence separation between the lenses = 𝑓𝑜 +𝑓𝐸

Eye ring/ Exit pupil

Eye ring is the best position for the eye when viewing an image through the instrument.

93
 At the exit pupil, the eye receives a maximum amount of light entering the objective from out side so
that its field of view is greatest

Eye piece lens The eye ring, and relation to angular

Objective lens
fo fE
magnification

𝑢 = 𝑓𝑜 + 𝑓𝐸 , 𝑓 = 𝑓𝐸
Eye ring
α FO FE 1 1 1
I1
o FO α h1 α1 Then use 𝑓 = 𝑢 + 𝑣
1 1 1
𝑓𝐸
= 𝑓 +𝑓 + 𝑣
𝑜 𝐸

𝑓𝐸
𝑣= (𝑓 + 𝑓𝑜 )
𝑓𝑜 𝐸
𝑓𝐸
𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑦𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣 𝑓𝑜 (𝑓𝐸 + 𝑓𝑜 ) 𝑓𝐸
= = =
𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑢 (𝑓𝑜 + 𝑓𝐸 ), 𝑓𝑂
Note: when determining the eye ring, the
separation is taken as the object distance and focal hence angular magnification,
𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜
length of the eye piece is used in calculations. 𝑚= =
𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑦𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝐸
Hence from the above
The above expression for the magnifying power
hence v, which is the eye ring can be obtained.
is only true for a telescope in normal
adjustment with lens separation 𝑓𝑜 +𝑓𝐸 .

Astronomical telescope with image formed at near point (not in normal adjustment )
Eye piece lens 𝛼1
Objective lens Angular magnification, 𝑚 = 𝛼
fo uE ℎ2
For small angles in radians: 𝛼 1 ≈ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 1 = 𝐷
FE
ℎ1
α I1 𝛼 ≈ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 =
FO α h1 α1 𝑓𝑂
ℎ2
h2
𝛼 1 ( 𝐷 ) 𝑓𝑂 ℎ2
𝑚= = = 𝑥
𝛼 ℎ
( 1 ) 𝐷 ℎ1
𝑓𝑂
𝑚 = 𝑚𝑜 𝑥𝑚𝐸
D
𝐷 𝑓𝑂
𝑚 = ( − 1) 𝑥 ( )
𝑓𝐸 𝐷

The intermediate image should be formed in The lens separation = 𝒇𝒐 + 𝒖𝑬

front of the focal point of the eye piece.
DISADVANTAGES OF AN ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE
It forms an inverted final image.
NOTE:
The structure of an astronomical telescope can be modified to over come the above disadvantage by
use of a terrestrial telescope which forms an erect image.

94
 EXAMPLES:
1. An astronomical telescope has an objective and an eyepiece of focal length 75.0cm and 2.5cm
respectively. Find the separation of the two lenses if the final image is formed at 25cm from the
eyepiece, calculate the:
Solution
Consider the action of the eyepiece 1 1 1
𝑣 = −25𝑐𝑚 and 𝑓𝐸 = 2.5𝑐𝑚 = +
2.5 𝑢 −25
1 1 1 𝑢𝐸 = 2.27𝑐𝑚
= +  The lens separation = 𝒇𝒐 + 𝒖𝑬
𝑓 𝑢 𝑣
= (75 + 2 ∙ 27) 𝑐𝑚 = 𝟕𝟕 ∙ 𝟐𝟕𝒄𝒎

2. An astronomical telescope has an objective and an eyepiece of focal length 100cm and 5cm
respectively.
(a) Find the angular magnification of the telescope if arranged in normal adjustment.
(b) If the lenses are arranged in such a way that the final image is formed at 25cm from
the eyepiece, calculate the:
(i) angular magnification of the telescope in this setting.
(ii) separation of the objective and eyepiece.
Solution:

(a) In normal adjustment, magnifying 𝑣 = −25𝑐𝑚 and 𝑓𝐸 = 5𝑐𝑚

power 𝒎 =
𝑓𝑜
=
100
= 20 1 1 1
𝑓𝐸 5 = +
𝑓 𝑢 𝑣
(b) (i) With the final image at near point, 1 1 1
𝐷
𝑚 = (𝑓 − 1) 𝑥 ( 𝐷𝑂 )
𝑓 = +
𝐸
5 𝑢 −25
−25 100 𝑢 = 3.57𝑐𝑚
𝑚=( − 1) 𝑥 ( )  The lens separation = 𝒇𝒐 + 𝒖
5 25
𝑚 = −24 = (100 + 3 ∙ 57) 𝑐𝑚 = 𝟏𝟎𝟑 ∙ 𝟓𝟕𝒄𝒎
(ii) Consider the action of the eyepiece
3. The objective of an astronomical telescope in normal adjustment has a diameter of 12cm and focal
length of 80cm.
(a) If the eyepiece has a focal length of 5cm, find the:
(i) magnifying power of the telescope in this setting.
(ii) Position of the eye-ring
(iii) diameter of the eye-ring
(b)State the advantage of placing the eye at the eye ring.
Solution

(a) (i) In normal adjustment, magnifying (ii) In normal adjustment,

power 𝒎 =
𝑓𝑜
=
80
= 16 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜
𝑓𝐸 5 =
𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑦𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝐸
(ii) Consider the action of the eyepiece 18 80
𝑢 = 𝒇𝒐 + 𝒇𝑬 = (80 + 5) = 85cm =
1 1 1 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑦𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 5
= + 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑦𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 1.125𝑐𝑚
𝑓 𝑢 𝑣 (iii) The eye placed at the eye ring has a wide
1 1 1
= + field of view since most of the light
5 85 −25 entering the objective passes through the
𝑣 = 5.313𝑐𝑚 eye ring.
 The eye-ring is 5∙313cm from the eyepiece

95
 Terrestrial telescope

It is a refracting telescope with an intermediate erecting lens of focal length f, which is place between
the objective lens and the eyepiece. The erecting lens should be a distance 2f after the principal focus
of the objective lens and a distance 2f before the principal focus of the eyepiece. The objective lens
forms a real inverted image of a distant object at its focal point Fo. This act as a real object for the
erecting lens which forms a real erect image of the same size as the inverted image formed by the
objective.

Image at infinity

FX
FO h1
FE
FE
h
FX

Objective lens
fo

2f 2f fE fE
Erecting lens Eye piece lens

ADVANTAGE OF A TERRESTRIAL TELESCOPE

It forms an erect final image.

DISADVANTAGES OF A TERRESTRIAL TELESCOPE

(i) It is bulky since its length is increased by 4f compared with an astronomical telescope.
(ii) It reduces the intensity of light emerging through the eyepiece. This is due to light losses at
several lens surfaces

GALILEAN TELESCOPE:

This telescope provides an erect image of a distant object with the aid of an objective which is a
converging lens of long focal length and an eyepiece which is a diverging lens of short focal length.

GALILEAN TELESCOPE IN NORMAL ADJUSTMENT

A converging lens is arranged coaxially with a diverging lens such that their focal points are at the
same point. The converging lens forms a real image of a distant object at its focal point Fo situated
exactly at the principal focus Fe of the diverging lens. This image formed acts as a virtual object for the
diverging lens which thus forms a final virtual image at infinity as shown.

96
 Eye piece

fE

FE
Fo
α
α1

Objective lens

fo

𝛼1 ℎ
Angular magnification, 𝑚 = 𝛼 𝛼 1 (𝑓𝐸 ) 𝑓𝑂
ℎ
For small angles in radians: 𝛼 1 ≈ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 1 = 𝑓 𝑚= = =
𝛼 ℎ
𝐸 ( ) 𝑓𝐸
ℎ 𝑓𝑂
𝛼 ≈ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 = 𝑓𝑂
𝑓𝑂 𝑚=
𝑓𝐸
𝑆𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠 = 𝑓𝑂 − 𝑓𝐸

GALILEAN TELESCOPE WITH FINAL IMAGE AT NEAR POINT

A converging lens arranged coaxially with a diverging lens forms a real image of a distant object at its
focal point Fo situated a distance u beyond the diverging lens. This image formed acts as a virtual
object for the diverging lens which thus forms a final erect virtual image between the converging lens
and the diverging lens at an image distance D as shown.
Eye piece

D
uE

h1

Fo
α
α1

Objective lens

fo

Let h be the height of the image formed at 𝐹𝑜 . ℎ

𝛼 ≈ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 =
𝑓𝑂
𝛼1 ℎ
Angular magnification, 𝑚 = 𝛼
ℎ
𝛼 1 (𝑈𝐸 ) 𝑓𝑂
For small angles in radians: 𝛼 1 ≈ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 1 = 𝑈 𝑚= = =
𝛼 ℎ
𝐸 ( ) 𝑈𝐸
𝑓𝑂

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 𝑓𝑂 𝑓𝐸 𝐷
𝑚= 𝑈𝐸 =
𝑈𝐸 𝐷 − 𝑓𝐸
𝑓𝑂
𝑚=
Consider the action of the eyepiece 𝑈𝐸

1 1 1 𝑓𝑂
Then use 𝑓 = 𝑢 + 𝑣 𝑚=
𝑓𝐷
𝑉 = 𝐷 and 𝑓 = 𝑓𝐸 ( 𝐸 )
𝐷 − 𝑓𝐸
1 1 1
𝑓𝐸
=𝑈 +𝐷 𝑓𝑂 𝑓𝐸
𝐸
𝑚= (1 − )
𝑓𝐸 𝐷
NOTE:

(i)There is need to consider the signs of fe and D while using the above expression and are taken to be
negatives.

Advantages of Galilean Telescope:

(i) It is shorter than astronomical telescope when in normal adjustment, hence it used for
opera glasses
(ii) The final image is upright or erect.

Disadvantages of Galilean Telescope:

(i) it has a virtual eye ring not accessible to the observer.
(ii) it has a narrow field of view.

EXAMPLE

1. A Galilean telescope has a convex lens of focal length 50cm and a diverging lens of focal length 5cm.
(a) Find the angular magnification of the telescope if arranged in normal adjustment.
(b) If the lenses are arranged in such a way that the final image is formed at 25cm from the
eyepiece, calculate the:
(i) angular magnification of the telescope in this setting.
(ii) separation of the objective and eyepiece
Solution

(a) (i) In normal adjustment, The lens separation = 𝑓𝑂 – 𝒖

magnifying power 𝑚 =
𝑓𝑂
=
50
= 10 Consider the action of the eyepiece
𝑓𝐸 5 𝑣 = −25𝑐𝑚 and 𝑓𝐸 = −5𝑐𝑚
(b) (i) With the final image at near point, 1 1 1
𝑓 𝑓 = +
magnifying power 𝑚 = 𝑓𝑂 (1 − 𝐷𝐸 ) 𝑓 𝑢 𝑣
𝐸
50 −5 1 1 1
𝑚= (1 − ) = −8 = +
−5 −25 −5 𝑢 −25
Thus the required angular magnification 𝑢 = −8.33𝑐𝑚
is 8 The required lens separation = 𝒇𝒐 – 𝒖
(ii) = (50 – 8 ∙ 33) 𝑐𝑚 = 41 ∙ 𝟔𝟕𝒄𝒎

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 REFLECTING ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE
The objective of a reflecting telescope is a concave mirror with long focal length.
There are three types of reflector telescopes namely:
(i) Cassegrain Reflector Telescope
(ii) Newton Reflector Telescope
(iii) Coude Reflector Telescope

Case grain reflecting telescope

 The objective consists of a concave mirror with

Rays from a distant object
a long focal length
Objective  Parallel rays of light from a distant object are
I Convex first reflected at concave mrirror and then at a
mirror small convex mirror to form a real image I at
a hole situated at the pole of the concave
Eye piece mirror
 The eyepiece is set such that I coincide with its
principal focus thus forming a magnified
virtual image at infinity

Newton’s reflecting telescope

It consists of a concave mirror of long focal length as the objective instead of a convex lens, a plane
mirror and a convex eye piece.

Rays from a distant object  Parallel rays of light form a distant object are
Objective first reflected at objective and then at a small
slanting plane mirror to form a real image at
I.
 The plane mirror helps to bring intermediate
image to a more convenient focus
 The plane ,mirror is small so that it can not
affect the effective focal length of the
objective
Eye piece
 The eye piece is adjusted until the magnified
virtual image is formed at infinity

Coude reflecting telescope

Rays from a distant object  The objective consists of a concave mirror of

Objective long focal length.
 Light from a distant object is reflected first at
a concave mirror and then at a small convex
mirror which then reflects it on to a slanting
plane mirror to form a real image at I.
 The eyepiece is set such that I coincide with
its principal focus thus forming a virtual
Eye piece magnified image at infinity as shown.

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