INDEX

Chapter Page
Name of the Chapter
No. No.

1 REFLECTION OF LIGHT 1
AT CURVED SURFACES

A
2 CHEMICAL EQUATIONS 9

AN
3 ACIDS-BASES & SALTS 14

G
4 REFRACTION OF LIGHT 22
AT CURVED SURFACES

5
A
HUMAN EYE AND COLOURFUL
N 31
WORLD
EL

6 STRUCTURE OF ATOM 40
T

7 CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS – 45
THE PERIODIC TABLE
T,
ER

8 CHEMICAL BONDING 54

9 ELECTRIC CURRENT 65
SC

10 ELECTROMAGNETISM 74

11 PRINCIPLES OF METALLURGY 86

12 CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS 91

[ iii ]
 INSTRUCTIONS TO TEACHERS

· Focus on all the chapters.

· Provide ample practice on the questions given in Abhyasa Deepika.

· Provide ample practice on Multiple Choice Questions.

A
· Focus on Experiments, Analysis of Tables, Daily Life Applications.

AN
· Provide practice on the diagrams and lables of the diagram given in Abhyasa
Deepika.

G
· Correlate with Text Book in case of doubts.

·
N
Efforts should be made to make use of the learning material to the maximum
extent for better result.
A
EL

INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS
T

· Understand the lesson-wise concepts to answer various types of questions in

T,

the public examinations.

ER

· Correlate with text books in case of any doubts in the reading material and
approach your teachers.

·
SC

Good practice of the learning material helps you to achieve best results.

[ iv ]
1. REFLECTION OF LIGHT AT CURVED SURFACES
· Spherical mirrors are of two types.
1. Concave mirror 2. convex mirror.
· Identifying the pole, centre of curvature and focus of a concave mirror.

A
.

AN
· Identifying the pole, centre of curvature and focus of a convex mirror.

G
A N
· All normals of concave mirror will converge towards a point. This point is called centre of
EL

curvature (C) of concave mirror.

· All normals of convex mirror will appear to be diverging from a point. This point is called
centre of curvature (C) of convex mirror.
T

· The light rays coming parallel to the principal axis of concave mirror will meet at a point
after reflection called Focus.
T,

· The light rays coming parallel to the principal axis of convex mirror will diverge after
reflection. The extended lines will meet at a point called focus.
ER
SC

P F C
C F P

· Focal length of the mirror is equal to the half the radius of curvature.

focal

1
 R
· If Focal length (f ), radius of curvature (R) then focal length of the mirror (f )=
2
· If radius of curvature of a mirror is 30cm, find the focal length of the mirror?
Ans : radius of curvature of a mirror = 30cm

R 30 30
Focal length of the mirror = = = = 15 cm
2 2 2
15
Lab Activity
Aim: To find the nature of the image formed when an object is placed at different places on the
1

A
principle axis of a concave mirror.
Material required for the experiment are

AN
Concave mirror (known focal length), ‘V’ stand, Screen, candle, Meter scale.
Precautions :

G
i. Adjust the screen without disturbing the incident and reflected rays.
ii. Size of the object adjusted must be as per the height of the mirrors placed on ‘V’ stand.
Procedure:
A N
Place the concave mirror on the ‘V’ stand, Place the object on the principal axis at different
places from the mirror (beyond C, at C, between C and F, at F, between. F and P) Adjust the
EL

screen to get sharp image on it, Measure the object and image distances. Tabulate the values
in the following table, Observe and mention the images are inverted or erected.
T

S.No. Object distance Image distance Magnified/diminished Erected/

image inverted image.
1
T,

2
3
ER

Observations:
i. Real image is formed, when object is placed beyond C, on C & between F &C infront of a
SC

Concave mirror.
ii. Virtual image is formed, when object is placed between mirror and focus of the Concave
mirror.
Result:
i. Measured object and image distances of various positions.
Spherical Mirrors – Ray diagrams :
· Rules to draw ray diagrams.

2
i. All the rays that are coming parallel to the principal axis gets reflected such that they pass
through the focal point of the concave mirror. (If they are reflected by convex mirror, they
appear coming from focus.

Concave Mirror Convex Mirror

ii. All the rays that pass through the focal point of the mirror will travel parallel to the

A
principal axis after reflection.

AN
G
iii.
Concave Mirror
N
Convex Mirror

A ray passing through the centre of curvature to meet the mirror, after reflection the ray
retraces its path.
A
T EL

Concave Mirror Convex Mirror

T,

Ray Diagrams & image characteristics for concave mirror

· Characteristics of the image formed when the object is placed beyond ‘C’ in front of a
ER

concave mirror.
Ray diagram
i. Inverted
ii. Diminished than the object ,
SC

iii. Real image,

iv. Formed between “F” and ‘C’

· Characteristics of the image formed when the object is placed at ‘C’ in front of a concave
mirror –
Ray diagram
i. Inverted Object
ii. Equal to the size of the object ,
iii. Real image,
iv. Formed at ‘C’ Image

3
· Characteristics of the image formed when the object is placed between “F” and ‘C’ in front
of a concave mirror.
i. Inverted Ray diagram
Object
ii. Enlarged,
iii. Real image,
iv. Formed beyond ‘C’ Image
· Characteristics of the image formed when the object is placed at “F” in front of a concave
mirror.

A
i. Two reflected rays are parallel to each other.

AN
ii. They do not intersect if extended either sides.
iii. We cannot say whether they form
Object
real or virtual image.

G
Ray diagram
iv. But we can say that the image is formed at infinity.
·
of a concave mirror.
i. Erect
A N
Characteristics of the image formed when the object is placed between “P” and ‘F’ in front
EL

ii. Enlarged Image Object

iii. Virtual image Ray diagram
T

iv. Behind the mirror

· Characteristics of the image formed by a convex mirror when an object is placed at any
T,

point in front of the convex mirror.

ER

i. Erect
ii. Diminished
Image Object
iii. Virtual image.
SC

iv. between F&P on the backside of the mirror

· Mirror formula

i. Object distance = u
Object distance (u)

ii. Image distance = v Focal

length(f)
Image
Image
iii. Focal length -= f distance(v)

Ray diagram
1 1 1
iv. Mirror formula = +
f v u

4
 · Sign convention for spherical mirrors.
Direction of incident ray Direction of incident ray Object
Object
Im ag e
Im ag e Direction to measure the distance
Direction of measuring the distance
Image distance -v
Object distance -u
measuring in opposite direction so sign is -ve
measuring in opposite direction so sign is -ve
height of the object = +h0

direction of incident ray direction of incident light Object

Negative Positive
f Image Image

A
pole direction of Pole
measuring focal length
height of the image = -hi

AN
focal length = -f
(down word)
Measuring in opposite direction so sign is -ve

G
Sign convention for the parameters related to the mirror equation
· All distances should be measured from the pole.
·
N
The distances measured in the direction of incident light, to be taken positive and those
measured in the direction opposite to incident light are to be taken negative.
A
· Height of object (ho) and height of image (hi) are positive if measured upwards from the
EL

axis and negative if measured downwards.

Magnification of spherical mirrors.
·
T

A magnification shows changes in the size/ height of the image.

· Magnification is the relation between size of the object and size of the image. It is also
T,

stated by the relation between object distance and image distance.

hi v (image distance)
m = h = - u (object distance)
ER

Uses of the concave mirrors.

SC

i. Dentists use this mirror to check the teeth.

ii. In the microscopes,
iii. As shaving mirror
iv. In preparation of solar cooker.
Uses of the convex mirrors.
i. These mirrors are used as rear-view mirrors in vehicles,
ii. At junctions of the roads,
iii.In the shopping malls, at parking areas
iv. At curved roads.

5
· What would happen if the concave mirrors weren’t discovered?
Ans : If the concave mirrors were not discovered the dentist can’t check the teeth, the solar
cooker couldn’t be in use and the car headlights would be different.
Differences between the Real image and virtual image:

Real image Virtual image

i. It is an inverted image. i. It is an erected image

ii. It can be caught on the screen ii. It cannot be caught on the screen

A
iii. It can be formed by using concave iii. It can be formed by both concave

AN
mirrors but not with convex mirrors. and convex mirrors.
iv. It is formed by the reflected rays in iv. It is formed by extending the
ray diagrams reflected rays in ray diagram

G
· An object is placed at 12 cm distance from the pole of concave mirror and the image formed
at 4 cm from the pole. Find the focal length of the mirror?
Ans: Object distance u = 12cm

Image distance v = 4 cm.

A N
EL

Focal length f = ?
T

1 1 1
Mirror formula = = +
f v u
T,

Substitute the above values using

sign convention
ER

1 1 1
= +
f -4 -12

-3 - 1 -4/
SC

=
12 12

1 -1
=
f 3
Focal length = f = –3

6
 ASSESSMENT
Very Short Answer Questions
1. What would happen if spherical mirrors were not invented?
2. Write the uses of spherical mirrors.
3. What happens if concave mirror is used as rear view mirror of vehicle?
Short Answer Questions
4. An object is placed in front of concave mirror, magnification is +1.75. What does it mean?
5. Is the focal length of the mirror same in all media? Guess.
6. What changes may happen to the images formed by a concave mirror when an object is

A
moving from focus to beyond ‘C’ of the mirror on its principal axis?
7. Draw ray diagram when an object is placed at 8cm from the pole of a convex mirror.

AN
8. Write the differences between the images formed by a concave mirror when an object is
placed beyond ‘C’ and an object is placed in front of the convex mirror.
Essay Type Questions

G
9. An object of 2cm height is placed at 12 cm distance from the pole of concave mirror and

of the image.
A N
the image is formed at 4 cm from the pole. Find the focal length of the mirror and height

10. Write the material required to find the focal length of concave mirror and mention the
precautions to be taken and experimental procedure.
EL

11. List out the material required and write the experimental procedure to find the image distance
using concave mirror when an object is kept in front of it on its principal axis at different
locations.
T

12. Information of images formed by concave mirror is given in the table.

T,

S.No. object Image Magnification

1 A Erected +2.75
ER

2 B Inverted -2.75
3 C Equal to that of object size -1.00
SC

Answer the following questions based on the above information.

i. Which of the object forms virtual image?
ii. Which object is placed at radius of curvature?
iii. Which object forms erected image?
iv. If the height of the object ‘C’ is 3cm, then what is the height of the image?

7
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Focal length of the concave mirror is 30 cm. Image distance is 60 cm, Then the possible
object distance is ( )
A) + 60 cm B) -30 cm C) – 40 cm D) -60 cm
2. The focal length of the concave mirror if the radius of curvature is 10 cm. ( )
A) 20 cm B) 15 cm C) 10 cm D) 5 cm
3. The formula for the magnification is given ( )
-v
m= then , ‘u’ indicates
u

A
A) image distance from pole B) object distance from pole

AN
C) Image distance from focus D) object distance from focus
4. Which one is not possible for the magnification by a concave mirror. ( )
A) O<m<1 B) m <-1 C) O>m>-1 D) m = -1

G
5. Virtual image formed due to ( )
A) intersection of incident rays
N
B) Intersection of reflected rays
C) intersection of extending back of reflected rays
A
D) Intersection of incident and reflected rays
EL

6. Formula used to find the focal length of the mirror is ( )

vu v+u v-u vu
A) f = B) f = C) f = D) f =
T

u-v uv uv u+v

7. The rays are incident on the concave mirror parallel and converging at 20 cm. on the principle
T,

axis. Then the radius of curvature of the mirror is ( )

A) 20 cm B) 40 cm C) 10 cm D) 5 cm
ER

8. Which of the following is used in the solar cooker ( )

A) concave lens B) prism C) concave mirror D) convex mirror
SC

9. Which of the following always gives virtual image. ( )

A) convex mirror B) concave mirror
C) prism D) glass slab
10. The position of the object, if an image is formed between F & C of a concave mirror is
( )
A) between F & C B) betwen F & P C) on F D) beyond C

8
 2. CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Chemical Equations :
· A chemical reaction expressed in terms of formulae and symbols is called chemical equation.
A chemical equation of a reaction is written in the form to show the change of reactants
into products by an arrow placed between them.

Example: The reaction between calcium oxide and water can be written as:

Word equation: Calcium oxide + water ® Calcium hydroxide

A
Chemical equation: CaO + H2O ® Ca (OH)2

AN
The substances which undergo chemical change in the reaction are called reactants and
the new substances formed are called products.

· In the above equation calcium oxide and water are reactants and calcium hydroxide is product.

G
· Change of reactants to products is shown by an arrow placed between them.

·
A N
The arrow head point faces the products showing the direction of reaction.

The reactants are written on the left side of the arrow and products are on right side (head)
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of it

Some more chemical equations:

T

· Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) ® ZnCl2 (s) + H2 (g)

· 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) ® 2H2O (l)

T,

· Fe2O3 (s) + 2Al (s) ® 2Fe (s) + Al2O3 (s)

ER

Balanced Chemical Equation : “According to the law of conservation of mass, in a

chemical reaction, mass is neither created nor destroyed.” In other words "in a chemical
reaction, the total mass of the products formed must be equal to the total mass of reac-
SC

tants consumed".

· An atom is a smallest particle of an element that takes part in a chemical reaction. It is the
atom which accounts for the mass of any substance.

· The number of atoms of each element before and after the reaction must be the same.

· A chemical equation in which the number of atoms of different elements on the reactant
side is same as those on product side is called a balanced chemical equation.

· Balancing a chemical equation involves finding out how many formula units of each substance
take part in the reaction.

9
Formula unit is one unit of atom or ion or molecule corresponding to a given formula.

Ex. i) Formula unit of sodium chloride (NaCl) is one Na+ ion and one Cl- ion.

ii) Formula unit of magnesium bromide (MgBr2) is one Mg+2 ion and two Br- ions.

Steps to write Balanced Chemical Equations:

Ex: Let us consider chemical reaction of hydrogen with oxygen to form water

A
Step 1: Write the equation with the correct formula for each reactant and product.

AN
Primary Equation (Skeleton equation): Chemical equation which has only molecular formulae
of the substance and not got balanced is called “Primary Equation” (Skeleton equation).

H2 + O2 ® H2O

G
Step 2: Identify the suitable coefficient:
A N
“Whole number written before formula for balancing chemical equation is called coefficient”
EL

· Coefficient indicates number of formula units required to balance the equation.

· During balancing a chemical equation, only coefficients should be changed but not the
T

formulae.
T,

· To balance this equation coefficient 2 is written before H2O and H2

2H2 + O2 ® 2H2O
ER

Step 3: Coefficients should be the smallest possible whole numbers.

SC

· If necessary divide all the coefficients with same number to get the smallest number possible.

· In the above equation, coefficients of reactants and products are the smallest whole numbers.
Therefore it does not require any division.

2H2 + O2 ® 2H2O

Step 4: Verify the equation for balancing of atoms on both sides of the equation.

10
· In the equation, same number of atoms i.e, 4 atoms of hydrogen and 2 atoms of oxygen are
the on both sides of arrow mark.

2H2 + O2 ® 2H2O

Hence chemical equation is balanced.

Making Chemical Equations more informative : Chemical equations can be made

more informative by expressing physical state, heat evolved, evolving gas, formation of
precipitation, pressure and catalyst

A
Physical State : The physical states of the substances must be mentioned along with their

AN
physical formulae.

Ex: (a) Fe2O3 (s) + 2Al (s) ® 2Fe (s) + Al2O3 (s)

G
(b) Na2SO4 (aq) + BaCl2 (aq) ® BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl (aq)
A
is present as a solution in water)
N
(c) Zn(s) + H2SO4 (l) ® ZnSO4 (l) + H2 (g) (s-solid, l-liquid, g-gas, aq(aqueous)- substance
EL

Heat changes : Heat is liberated in Exothermic reactions and heat is absorbed in

Endothermic reactions.
T

Ex. (a) C(s) + O2 (g) ® CO2 (g) + Q (Exothermic)

T,

(b) N2 (g) + O2 (g) ® 2NO (g) - Q (Endothermic); ‘Q’ is heat energy which is shown with
possitive (+) sign on product side for exothermic reactions and negative (-) sign on product
ER

side for endothermic reactions.

Gas evolved if any : If a gas is evolved in a reaction, it is denoted by an upward arrow ( ­ ).

SC

Ex. (a) Zn(s) + H2SO4(l) ® ZnSO4(l)+ H2(g) ­ + Q

(b) C(s) + O2 (g) ® CO2(g) ­ + Q

Precipitate formed if any : If a precipitate is formed in the reaction it is denoted by downward

arrow (¯).

Ex. (a) AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq) ® AgCl (s) ¯ + NaNO3 (aq)

(b) Na2SO4 (aq) + BaCl2 (aq) ® BaSO4 (s ) ¯ + 2NaCl (aq)

11
 Temperature, pressure or catalyst etc is usually written over or below the arrow in
the equation.

Ex: 2AgCl ¾¾¾

sunlight
® 2Ag + Cl2

Interpreting a balanced chemical equation: Chemical equations give information about

1. Reactants and products in the reaction,
2. Ratio of molecules of reactants and products,
3. Atomic masses of reactants and products,

A
4. Molar mass of reactants and products,

AN
5. Relative masses and mole number of the reactants and products.
Ex: Consider the following chemical equation
C(s) +O2(g) ® CO2 (g)

G
· In this equation reactants are C, O2 and product is CO2; ratio of moles of C, O2 and CO2 is
1:1:1
·
·
A N
Atomic mass of C-12U, O2-32 (2x16=32) U; CO2 – 44 (12+2x16=44) U.
Molar mass of C-12g, O2-32 (2x16=32) g; CO2 – 44 (12+2x16=44) g
EL

· Here to burn 12g of carbon 32g of oxygen is required and it gives 44g of carbon dioxide.
· 32g of oxygen gas and 44g of carbon dioxide gas occupy 22.4litre volume at STP
T

· 12g of carbon, 32g of oxygen and 44g of carbon dioxide have same number of molecules or
atoms that is equal to Avogadro’s number (6.023x1023)
T,

Limiting reagent: In a reaction, the reactant available less in amount is called limiting reagent.
It limits the amount of product formed.
ER

ASSESSMENT
Very Short Answer Questions
SC

1. Write chemical equation for the reaction between zinc and hydrochloric acid and balance it.
2. Write reactants and products in the following equations and mention their physical states.
(a) Na2SO4 + BaCl2® BaSO4 + 2NaCl
(b) Ca CO3® CaO + CO2
3. Balance the following equations:
(a) N2 + H2 ® NH3
(b) Fe2O3 + CO ® Fe + CO2

12
4. Give an example each for exothermic, endothermic reactions. Write its chemical equations.
5. What type of reaction is N2 (g) + O2 (g) ® 2NO(g) – Q based on heat change?
Short Answer Questions
6. Why it is necessary to balance a chemical equation?
7. From the equation C(s) +O2 (g) ® CO2 (g) find the number of CO2 molecules formed when
24g of carbon is burnt in adequate oxygen.
Essay Type Questions
8. What information does a chemical equation give? Explain with an example.

A
9. What are the changes that may happen to the substances during a chemical change? Explain with

AN
an example.
Multiple Choice Questions

G
1. In accordance with this law chemical equations are to be balanced ( )
A) Charles’ B) equal proportion

2.
C) conservation of mass
A N
D) Moseley’s
The white precipitate formed in the reaction between Na2SO4 and BaCl2 is ( )
EL

A) Na2SO3 B) BaNa2 C) BaSO4 D) NaCl

3. Products in the reaction Ca CO3® CaO + CO2 are ( )
T

A) CaCO3, CO2 B) CaCO3 C) CO2 D) CaO, CO2

4. Number of hydrogen atoms in 2g hydrogen gas at STP are ( )
T,

A) 6.02x1023 B) 6.02x1024 C) 6.02x10-23 D) 6.02x1022

ER

5. A balanced chemical equation is ( )

A) Fe2O3 (s) + 2Al (s) ® 2Fe (s) + Al2O3 B) 2Fe2O3 (s) + 2Al (s) ® 2Fe (s)+ Al2O3
C) Fe2O3 (s) + Al (s) ® 2Fe (s) + Al2O3 D) Fe2O3 (s) + 2Al (s) ® 2Fe (s)+ 3Al2O3
SC

6. Amount of hydrochloric acid required to consume 100g calcium carbonate completely is

(H -1U, Cl - 35.5U, C- 12, Ca – 40U) ( )
A) 7.3g B) 73g C) 0.73g D) 730g

13
 3. ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Acids are sour to taste and turn blue litmus to red, bases are soapy to touch and turn red
litmus to blue.
Reactions of acids and bases with different indicators :

Substance Blue litmus Red litmus Methyl orange Phenolphthalein

Paper Paper indicator indicator

A
Acid Turns to red No change in colour Turns to red No change in colour

AN
Base No change in colour Turns to blue Turns to yellow Turns to pink

Chemical Properties of acids and bases

G
· Acids and bases react with metals and release Hydrogen gas.
Ex: 1) 2HCl + Zn à ZnCl2 + H2
2) 2NaOH + Zn à
N
Na2ZnO2 + H2
· Acids reacts with carbonates and metal hydrogen carbonates and produce carbon dioxide gas.
Ex: 1)
A
Na2CO3 + 2HCl à 2NaCl + H2O + CO2
EL

2) NaHCO3 + HCl à NaCl + H2O + CO2

· Metal oxides react with Acids to give salt and water.
CuO + 2HCl à CuCl2 + H2O
T

· Non-metal oxides react with bases to give salt and water.

Ca(OH)2 + CO2à CaCO3 + H2O
T,

· The reaction of acid with a base to give a salt and water is known as a neutralization reaction.
Acid + Base à Salt + Water.
ER

Ex: NaOH + HCl à NaCl + H2O

· Acids have H+ ions in them and Bases have OH- ions.
· Acids produce H+ ions only in aqueous solutions.
SC

Making dilute acids

The process of dissolving an acid or a base in water is an exothermic process. The acid must
always be added slowly to water with constant stirring. If water is added to a concentrated acid, the heat
generated may cause the mixture to splash out and cause burns.

Strength of Acids and Bases

The strength of acids or bases depends on the concentration of H3O+ ions or OH- ions produced in
solution. This can be measured by pH value.

pH Scale

14
 · A scale for measuring hydrogen ion concentration in a solution is called pH scale. This is
simply a number which indicates the acidic
or basic nature of a solution.
· pH scale ranges from 0 to 14.
Ø If pH <7, then the solution is acidic
Ø If pH >7, then the solution is basic
Ø If pH = 7, then the solution is neutral.
· As pH value increases from 0 to 7, the
strength of acid decreases.

A
· As pH value increases from 7 to 14, the strength of base increases.

AN
Plants and animals are pH sensitive
Living organisms can survive only in a narrow range of pH changes. When pH of rain water is
less than 5.6, it is called acid rain. When acid rain flows in to the rivers the pH of the river water is
lowered. The survival of aquatic life in such rivers becomes difficult.

G
Change in pH causes tooth decay

base to neutralize the excess acid to prevent tooth decay.

pH in our digestive system
A N
The tooth decay starts when the pH of mouth is lower than 5.5. We use toothpaste, which is a
EL
Our stomach produces HCl acid, which helps in digestion of food without harming the stomach.
During indigestion, stomach produces more acid whcih causes pain and irritation. To get rid of pain we
use bases called antacids. These antacids neutralize the excess acid in the stomach.
T

pH of the soil
Plants require a specific pH range for their healthy growth. It is necessary to find out the pH of
the soil to use required fertilizers for the healthy growth of the plants.
T,

Salts
ER

Salts formed due to mixture of strong acid and strong base are neutral, strong acid and weak
base are acidic. The salts of a strong base and weak acid are basic in nature.
· Salts extracted from common salt are Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), Baking soda (NaHCO3),
Washing soda (Na2CO3).
SC

1. Common salt (or) Sodium Chloride (NaCl)

Sodium chloride (NaCl) is the chemical name of common salt or table salt. It can be
extracted from sea water. These crystals are often brown due to impurities. This is called rock
salt.
2. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
When electricity is passed through an aqueous solution of sodium chloride, it
decomposes to form sodium hydroxide. This process is called chloro-alkali process.
Uses of sodium hydroxide:
i) used to de-greasing ii) preparation of soaps and detergents.
iii) paper making iv) artifical fiber
15
3. Bleaching Powder (CaOCl2)
Bleaching powder is produced by the action of chlorine on dry slaked lime.
Ca(OH)2 + Cl2à CaOCl2 + H2O

Uses of Bleaching powder:

· It is used for bleaching cotton and linen in textile industry.
· It is used for bleaching wood pulp in paper industry.
· It is used for bleaching washed clothes in laundry.
·

A
It is used as an oxidizing agent in many chemical industries.
· It is used for disinfecting drinking water to make it free of germs.

AN
· It is used as a reagent in the preparation of chloroform.
4. Baking soda (NaHCO3)

G
Baking soda is added for faster cooking. Its chemical name is Sodium Hydrogen
Carbonate. It is prepared as follows

N
NaCl + H2O + CO2 + NH3à NH4Cl + NaHCO3
Uses of Baking soda (Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate):
A
· On heating Baking soda produces CO2 which rises through bubbling dough into cake or
EL

bread. This results in making the cake and bread smooth and spongy.
· Sodium hydrogen carbonate is also an ingredient in antacids.
· It is also used as soda-acid in fire extinguishers.
T

· It acts as mild antiseptic.

T,

5. Washing Soda (or) Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)

Sodium carbonate can be obtained by heating baking soda. Recrystallization of
ER

sodium carbonate gives washing soda. It is also a basic salt.

Na2CO3 + 10 H2O à Na2CO3.10H2O
Uses of washing soda:
SC

· Sodium carbonate is used in glass, soap and paper industries.

· It is used in the manufacture of Sodium compounds such as borax.
· Sodium carbonate can be used as a cleaning agent for domestic purposes.
· It is used for removing permanent hardness of water.
Water of crystallization
Water of crystallization is the fixed number of water molecules present in one formula unit
of a salt.
Ex: CuSO4. 5H2O, Na2CO3.10H2O, CaSO4. 2H2O, etc.

16
Plaster of Paris (CaSO4. ½ H2O)
On careful heating of gypsum (CaSO4. 2H2O) at 373K, it loses water molecules partially to
become calcium sulphate hemihydrate (CaSO4. ½ H2O). This is called plaster of paris. It is a white
powder and on mixing with water, it sets into hard solid mass due to the formation of gypsum.
CaSO4. ½ H2O + 1 ½ H2O à CaSO4.2H2O
Uses of Plaster of paris
· It is used by doctors for supporting fractured bones in the right position.
· It is used for making toys.
· It is used for making materials for decoration and for making surfaces smooth.

A
Reaction of acids and bases with metals - Lab Activity

AN
Aim: To observe the reaction of acids and bases with metals.
Materials required

G
Test tube, Delivery tube, glass trough, candle, soap water, stand dil.HCl, and zinc granules, cork
etc.
Precautions
A N
1. The first end of the delivery tube should not be immersed in the reactants
2. Fix the cork tightly
EL

3. Care must be taken while handling with glass items.

4. Should not touch the chemicals with hands.
T

4. Keep a bucket of soap water or ordinary water at the working place.

T,

Procedure
· Setup the apparatus as shown in the figure.
ER

· Take about 10ml of dilute HCl in a test tube and add a few zinc granules to it.
Cork
· A gas is evolved from the top of the test tube. Stand
Delivery
tube H2
SC

· Pass the gas being evolved through the soap water. HCl
Test tube Zinc
· Bring a burning candle near the gas filled bubbles. granules

Observations
soap Water
· We observe a gas is evolved inside the test tube.
· If we pass this gas through the soap water, bubbles are formed.
· When we bring a burning candle near the gas bubbles, we hear a ‘POP’ sound.
· This ‘POP’ sound indicates that the gas evolved is hydrogen.

17
Result
· When acids react with metals hydrogen gas is evolved.
· 2HCl + Zn à ZnCl2 + H2

Activity: Reaction of acids with carbonates and metal hydrogen carbonates

Aim: To observe the reaction of acids with carbonates and metal hydrogen carbonates
Materials required
Two test tubes, Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), Sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3), dil HCl,
lime water, delivery tube, thissel funnel, Stand etc.

A
Precautions

AN
Thistle funnel
Stand
1. Thissel funnel should be immersed into the reactants. Delivery tube
2. Delivery tube first end should not be immersed into the reactants
and should be immersed in limewater

G
CO 2 gas
Procedure dil.HCl Test tube

· Take two test tubes and label them as A and B.

N
· Take about 0.5gm of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) in test tube
A
A and Sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3) in test tube
acid
Na 2CO3
lime
water
EL
B Add 2ml of dilute HCl to both the test tubes.
· Set up the apparatus as shown in the figure.
· Pass the gas produced through lime water and
B record your observations.
T

Observations
T,

· We observe that the lime water turns into milky white after passing the gas evolved during the
reactions.
· This indicates that the gas evolved during reaction is Carbon dioxide (CO2)
ER

Result
· When acids react with carbonates and metal carbonates, carbon dioxide (CO2) gas is evolved.
SC

Na2CO3 + 2HCl à 2NaCl + H2O + CO2

NaHCO3 + HCl à NaCl + H2O + CO2
· When the evolved gas is passed through lime water, the reaction taken place is

Ca (OH)2- + CO2à CaCO3 + H2O

Activity : Acids show electrical conductivity
Aim: Investigate that all compounds containing hydrogen are not acids
Materials required
Different aqueous solutions of glucose, alcohol, hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid etc, beaker,
two different coloured wires, bulb, switch, 230V AC power supply socket, graphite rods.
18
 AC plug
Precautions 230 volt Bulb

1. Graphite rods should not touch each other inside the

beaker
2. Make sure that the electrical switch is in off position Beaker
while changing the solutions in the beaker
Procedure
dil. HCl solution
· Connect two different coloured electrical wires to
Graphite rods
graphite rods separately in a 100ml beaker as shown in
the figure.
· Connect free ends of the wire to a 230V AC plug and complete the circuit as shown in the

A
figure by connecting a bulb to one of the wires.

AN
· Now pour some dilute HCl in the beaker and switch on the current. Record your observations.
· Repeat this activity with dilute sulphuric acid, and glucose and alcohol solutions separately
and record your observations.
Observations

G
· We observe that the bulb glows in acid solutions but not in glucose or alcohol solutions.
· Glowing of bulb indicates that there is flow of electric current through the solution.
Result N
· Acids have H+ ions and the moment of these ions in solution helps for flow of electric
current.
A
EL

· The positive ion present in all acid solutions is H+ ions or H3O+ ions.

Activity : Removing water of crystallization

T

Aim : To observe water of crystallization and to remove the water of crystallization.

Materials required
T,

Copper sulphate crystals, test tube, test tube holder,

ER

Bunsen burner, white paper, water etc.

Precautions
Test tue holder
1. The test tube will be slantend in the experiment to
SC

Boiling tube
Water droplets
maintain the distance to the eye Copper sulphate
Burner
Procedure crystals

· Take a few crystals of copper sulphate in a dry test tube.

· Heat the test tube on the Bunsen burner or spirit lamp
Observations
· We observe that the blue colour of copper sulphate crystals will change into white.
· We hear a crackling sound while heating.
· We also observe small water droplets on the sides of the test tube.

19
Result
· Copper sulphate crystals contain water, when these crystals are heated, water present in
crystals is evaporated and the salt turns to white.
· When the crystals are moistened with water, the blue colour re-appears.

ASSESSMENT
Very Short Answer Questions
1. Write the colour of acid in the presence of methyl orange indicator & phenolphthalein indicator?
2. Write the result of the experiment to observe the reaction of acids with metals?

A
3. How to test the gas evolved when acid reacts with carbonates?

AN
4. How pH causes tooth decay?
5. Write an example for reaction of base with non-metal oxide.

G
6. Why the bulb did not glow in the glucose solution when electricity is passed through it?
7. Write the names of two salts obtained from common salt.
N
8. If a solution turns red litmus into blue, what will be the possible pH value of that solution?
A
9. Two solutions have their pH values as 13.5 and 10.5. Which of them is strong base and which is
EL

weak base?
10. Write the material required to conduct activity removing water of crystallization.
T

Short Answer Questions

1. List out the material required preacautions to be taken and procedure of the experiment to
T,

observe the reaction of acids with carbonates and metal hydrogen carbonates.
ER

2. Explain neutralization reaction with an example.

3. Why do we add acid to water while diluting an acid, but not water to acid?
4. Mention the daily life uses of washing soda.
SC

5. Write the uses of sodium hydrogen carbonate (Baking soda) in our daily life.
6. Write the uses of plaster of paris in our daily life.
7. Write the uses of bleaching powder in our daily life.
8. Explain the experimental process of removing of water of crystallization.
9. What happens if pH of the soil is not maintained properly?

20
Essay Type Questions

1. Observe the following table

Substance A B C D E F G
pH value 7 8.5 3 5.5 12.5 13.5 9

Now answer the following questions

i) Identify the acids and bases in the above table and write them under correct heading.

A
ii) If the substance A is tested with Phenolphthalein indicator, what will be the result?

AN
iii) If the substances B and C reacts, then what is the nature of the salt formed?
2. Write the experimental procedure, observations and result of the experiment to observe the
reaction of acids with metals on and also write the material required for the experiment.

G
3. List out the material, precautions to be taken and procedure of the experiment to observe that
the acids show electrical conductivity.

Multiple Choice Questions

A N
EL
1. Which of the following turns blue litmus to red ( )
A) NaOH B) Ca(OH)2 C) H2SO4 D) KOH
2. Which substance from the following has the value of pH greater than 7. ( )
T

A) HCl B) H2SO4 C) HNO3 D) NaOH

T,

3. Non metal oxide + ________ à salt + water ( )

A) Acid B) Base C) Neutral solution D) None
ER

4. Which of the following is used for making toys ( )

A) CaSO4 ½ H2O B) CaSO4.2H2O C) CaOCl2 D) CaCO3
SC

5. The rain is treated as acid rain if ( )

A) pH of rain water is 7 B) pH of rain water is <5.6
C) pH of rain water is >5.6 D) pH of rain water is 14
6. In the activity removing water of crystalisation, on heating Copper Sulphate crystals turns to
( )
A) Blue B) Pink C) Red D) White

21
 4. REFRACTION OF LIGHT AT CURVED SURFACES

· When a light ray travels from optically rarer medium to optically denser medium, it bends
towards normal.

· When a light ray travels from denser to rarer medium, it bends away from the normal.
· The light ray which travels along the normal drawn to the seperating surface of two media

A
does not deviate from its path.

AN
· Curved surface formula:

G
This formula can also be used for plane surfaces, radius of curvature (R) approaches to

infinity. Hence becomes zero.

A N
· Formula for Plane surface:
EL

That is
T

Lenses
T,

Convex Lenses:
ER
SC

Double Convex lens Plano-convex lens Concavo-convex lens

(Biconvex lens)
Concave Lenses:

Double Concave lens (Biconcave lens) Plano-concave lens Convexo-concave lens

22
Symbols of lenses while drawing:
Convex Lens Concave Lens

Convex Lens Symbol Concave Lens Symbol

· Each curved surface of a lens is a part of sphere. The centre of the sphere which

A
contains the part of curved surface is called centre of curvature. If a lens contains

AN
two curved surfaces then their centres of curvature are C1 and C2 respectively.
· The distance between centre of curvature and curved surface is called radius of
curvature, in the diagram R1 and R2 are radii of curvature for surface-1 and surface
-2 respectively.

G
· The line joining the points C1 andC2 is called Principal Axis.
·
N
The midpoint of a thin lens is called Optic centre, and it is denoted by ‘P’.
A
EL

R2 R1 R1 R2

C1 P C2
T

C2 P C1
T,
ER

Focus(F) or Focal Point of Convex lens:

A Parallel beam of light incident on a convex
SC

lens converges at a point on the principal axis. C2 F2 P F1 C1

The point of convergence is called Focus or
focal point(F).
Focus(F) or Focal Point of Concave lens:
A Parallel beam of light incident on a concave
C1 F2 P1 F2 C2
lens seems to be emanate from a point on the
principal axis. The point from which rays seem to
be emanate is called Focus or Focal Point (F).

23
F2
Focal length (f)
The distance between optic centre (P) and focus (F1 or F2) is called Focal length (f).

Incident Ray Incident Ray

A
Behaviour of Certain light rays when they incident on a lens:

AN
Convex Lens Concave Lens
1. Ray travelling Parallel to Principal 1. Ray travelling Parallel to principal axis
axis passes through focus after refraction. seems to emanate from focus after

G
refraction

C1 F1 F2 C2
A N C2 F2 F1 C1
EL

2. Ray Passing along principal axis is 2. Ray Passing along principal axis is
undeviated undeviated.
T

C1 F1 F2 C2 C2 F2 F1 C1
T,

3. Ray Passing through optic centre is 3. Ray Passing through optic centre is
ER

undeviated. undeviated.

C1 F1 F2 C2 C2 F2 F1 C1
SC

4. Ray Passing through focus will take 4. Ray towards through focus will take the
the path parallel to principal axis after path parallel to principal axis after refraction
refraction

C1 F1 F2 C2
C2 F2 F1 C1

24
5. A Parallel beam of light making an angle with principal axis falls on a convex lens, after refraction
the rays converge to a point lying on the ":focal plane". In the case of concave lens the rays seems
to be diverging from a point on the "focal plane:

A
AN
G
Ray Diagrams for Convex Lens:
Case-1: Object at Infinity:
A N Characteristics of the Image:
EL
1. Image formed at focal point
F2 F1 C1
C2 2. Point size image
3. Real image
T

Case-2: Object Placed beyond centre of curvature(C2) on the principal axis:

T,

Characteristics of the Image:

1. Image formed between F1 & C1
Object

ER

F1 C1
2. Real image
F2 Image
C2
3. Inverted
4. Diminished
SC

Case-3: Object Placed at the centre of curvature(C2):

Characteristics of the Image:

Object F1 C1 1. Image formed at C1
Image
C2 F2 2. Real image
3. Inverted
4. Same size that of object

25
Case-4: Object Placed between centre of curvature(C2) and Focal Point (F2):

Object F1 C1
Characteristics of the Image:
C2 F2 1. Image formed beyond C1
Image
2. Real Image
3. Inverted
4. Magnified image
Case-5: Object Placed at the Focal Point (F2):

A
Characteristics of the Image:
Object F1 C1
1. Image formed at infinity

AN
C2 F2

G
Case-6: Object Placed between Focal Point (F2) and Optic centre (P):

image
A N
Characteristics of the Image:
1. Image formed on the same side of the lens where
Object

C1
the object is placed.
EL

C2 F2 F1
2. Virtual Image
3. Erected Image
T

4. Magnified Image
T,

Ray Diagrams for Concave Lens: Characteristics of the Image:

ER

Case-1: Object at Infinity: 1. Image formed at focal point

2. Point size image
3. Virtual image
SC

C1 F1 F2 C2

Case-2: Object placed at any point Infront of the lens:

Characteristics of the Image:

Object C2
1. Image formed between optic centre (P)
F2
and Focal Point (F1).
C1 F1 Image p
2. Virtual Image
3. Erected Image
4. Diminished Image
26
 OBSERVING THE TYPES OF IMAGES FORMED BY CONVEX LENS AND
MEASURING THE OBJECT DISTANCE AND IMAGE DISTANCE.
· Aim : Observing the types of images formed by convex lens and measuring the object
distance and image distance.
· Material required: A candle, Paper, Convex lens of known focal length, V-stand, Scale.
· Precautions:
i. Align the lens and flame of the candle at same height
ii. Ensure that you get a sharp image on the paper (Screen) before measuring the object

A
distance and image distance
·

AN
Procedure:
Take a V-Stand and place it on a long table (nearly 2 meter) at the middle. Place a convex
lens of known focal length on the V-stand. Imagine the principal axis of the lens. Identify
F,C on both sides of the lens. Light a candle and put it far away from the lens along the

G
principal axis. Adjust the screen (a white paper placed perpendicular to the axis) which
is on other side of the lens until get an image on it. Measure the object distance(u) and
N
image distance(v) from the lens. Record the values. Repeat the experiment with different
object distances and measure the image distances. When you do not get an image on the
A
screen, try to see the image with your eye in the lens from the place of the screen.
EL

· Observations:
Position of the object Position of the image Characteristics of the image
T

At far distance (Infinity) Focal Point (F1) Point size image, Real image
T,

Beyond “C2” Between “F” and “C” Inverted, Diminished, Real

ER

At “C2” At “C1” Inverted, same size, Real

Between “F2” and “C2” Beyond “C1” Inverted, Magnified, Real

SC

At “F2” Infinity ———

Between “F2” and “P” Behind the object (Same side of the lens) Erected, Magnified, Virtual

Result:
i. In most of the conditions convex lens forms real and inverted image.
ii. While we move the object towards the lens image moves away from the lens generally

iii. In every situation is constant.

27
 Lens Formula:

Where, f – focal length

v-image distance
u-object distance.
Magnification:The ratio of height of image to the height of the object is known as
magnification. In the case of lens, it is equal to ratio of image distance to the object

A
distance.

AN
TO CHECK WHETHER THE FOCAL LENGTH OF A LENS DEPENDS ON THE
SURROUNDING MEDIUM.

G
· Aim: To check whether the focal length of a lens depends on the surrounding medium
· Material required: Convex lens of known focal length, cylindrical vessel having height

· Precautions:
A N
much greater than the focal length of the lens, black stone, water, circular lens holder.

i. Move the lens upward slowly.

EL

ii. Observe carefully that at what distance the clarity of vision is missing through the lens.
· Procedure:
T

Take a cylindrical vessel having height/depth much greater than the focal length of the
lens taken. Place a black stone inside the vessel at the bottom. Pour water into the
vessel up to the height such that the height of the water level from the top of the stone
T,

is four times more than the focal length of the lens. Take the lens and fix it in circular
lens holder. Now dip the lens horizontally in water using holder. Set the distance
ER

between stone and the lens that it is less than the focal length of the lens. Look at the
stone through the lens. Increase the distance between lens and stone until you can’t see
the stone clearly through the lens.
·
SC

Observations: You can see the stone through the lens placed in water even the distance
between the lens and stone is more than the focal length of the lens measured in air.
· Result:
i. Focal length of the lens is more, when it is measured in water than that of when it is
measured in air.
ii. Focal length of the lens depends on surrounding medium.
ã Convex lens behaves like a diverging lens (concave lens) when it is kept in a transparent
medium with greater refractive index than that of the lens.
ã Concave lens behaves like a converging lens(convex lens) when it is kept in a transparent
medium with greater refractive index than that of the lens.

28
 ã Lens Makers formula:

Where, f – Focal length.

n- Relative refractive index of lens and surrounding medium.
R1- Radius of curvature of first surface of the lens.
R2- Radius of curvature of second surface of the lens.
Sign convention related to all the formulae of lenses:
1. All the distances should be measured from the optic centre.

A
2. The distances measured in the direction of incident light to be taken positive and those
measured in the direction opposite to incident ray to be taken negative.

AN
3. Height of the object (ho) and height of the image (hi) are positive if measured upwards
from the principal axis and negative if measured downwards.

G
ASSESSMENT

Very Short AnswerQuestions

1. Compete the following diagram.
A N
EL

C2 F2 F1 C1
T

2. What happens, if a parallel beam of light which makes some angle with principal axis
incident on a convex lens?
T,

3. How do you represent convex lens and concave lens while drawing ray diagrams?
ER

4. Why convex lens used as magnifier?

5. List out the material used in the experiment to show that focal length of a lens depends
on surrounding medium where it was placed.
SC

6. How do you say that focal length of concave lens is always negative?
Short Answer Questions
1. How light rays behave when passing through optic centre of convex lens and concave
lens?
2. Write the difference between real and virtual images.
3. Write any two precautions taken by you while conducting an experiment to find image
distances for different object distances.
4. What happens, if concave lens is used as magnifier instead of convex lens in micro
scope?

29
 5. Complete the following diagrams.

C
C2 , FF21, FF1 C
C1 CC1 FF1 F
F2 C
C2
1 2, 2, 2, 2, 1, 1,

6. Magnification of an image formed due to a convex lens is -1.5. Guess and write the position
of object and image.
7. Draw a ray diagram to obtain an image formed due to a concave lens, when object placed

A
between centre of curvature and focus on the principal axis.

AN
8. State the differences between convex and concave lens.
Essay Type Questions
1. Write rules to draw ray diagrams for image formation by lenses.

G
2. Draw ray diagrams to obtain images, when object is placed at centre of curvature and
focus on the principal axis of convex lens, and also write characteristics of images.
3.
A N
Write the names of the apparatus which are used in the experiment to find image
distances for different object distances using convex lens. also write experimental
procedure.
EL

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Identify convexo-concave lens in the following ( )
T

A) B) C) D)
T,
ER

2. A parallel beam of light incident on a convex lens, after refraction they converge to a
point on the principal axis at 15 cm. Focal length of the lens is ( )
SC

A) 5 cm B) 7.5 cm C) 15 cm D) 30 cm
3. Magnification of an image formed due to a lens is -0.75. Then the image is ( )
A)Real, Magnified B) Real, diminished
C) Virtual, Magnified D) Virtual, diminished
4. Which of the following light ray is undeviated, when it incident on convex lens ( )
A) Ray passing through “C1” B) Ray passing through “F 1”
C)Ray passing through “P” D) Ray passing parallel to principal axis
5. An object placed between centre of curvature and focus of convex lens, then the signs of
object distance and image distance respectively are ( )
A) +, - B) +, + C) -, - D) -, +
30
 5. HUMAN EYE AND COLOURFUL WORLD

· The human eye, it is the most valuable and sensitive sense organ which help us to see the
beauty and the colorful world around us. It is similar to a camera. We all have been gifted
with two eyes which give a wider field of view.
· The least distance up to which we can see the objects clearly without any strain is called
least distance of distinct vision. Least distance of distinct vision for a normal human
being is 25cm.

A
· The various parts of the human eye and their respective functions include

AN
ciliary
muscles

iris

G
retina
pupil
lens

aqueous
humour
A
cornea
N
optic nerve
EL

Part Function
T

Cornea Protective layer of the eye.

Pupil Regulates the amount of light entering the eye.
T,

Iris Controls the size of the pupil.

Retina Acts as a screen for forming the image.
ER

Ciliary muscles Adjust the focal length of the lens.

Optic nerves Send signals to the brain.
SC

· The numerous light-sensitive cells contained (125 millions) in the retina of the eye are of
two types:
ã Rod-shaped cells which respond to the brightness or intensity of light.
ã Cone-shaped cells which respond to the colour of light.

Power of Accommodation of the Human Eye

· The ability of the eye lens to adjust its focal length by the help of the ciliary muscles
according to the object distances is called power of accommodation.
· The farthest point up to which the eye can see objects clearly and forms image on retina is
called the far point (M) of the eye. It is ideally infinity for a normal eye.
31
 · The point of closest distance at which an object can be seen clearly by the eye and forms
image on retina is called the near point (H) of the eye. For a normal eye, the near point is
25 cm, which is called the least distance of distinct vision of a normal eye.
· Maximum focal length of human eye lens is 2.5 cm.
· Minimum focal length of human eye lens is 2.27 cm.
Defects of Vision
Myopia or Short-Sightedness
A person with myopia can see nearby objects clearly but cannot see distant objects distinctly,

A
as if the far point of the eye has shifted from infinity to some particular distance from the
eye.

AN
M L

G
Myopic eye
L
M
A N
Far Point of Myopic Eye (M)
EL
L

M
T

Correction for Myopic Eye

This defect arise when the maximum focal length of eye lens is less than 2.5cm
T,

To correct myopia, the person has to wear spectacles with a concave lens of focal length
equal to the distance of far point of the myopic eye.
ER

The lens used to correct myopia has a negative focal length and the power of lens is also
negative.
SC

Hypermetropia or Long-Sightedness

A person with hypermetropia can see objects lying at large distances clearly but
cannot see nearby objects clearly, as if the near point of the eye has shifted away from the
eye.
L L
H H

Hypermetropic Eye Near point of Hypermetropic Eye (H)

32
 L
H

Correction for Hypermetropic Eye

This defect arises when the minimum focal length of the eye lens is more the 2.27cm.

To correct hypermetropia, the person has to wear spectacles with a convex lens of focal

A
length f, given by

AN
25d
f= , where 'd' is the distance of near point of the hypermetropic eye.
d - 25

· The lens used to correct hypermetropia has a possitive focal length and the power of lens

G
is also positive.

Presbyopia

·
A N
Presbyopia is a human eye defect generally observed in old age people.
EL

· It occurs in old age when the ciliary muscles holding the eye lens weaken and loses some of
its flexibility. some times a person may suffer from both myopia and hypermetropia with
ageing
T

· To correct this type of defect of vision we need bi-focal lenses which are formed using
T,

both concave and convex lenses.The upper part of a bi-focal lens consists of concave
lens facilitating distant vision, and the lower part consists of convex lens facilitating
ER

nearby vision.

Power of lens:
SC

The degree of convergence or divergence of light rays that can be achieved by a lens is
expressed in terms of its power. The reciprocal of focal length is called power of lens.

Let ‘f’ be the focal length of lens.

Power of lens P = 1 / f(in m); P = 100 / f (in cm)

The unit of power is dioptre. It is denoted by the letter ‘D’.

33
Prism:
A prism is a transparent medium separated from surrounding medium by at least two plane
surfaces inclined by certain angle.
uuuur
BM = incident ray..
uuur
NC emergent ray
P

ÐA angle of prism
Normal A
d
Normal
Ði1 angle of incidence
i1

A
B M i2
A t ra
y N
Em C
Ði2 angle of emergence
den
Inci erg

AN
en D
tr
ay Ðd angle of deviation
(Angle between the incident ray and emergent ray is
Q R
called. angle of deviation)

G
Refractive index of prism- Experiment (Lab Activity)
A
Aim: Finding the refractive index of the material used to make a prism
N
Material Required: Prism, Piece of white chart, pencil, pins, scale and protractor.
EL

Procedure:
P
1. Take a prism, place it on white chart with its
T

triangular base on chart. Draw a line around the Normal

A

prism and remove it. d

T,

O Normal
i1
2. Identity the vertices of formed triangle as P, Q M i2
B N
and R. and measure angle of prism A. C
ER

A
D
3. Mark a point M on side PQ and draw a
uuur
perpendicular line P Q at M
Q R
SC

0
4. Draw a line making 30 angle with normal. That Pin
Line is incident ray and angle of incidence is
30°
5. Now place the prism on triangle D PQR as kept initially. Fix two pins at A and B on
incident ray
6. By observing from PR side, fix another two pins on paper, such that the images of first two
pins coincide with them. Mark the points as C and D.
7. Remove the prism and pins. Draw a line by joining C and D. This line is emergent ray.
uuur uuur uuur
8. Mark point 'N' where C D meets P R . Draw a normal to P R at N. The angle made by
emergent raywith normal is angle of emergence.
34
 9. Record the values of angle of incident and angle emergence in table. Repeat this experiment
for different angle of incidences.

Angle of incidence Angle of emergence Angle of deviation

(i1) (i2) (d)

A
10. Join M and N by a line. Extend incident ray and emergent ray such that they meet at O. The
angle between these two rays is angle of deviation (d)

AN
11. Draw a graph by taking angle of incidence on x-axis Y

Angle of deviation d
and angle of deviation on Y-axis. The graph is a
smooth curve. The angle of minimum deviation (D)

G
will be identified from the graph. D

12. By substituting the values of A and D in the

following formula we can find refractive index of

sin (
A
A+ D
)
N i1=i2
Angle of incidence i1
X

2
EL

prism. n= A
sin ( )
2
T

Observations:
i) As angle of incidence increases, angle of deviation first decreases upto some extent and
T,

increases
(ii) The graph of angle of incidence and angle of deviation is a Smooth curve.
ER

Precautions:
1) Take triangular surface of prism as base.
SC

2) Record the readings without any parallax

Dispersed light
Result: White
light
The refractive index of prism =___________________
Formation of artificial rainbow-class room activity
1) Take a metal plate and fill 3/4 of it with water Water
2) Keep a plane mirror in tray such that its surface makes Mirror
some angle with water Metal
tray
3) Send white light onto the mirror through water.
4) we can observe a rainbow on a white board which kept at some height from this arrangement.

35
Dispersion of Light
- When white light is passed through prism, it divides into seven colours (VIBGYOR). The
splitting of white light into different colours is called dispersion.
- Velocity of all colours of light is same in vaccum. But when they travel in other medium,
their velocity depends on their wave length. So, the light is dividing into different colours.
- In VIBGYOR, the wave length of red colour (R) is more, so. it deviates less and voilet
colour (V) wavelength is less, so, it deviates more.
- Number of light waves produced by light source in one second is frequency. This frequency
does not change by any medium. So, frequency does not change in refraction also.

A
- When only one colour light is sent through prism it does not divide into different colours.

AN
It will emerge as same colour.
- The relation between speed of light (V), wavelength (l)and frequency (g) is V = gl
Formation of rainbow in sky

G
- Formation of rainbow in sky is a combined effect
Su n l
of refraction, dispersion and total internal ig ht

-
reflection.
A N
When sunlight falls on water drop from top, first
Water drop

it refracts and then dispersed into seven colours

EL

40o
- All the colours go to second side of water drop 42o
and undergo total internal reflection. They reach
T

to bottom surface of water drop.

let
- Then each colour is again refracted into air. Vio
d
T,

Re
- We observe the rainbow when the angle between
incoming and outgoing rays is between 400 to 42°
ER

Daily life examples of dispersion:

1. After the rain we see rainbow in sky due to dispersion of light
2. When petrol/diesel mixed with water we can see different colours due to dispersion
SC

3. Due to dispersion we can see different colours on soap bubble.

4. We can see different colours on CD/DVD due to dispersion.
Scattering of Light:
- The process of re-emission of absorbed light in all Scattered light
Sun light
directions with different intensities by atoms or
molecules, is called scattering of Light
Atom
- The angle between scattered light and incident light is
angle of scattering. Intensity of scattered light will be
more when the angle of scattering is 90°

36
 - When we look the sky in a direction perpendicular to the directions of sunrays, it appears
blue.
Reason for blue colour of the Sky
- The sunlight which is entering into the Earth's atmosphere, will be scattered due to gases
and dust particles.
- The light colour released due to scattering depends on the size of the particles
- The sizes of nitrogen and oxygen molecules in atmosphere are comparable to wavelength
of blue colour. So these particles are scattering centres of blue colour.

A
So, the blue colour scatters more and the sky appears as blue.

AN
The reason for appearance of red colour of Sun during Sunrise and at sunset
- The light from the sun needs to travel more distance in atmosphere during sunrise and
sunset to reach your eye

G
- Except red colour light, all colours scatter more and vanish. Before they reach you.
-
-
N
Due to less scattering of red colour, it reaches our eye.
As a result sun appears red in colour during sunrise and sunset
A
ASSESSMENT
EL

Very Short Answer Questions

1. Explain power of accommodation of the eye?
T

2. Write one function of iris in human eye.

3. A person with a myopic eye cannot see objects beyond 1.2 m distinctly. Which type
T,

of lens is to be used to restore proper vision? What is the value of focal length of that
lens?
ER

4. Write about far point and near point of the normal human eye.
5. Explain angle of deviation in your own words.
SC

6. Write the formula to find refractive index of prism.

7. Write about dispersion of light
8. What happens, if red colour light is passed through prism?
9. In the dispersion of white light through prism, violet colour, deviates more. Why?
10. Why do soap bubbles are colourful sometimes?
11. The danger signals along the road are coloured with red. Why?
12. List out the material used for observing artificial rainbow in classroom.
13. Explain scattering in your own words
37
Short Answer Questions
1. I can comfortably read a book but find a difficulty to read the number on a bus parked 5 m
away from me. Name the type of defect of vision that I am suffering from. Which type of
lens should I use to correct my vision?
2. If we increase the distance of an object from the eye, what happens to the image distance
in the eye?
3. We will not be able to see the things clearly when we come out of a darkroom, why?
4. What is the cause for Presbyopia? Name the type of lens used to correct it.

A
5. What happens if ciliary muscles does not function well?

AN
6. Like prism, does the white light disperses through glass slab. Why?
7. Write the precautions, that should be taken, in the experiment, finding the refractive index
of a prism.

G
8. How the rainbow is formed in the sky?
9.
prism.
A N
Write the reason for the splitting of white light into seven colours, when it passes through

10. Sun appears in red colour during sunrise and sunset. Explain the reason.
EL

11. Why sky appears white sometimes on hot days?

12. In which colours the sky is visible to austronauts? Why?
T

13. Explain the formation of artificial rainbow with an activity

Essay Type Questions

T,

1. Observe the diagram given below and answer the questions.

ER

L
H
SC

(a) Which defect of vision is represented here? Give reason for your answer.
(b) What could be the cause of this defect?
2. A 14-year old student is not able to see clearly the questions written on the blackboard placed at
a distance of 5 m from him.
(a) Name the defect of vision he is suffering from.
(b) Name the type of lens to be used to correct this defect.

3. Write the experiment method, to find the refractive index of material of prism.
4. Explain the process of formation of rainbow in sky.
38
 5. What is the reason for the blue colour appearance of sky. Explain?
6. How will you explain scattering of light with an experiment?

Multiple Choice Questions

1. The minimum focal length of the human eye lens is ( )
A) 2.5 m B) 2.5 cm C) 2.27 cm D) 2.05 cm
2. The least distance of distinct vision for an adult with normal vision is about ( )
A) 25 m B) 2.5 cm C) 25 cm D) 2.5 m
3. Name the defect of vision whose near point is more than 25 cm away. ( )

A
A) Myopia B) Hypermetropia C) presbyopia D) No defect

AN
4. Which optical device is useful to read the small letters found in the Dictionary. ( )
A) Convex lens
B) Concave lens

G
C) Convex lens mirror
D) Concave lens mirror

minimum deviation
A N
5. The angle and refractive index of the prism are respectively 60° and 1.414, then the angle of
( )
EL

A) 550 B) 450 C)300 D) 600

6. Colour of the light which has least wavelength in VIBGYOR is ( )
T

A) Red B) Blue C) Green D) Voilet

7. Reason for the blue colour of sky ( )
T,

A) Dispersion of light B) Scattering of light

ER

c) Refraction of light D) Total Internal reflection

8. In refraction of light the value of ______ does not change ( )
A) wavelength B) speed of light C) frequency D) intensity
SC

9. The shape of rainbow when observed from aeroplane ( )

A) cone B) circle C) triangle D) sphere
10. In the following, the effect of dispersion of light is ( )
A) Formation of mirage B) Blue colour of sky
c) formation of Rainbow D) Twinkling of stars
11. The red colour will be seen when the angle between a beam of sunlight and light sent back by a
drop of rain water is ( )
A) 300 B) 400 C) 420 D) 900
39
 6. STRUCTURE OF ATOM
Bohr’s model of hydrogen atom and its limitations
· Electrons in an atom occupy stationary orbits (states) of fixed energy at different distances
from the nucleus.
· When an electron jumps from a lower energy state (ground state) to higher energy states
(excited state) it absorbs energy and emits energy when such a jump occurs from a higher
energy state to a lower energy state.
· The energies of an electron in an atom can have only certain values.
E1, E2 , E3 that is the energy is quantized
· The states corresponding to these energies are called stationary states and the possible

A
values of the energy are called energy levels.
·

AN
The lowest evergy state of the electron is known as ground state.
· When electron absorbs energy. The electron moves to a higher energy level i.e. to the excited
state
· The electron loses the energy and comes back to its ground state

G
· The energy emitted by the electron is seen in the form of elecromagnetic energy and when
the wave length is in the visible region it is visible
Limitations:
·
·
N
Bohr’s model failed to account for splitting of line spectra.
A
It could not explain the spectrum of atoms with more than one electron.
Quantum numbers are useful to explain the structure of atom
EL

Ø These numbers indicates the probability of finding electron in the space around the nucleus.
Ø Principal Quantum number (n): It gives the information about the size and energy of an
orbit.
Ø
T

The angular momentum Quantum number (l): It gives the information about the shapes of
sub energy levels.
Ø The magnetic Quantum number ml: These values describe the orientation of the orbital in
T,

space relative to the other orbitals in the atom.

Ø Spin Quantum number ms This quantum number refers to the spin of an electron.
ER

Quantum numbers are useful to interpret the electronic configuration of atoms

· Principal quantum number (n) indicates the orbit (main energy level) in which the electron
is present.
Ex: In the orbits 1s, 2s, 3s, 3p etc, the numbers 1,2,3… indicate the Principal quantum numbers.
SC

n value 1 2 3 4 5 6

shell K L M N O P
· The angular momentum quantum number (l) gives the information about the orbital into
which the electron enters.

Orbital (Sub energy level) s p d f

l value 0 1 2 3

40
 · The magnetic quantum number (ml) indicates the degenerate orbital into which the electron
enters.
Sub energy level l value mlvalue orbital
s 0 0 s
p 1 -1,0,+1 px, py, pz
d 2 -2, -1, 0, +1, +2 dxy, dyzdxz, dx2 -y2 , dz2

· The spin quantum number gives the information about the direction of spin of the electron.
Direction of spin of electron Spin quantum number (ms)

A
Clock wise (­) +½
Anti clock wise (¯)

AN
-½

n l ml –|Ÿ¿s£ ÎÁ sÁ+ dŸ+¿¹ Ôá+ –|Ÿ¿s£ ÎÁ sÁ+ýË >·\£ €]Ò{²Þøß dŸ+K«

1 0 0 1s 1

G
0 0 2s 1
2
1 -1,0,+1 2p 3

3
0
1
0
-1,0,+1
A
3p
3s N 1
3
EL

2 -2,-1,0,+1,+2 3d 5
0 0 4s 1
1 -1,0,+1 4p 3
T

4
2 -2,-1,0,+1,+2 4d 5
T,

3 -3,-2,-1,0,+1,+2,+3 4f 7

To find the set of four quantum numbers of a given electron.

ER

· If the electronic configuration of an element ‘X’, whose atomic number 12 is, 1s2 2s22p63s2.
The set of four quantum numbers of 12th electron is
#
12th electron is in 3s2
# 12th electron
SC

The four quantum numbers:

n = 3, l = 0, ml = 0, ms = + ½ or – ½
Shapes of orbitals
· The shape of the orbital whose n=0, l=0, and ml = 0 is spherical. It is ‘1s’ orbital.

1s orbital

41
 · Shape of ‘p’ orbital is dumbbell.

Shape of Orbital
·

A
Shape of ‘d’ orbital is double dumbbell.

AN
G
A
The filling of order of atomic orbitals (Moeller chart)
N
T EL
T,
ER
SC

Rules useful to fill up of electron in the orbitals

· Pauli’s exclusion principle:No two electrons of the same atom can have all four quantum
numbers the same.

42
 · Aufbau Principle:Electrons occupy orbitals, in the increasing order of their (n+l) values.
If (n+l) values are same, then electron enters into the orbital whose ‘n’ value is less.
Ex: After filling up of 3p, electron enters into 4s, but not 3d. why?
Orbital n value l value (n+l) value
4s 4 0 4
3d 3 2 5
According to this the (n+l) value of 4s is less than 3d. Hence the electron first enters into
4s orbital.
· Hund’s rule:Electron pairing in degenerate orbitals starts only when all available empty

A
orbitals are singly occupied.

AN
Ex: The electronic configuration of Carbon (6C) is 1s22s22p2. In this the first 4 electrons enter
into 1s and 2s orbitals. The next two electrons go into separate 2p orbitals, with both
electrons having the same spin.
· Electronic configuration of Chlorine is – 1s22s22p63s23p5

G
· Electronic configuration of Copper is – 1s22s22p63s23p64s13d10
·
Sodium electronic configuration is 1s22s22p63s1
The first electron of L shell is 2s1
A N
Write the four quantum numbers of first electron in L shell of Sodium.
EL

The four quantum numbers are:

2s1 electron n l ml ms
T

1st electron 2 0 0 +v2 or v2

ASSESSMENT
T,

Very Short Answer Questions

ER

1. Write the electronic configurations of Chromium and Sodium.

2. Write 'n' + l value for 5p and 4d.
3. Explain line spectra.
SC

4. Draw the shapes of p- orbital.

Short Answer Questions
1. Write the four quantum numbers of the 12th electron of an element ‘X’ whose electronic
configuration is 1s2 2s22p63s2.
2. Write about quantum numbers.
3. If Hund’s rule is not available, guess and write the changes in the electronic configuration
of Nitrogen.
4. If Hund’s rule is not available, guess and write the changes in the electronic configuration
of Carbon.
5. Draw the shape of the orbital whose n = 1, l = 0, ml = 0.

43
Essay Type Questions
1. Write the important postulates of Bohr’s model of hydrogen atom and its limitations.
2. Explain Aufbau principle with an example.
3. Explain Hund’s rule with an example.
4. Write the four quantum numbers of first electron in K shell of Sodium atom whose electronic
configuration is 1s22s22p63s1
5. Explain the role of quantum numbers in finding the probability of finding electron around
the nucleus of an atom.
6. The four quantum numbers of distinguished electron of an atom are as follows:

A
n l ml ms

AN
3 0 0 +½
i) Write the outer most orbit of this element.
ii) Write the electronic configuration of this element.

G
iii) Write the atomic number of this element.
iv) Write the valency of this element.
Multiple Choice Questions
A N
1. The orbital with highest energy level among 3s,3p, 4s, and 3d is ( )
EL

A) 3s B) 4s C) 3p D) 3d
2. If n = 4, then the number of orbitals in the subshells is ( )
T

A) 16 B) 9 C) 4 D) 10
3. Which of the following is the correct electronic configuration? ( )
T,

A) 1s22s22p7 B) 1s22s32p6
C) 1s12s22p6 D) 1s22s22p6
ER

4. Which of the following is the configuration of an inert gas? ( )

A) 1s22s12p7 B) 1s22s32p5 C) 1s12s32p5 D) 1s22s22p6
SC

5. The orbital occupied by the 7th electron Na atom is ( )

A) 2px B) 2py C) 2pz D) 2s
6. The atomic number of an element is 19. 1s22s22p63s23p64s1. Its valency is ( )
A) 2 B) 3 C) 4 D) 1
7. The elements with the orbitals fully or partially filled are stable. The valency of copper
whose atomic number 29 is ( )
A) [Ar]4s13d10 B) [Ar]4s2 3d9 C) [Ar]4s13p53d5 D) [Ar] 3p3 4s13d10
8. The electron first occupies the following orbital according to Aufbau rule ( )
A) 5s B) 4p C) 3d D) 5p

44
 7. CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS –
THE PERIODIC TABLE

· Robert Boyle defined an element as any substance that cannot be decomposed into
further simple substances by a physical or chemical change.
· Scientists discovered more than 118 elements. As the number of elements increased, it
became difficult to keep in memory the chemistries of individual elements and their

A
compounds. So, there was a need to classify them in a better way.

AN
· Various ways have been explored to scientifically classify elements based on their physical
and chemical properties to form their compounds. Atomic numbers and Atomic weights
were used to arrange the elements in order.
·

G
Atomic number (Z): The sum of positive charges in the atom of an element is called the
atomic number (Z).
·

·
N
Atomic Weight (A): The sum of protons and neutrons in an element is called the atomic
weight.(A) For example, Atomic weight of Helium is A = p + n = 2+2 = 4.
A
The prominent scientists among those who classified the elements were Johann Wolfgang
EL

Dobereiner, John Newlands, Mendeleev and Mosley.

DOBEREINER’S LAW OF TRIADS
·
T

The first classification of elements was made by Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner, a German
Chemist. He identified groups of three elements that had the same chemical properties and
called them Triad.
T,

· According to Dobereiner “the atomic weight of the middle element is the average of the
atomic weights of the first and third elements”. This statement is called Dobereiner’s law
ER

of triads.
Example for Dobereiner triads: A(Li, Na, K), B (Ca, Sr, Ba), C(Cl, Br, I), D(S, Se,Te) E(Mn,
Cr, Fe) .
SC

Group Atomic weight of element Average weight of 1st and 3rd elements

A Li (7.0) Na(23.0) K (39.0) 7.0+39.0/ 2 = 23. 0

Limitations of Dobereiner’s Law of Triads :

· All the known elements at that time could not be arranged in the form of triads.
· The law failed for very low mass or for very high mass elements .
· As the techniques improved for measuring atomic masses accurately the law was unable
to remain strictly valid.
45
Newland’s Law of Octaves
· John Newlands was a British Chemist. He found that when elements were arranged in the
ascending order of their atomic weight, they appeared to fall into seven groups, in which
their properties repeat at regular intervals.
· According to Newlands when elements are arranged in the ascending order of their atomic
weights “ Every eighth element starting from a given element resembles in its properties to
that of given element”. This is called Newlands law of Octaves.
Limitations of Newland’s Law of Octaves :
· He placed two elements into the same slot. Ex: Cobalt and Nickel
· Certain elements were totally dissimilar in their properties and were placed in the same

A
group. For Example, He arranged Co, Ni, Pd and Ir which have different properties compared
with Halogens (F, Cl, Br, I ) in the same row.

AN
· This table was restricted to only 56 elements and did not leave any room for new elements.
· He attempted to link the periodicity of the chemical properties of elements with the
periodicity found in music.

G
Mendeleeff’s Periodic Table
·

·
A N
Dimitri Ivanovich Mendeleeff, a Russian Chemist arranged the elements known at that
time in a table in the increasing order of their atomic weights.
Mendeleeff‘s Periodic law states that “ the physical and chemical properties of the
elements are periodic functions of the atomic weights”.
EL

· Mendeleff tried to explain the similarities of elements in the same group in terms of their
common valency.
· He divided the table into 8 vertical columns called groups. They are represented by Roman
T

numerals I to VIII. Elements present in a given vertical column have similar properties.
Each group divided into A, B sub groups.
T,

· The Horizontal rows in Mendeleeffs periodic table are called Periods. Elements in a period
differ in their properties.
·
ER

He predicted some elements were missing and he left blank spaces at the appropriate places
in the table.
· He predicted the properties of these additional elements in advance and named those
predicted elements tentatively by adding the prefix ‘eka’( eka is Sanskrit word for numeral
SC

one ) to the name of the element immediately. eka-boron, eka-aluminium and eka-silicon
were almost the same as those of Scandium, Gallium and Germanium respectively which
were discovered later.
PREDICTION OF ELEMENTS BY MENDELEEFF
Predicted element New element
eka-boron Scandium
eka-aluminium Gallium
eka-silicon Germanium
· The placement of elements in Mendeleev’s periodic table helped in correcting the atomic
masses of some elements like beryllium, indium and gold.
46
Limitations of Mendeleeff’s Periodic Table:
· Certain elements of the highest atomic weight precede those with lower atomic weight.
· Dissimilar elements placed together in the same group. For example Cl is VII A group
element and Mn is VII B element, but Chlorine is a nonmetal, whereas Manganese is a
Metal.
Modern Periodic Table (Long form of Periodic Table)
· The modern periodic table which is based on the modern periodic law is called the long
form of the periodic table. This was proposed by Moseley.
· Modern periodic law:- It may be stated as “The properties of the elements are periodic

A
functions of their atomic numbers.
· The modern periodic table has 18 vertical columns known as groups and 7 horizontal rows

AN
known as periods.
Positions of Elements according to Modern Periodic Table
· The elements with similar outer shell electronic configurations in their atoms are in the

G
same column called Group.
Examples: Li :1s2 2s1; Na: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 etc.
·
N
Depending upon which subshell the differentiating electron i.e., the last coming electron
enters in the atom of the given element, the elements are classified as s, p, d and f block
elements.
A
EL

· s-block Elements: If the differentiating electron enters into the s- subshell, then such
elements are called s-block elements.
Example: Na = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 and Ca= 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2
T

(IA, IIA Group elements)

· p–block Elements: If the differentiating electron enters into the p – subshell, then such
T,

elements are called p-block elements.

Example: Ar = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
ER

(IIIA to VIIIA Group elements)

· d –block Elements: If the differentiating electron enters into the d-subshell, then such
elements are called d-block elements.
SC

Example: Sc = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d1

· f-block Elements: If the differentiating electron enters into the f-subshell, then such
elements are called f-block elements.
Example: Pr = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 5d1 4f 2
Groups:
· The vertical columns in the modern periodic table are known as groups. There are 18
groups, They are represented by using Roman Numbers I to VIII with letters A and B in
traditional notation or According to IUPAC, these groups are represented by Hindu Arabic
numbers 1– 18 .
Example :-Group 2 (II A) ; Group 16 (VI A).

47
Periods:
· The horizontal rows in the periodic table are called periods. There are 7 periods. These
periods are represented by Arabic Numerals 1 to 7.
· The number of main shells present in the atom of a particular element decides to which
period it belongs.
· The first period contains only 2 elements H and He.
· The second period contains 8 elements and consists of two s- block elements ( Li, Be) and
Six p –block elements ( B, C, N, O, F & Ne ).
· Third period starts with the third main shell ( M ). 3rd period contains only 8 elements,

A
which include 2 s-block elements ( Na, Mg) and six p-block elements ( Al, Si, P, S, Cl &
Ar).

AN
· Fourth period contains 18 elements which include 2 s-block (K, Ca) elements; 10 elements
from d-block (Sc to Zn) and 6 elements from p-block.

G
· On the same lines, the Fifth period also contains 18 elements. There are 32 elements in
the sixth period which includes 2 elements from s-block ( 6s), 14 elements from f-block

·
·
7th Period is incomplete.
A N
(4f), 10 elements from d-block (5d) and 6 elements from p-block (6p).

4f elements are called Lanthanoids (or) Lanthanides. 5f elements are called Actinoids
EL

(or) Actinides.
· The f-block elements known as Lanthanides & Actinides are shown separately at the
bottom of the periodic table.
T

Periodic properties of elements in the Modern Periodic Table

· The physical and chemical properties of the elements in the periodic table are related to
T,

their outermost shell electronic configuration.

· The elements in the same group of the periodic table possess the same valence shell
ER

electronic configuration. Hence the elements in the same group possess the same chemical
properties. Their physical properties change gradually. The recurrence or repetition of
properties of the elements with similar(valence) electronic configuration at regular intervals
SC

is called periodicity.
· In a period, as we move from left to right the atomic number increases by one unit and so no
two elements possess the same valence electronic configuration. Hence in a period the
chemical properties of the elements would be different from other elements. The physical
properties of the elements in a period change gradually.
Properties of elements and their trends in Periods and Groups
1. Valency:
· Valency of an element is the combining capacity of an element with respect to hydrogen,
oxygen or indirectly any other element through hydrogen and oxygen.
· Valency of an element with respect to hydrogen is the number of hydrogen atoms with
which one atom of that element chemically combines.
48
 · Valency of an element with respect to oxygen is twice the number of oxygen atoms with
which one atom of that element combines.
Eg: i. What is the valency of sodium in NaH?
The number of hydrogen atoms in NaH is 1, so the valency of Na is 1.
ii. What is the valency of calcium in CaO?
The number of oxygen atoms in CaO is 1.
So, the valency of Ca is twice the number of oxygen atoms in CaO = 2 x 1 = 2.
2. Atomic radius:

A
· Atomic radius or atomic size is defined as the distance from the centre of the nucleus of
an element to its outermost shell. It is measured in ‘pm’ (picometer) units 1 pm = 10-12m

AN
· In a group, atomic radii increases from top to bottom. This is because of addition of an
extra shell in the electronic configuration of elements which results in the increase of the
distance between the centre of the nucleus and the outermost shell.

G
Group Element (atomic radius in pm)

Group1

Group 17 (VII)
A N
Li (152), Na (186), K (231), Rb (244) and Cs (262)

F (64), Cl (99), Br (114), I (133) and At (140)

·
EL

In a period, atomic radii decreases as we move from left to right. This is because, as we
go from left to right in a period, the atomic number increases by one unit and the incoming
electron enters into the same shell with which the nuclear attraction on the outer shell
electrons increases. As a result, the size of the atom decreases.
T

Period Element (atomic radius in pm)

T,

2nd period Li (152), Be (111), B (88), C (77), N (74), O (66), F (64)

ER

3rd period Na (186), Mg (160), Al (143), Si (117), P (110), S (104), Cl (99)

3. Ionization energy:
· The energy required to remove an electron from the outer most orbit or shell of a neutral
SC

gaseous atom is called ionization energy. It is measured in KJ/mol units.

· The energy required to remove the first electron from the outermost orbit or shell of a
gaseous neutral atom of the element is called its first ionization energy.
· The energy required to remove an electron from a uni-positive ion of the element is called
its second ionization energy.
· Usually, the second ionization energy of an element is higher than its first ionization
energy.
· M(g) + IE1 ——> M+(g) + e - (IE1 = First ionization energy).
· M+(g) + IE2 ——> M+2(g) + e - (M+ = uni-positive ion; IE2 = Second ionization
energy).
49
Ionization energy of an element depends on the following factors:
Ionozation Energy of an element depends on its
Nuclear Charge More the nuclear charge more is the ionization energy.
Screening Effect or As the number of shells increase between the nucleus and the
Shielding Effect valence electrons increases the ionization energy decreases.
Penetration power of Orbitals belonging to the same main shell have different piercing
the orbitals power towards the nucleus.
Stable Configuration Atoms with stable configuration have more ionization energy.

A
Atomic Radius As the atomic radius increases ionization energy decreases.

AN
4. Electron affinity:
· The energy liberated when an electron is added to a neutral gaseous atom of an element
is called affinity. Electron affinity of an element is also called electron gain enthalpy of

G
that element. It is expressed in the units of KJ mol-1.
·
·
M (g) + e - ——> M- + E1
N
( M = neutral gaseous atom, E1 = First electron affinity).
The energy liberated when an electron is added to a uni-negative ion is called second
electron affinity.
A
EL

· M- (g) + e - ——> M-2 + E2 ( M- = uni negative ion, E2 = Second electron affinity).

· In a period, as we move from left, the value of electron affinity increases gradually.
· In a group, as we move from top to bottom, the value of electron affinity decreases
T

gradually.
Group Electron affinity value (in KJ mol-1)
T,

VIIA (Halogens) F (-328) Cl (-349) Br (-325) I (295) At (270)

ER

Group 17 (VII) O (-141), S (-200), Ge (-195), Te (-190), Po (-174)

· Metals have very low electron affinity. Alkaline earth metals have even positive electron
SC

affinity.
· Negative values of electron affinity indicates that energy is liberated or lost.
· Positive values of electron affinity indicates that energy is absorbed or gained.
· All the factors which influence the ionization energy also influence the electron affinity.
· The element with highest electron affinity is Chlorine (Cl).
5. Electronegativity:
· The electronegativity of an element is defined as the relative tendency of its atom to
attract electrons towards itself when it is bonded to the atom of another element.
· It has no units but expressed in Pauling‘s scale. Pauling assigned the electronegativity
values for elements on the basis of their bond energies.
50
 · All the factors that influence the ionization energy and the electron affinity of elements
also influence the electronegativity values of those elements.
· Mulliken proposed that the electronegativity of an element is the average of its ionization
energy and electron affinity.
· Electronegativity = ionization energy + electron affinity
2
· In a period, as we go from left to right, electronegativity values increase.
· In a group, as we go from top to bottom, electronegativity values decrease.
· The most electropositive element is Fluorine (F).

A
· The least electronegative element is Caesium (Cs).

AN
6. Metallic and Non-metallic Properties:
· Metals present in compounds generally show a tendency to remain as positive ions. This
property of metals is called electropositivity.

G
· Generally metals show more electropositive character and less electronegative character.
· Non-metals are generally more electronegative due to their smaller atomic radii and are

·
generally least electropositive.
N
The elements present on the left side of the periodic table are metals and the elements
A
present on the right side of the periodic table are non-metals.
·
EL
So, in a period, we find the metals on the left side and the nonmetals on the right side.
· Hence, as we move from left to right in a period, the metallic character decreases and the
non-metallic character increases.
·
T

The groups present on the left side of the periodic table have all the elements as metals
whereas the groups present on the right side of the periodic table have non-metals in them
at the top and have metals at the bottom.
T,

· Hence, as we move from top to bottom in a group, metallic character increases and the non-
metallic character decreases.
ER

Periodic properties of elements and their trends in groups and periods.

Periodic property Trend in
Groups (From top to bottom) Periods (From left to right)
SC

Valency Same for all elements Increasing from 1 to 04 and

gradually decreases to 0
Atomic radius Increasing Decreasing
Ionisation energy Decreasing Generally Increasing
Electron affinity Decreasing Increasing
Electronegativity Decreasing Increasing
Metallic Nature Increasing Decreasing
Non-metallic Nature Decreasing Increasing

51
 ASSESSMENT
Very Short Answer Questions
1. Write the electron configuration of Na+ and Cl- ions.
2. An element with atomic number 21. Mention the place of the element in the periodic table?
Why?
3. Arrange the following elements in the increasing order of their atomic radii. P, Al, Cl, Na, S,
Si, Mg.
4. Why do the elements present in the right side of the periodic table have least values of

A
electronegativity?
5. Why does nitrogen have less electron affinity value compared to oxygen.

AN
Short Answer Questions
6. Which one between Cl and Cl- would have more size? Why?

G
7. The ionization energy required to remove an electron from Mg+ is higher than the ionization
energy required to remove an electron from Mg. Why?
8. N
In the periodic table, elements arranged in a group possess similar properties, but elements
A
in a period do not show similarities in their properties. Why?
9. An element X belongs to the 3rd period and group 2 of the periodic table. State
EL

a. The number of valence electrons

b. Metallic property
T

10. The electronic configuration of the elements X,Y and Z are given below?
T,

a) X = 2 b) Y = 2, 6 c) Z = 2, 8, 2
i) Which element belongs to the second period?
ER

ii) Which element belongs to the second group?

Essay Type Questions
SC

11. Mention the Modern Periodic Law. Discuss the construction of the long form of the periodic
table.
12. Explain Ionization energy and the factors that influence the ionization energy.
13. Observe the following information.
X electronic configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
Y electronic configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1
Z electronic configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d5
W electronic configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d5
P electronic configuration 1s2 2s2 2p5 3s1
52
 From above answer the following Questions
i) Which of the above electronic configuration is wrong?
ii) Which of the electronic configuration belongs to 'd' block.
iii) Write is the position of the electron Y in periodic table.
14. Given below is the electronic configuration of elements A, B, C, D.
A) 1s2 2s2; B) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 C) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3 D) 1s2 2s2 2p6
1. Which of the elements belong to same period?
2. Which of the elements belong to the same group?

A
3. Which are noble gas elements?

AN
4. Which group and period does the element ‘C’ belong to?
15. Explain about periodic property? How do the following properties change in a group and in a
period of the modern periodic table.

G
a) Atomic radius b) Ionization energy
c) Electron affinity d) Metallic and Non-metallic character.
Multiple Choice Questions
1.
A N
Which of the following shells have a maximum of 32 electrons? [ ]
EL
A) N B) M C) L D) K
2. 11,12,13 and 14 are the atomic numbers of the elements Na, Mg, Al and Si respectively.
Which element has more atomic radius? [ ]
T

A) Na B) Mg C) Al D) Si
3. The element with Atomic number = 7 belongs to _______ group [ ]
T,

A) 1st Period IA group B) 2nd Period VA group

C) 2nd Period IIIA group D) 2nd period IV A group
ER

4. Increasing order of electronegativity of the elements Si, N, P and C is [ ]

A) N, Si, C, P B) P, Si, N, C
C) C, N, Si, P D) Si, P, C, N
SC

5. Dobereiner, Newlands and Mendeleeff classified the elements on the basis of [ ]

A) Atomic number B) Atomic Weight
C) Atomic structure D) electronic configuration

53
 08. CHEMICAL BONDING

· When two atoms come sufficiently close together, the electrons of one atom experience
the attractive force of the nucleus of the other atom.
· The electrons which are negatively charged and repel each other, and the positively charged
nuclei also repel each other.
· The strength of attraction or repulsion will decide bond formation. If attraction is more
than the repulsion, then atoms combine. If repulsion is more than attraction, then the atoms

A
do not combine.

AN
· The nucleus and the electrons in the inner shell remain unaffected when atoms come close
together. But the electrons in the outermost shell (valence shell) of atoms get affected.
· Electrons in valence shell (valence electrons) are responsible for the formation of bonds

G
between atoms.

Electronic configuration of Noble gases

Atomic Name of the Symbol

A N
Electronic Number of electrons
number element configuration in outermost shell
EL

2 Helium He 2 2

10 Neon Ne 2,8 8
T

18 Argon Ar 2,8,8 8
T,

Octet Configuration
ER

· Except Helium the elements which have 8 electrons in its outer most orbital are the most
stable . Atoms such as hydrogen, sodium, chlorine etc., which do not have 8 electrons in
their outermost shell undergo chemical reactions to obtain 8 electrons in the outermost
SC

shell to get stability.

· The attainment of eight electrons in the outermost shell of an atom for stable structure is
called the octet rule.

Lewis dot structures (or) Lewis symbols

· The valence electrons in the atom of an element are repreaented by dots or cross marks
around nucleus in Lewis symbol or electron dot structure.

54
 Atomic Name of Symbol Electronic Number of Lewis dot
Number the Element Configuration Valency Structure
Electorn
2 Helium He 2 2
He
10 He 2,8 8
Neon
Ne

A
18 Ne

AN
Argon
2,8,8 8 Ar

G
7
Nitrogen
Ar
2,5 5 N

11 Sodium Na
A
2,8,1
N 1 Na
EL

17 Cholorin 2,8,7 7
Cl
Cl
T
T,

Electronic theory of valence by Lewis and Kossel

Group IA elements (Li to Cs) try to lose one valence shell electron from their atoms to form
ER

corresponding uni-positive ions which get octet in their outer shells.

Example: 11 Na ® 2, 8, 1 ; 11Na + ® 2, 8
SC

Group VIA elements try to gain two electrons into the valence shells of their atoms during the
chemical changes and form corresponding di negative anions which get octet in their outer shells.

Example: 8O ® 2, 6 ; 8O2– ® 2, 8

Group VIIIA elements, the noble gases do not try to lose or gain electrons. Generally, helium and
neon do not participate in chemical changes. Even other elements of VIIIA do not gain or lose
electrons from their atoms when they participate in a very few chemical changes.

Example: 10Ne ® 2, 8 ; No electron gain or loss from the neon atom.

The reactivity of atoms or elements arises from their tendency to achieve the octet, by forming
bonds either with atoms of their own type or with atoms of other elements.

55
Chemical bond

The force of attraction between any two atoms or a group of atoms that results a stable entity is
called a ‘chemical bond’.

There are many types of chemical bonds, but here we discuss only about ionic bond and covalent
bond.
Ionic bond
Kossel proposed the formation of ionic bond (which is also called as electrostatic bond) based
on the following facts.

A
1. The bond formed by the transfer of electrons from one atom to another is called ionic
bond.

AN
2. The two oppositely charged ions experience electrostatic forces and get attracted to each
other.

G
3. Inoric bond is formed due to the electrostatic force between atoms.

4.
N
The electrostatic force formed between the atoms (ions) is strong.

Ex: Formation of NaCl molecule

A
Sodium atom loses one electron to get octet configuration and forms Na+ (cation) and get its
EL

nearest inert gas ‘Ne’ electronic configuration.

11
Na ® 11Na+ + e-
T

2, 8, 1 2, 8
Chlorine atom gains one electron to get octet configuration and form Cl- (anion) and get its
T,

nearest inert gas ‘Ar’ electronic configuration.

Cl ® Cl -
ER

17 17

2, 8, 7 2,8,8
Transfer of electrons between ‘Na’ and ‘Cl’ atoms, results in the formation of ‘Na+’ and ‘Cl–’
ions. These oppositely charged ions get attracted towards each other due to electrostatic forces
SC

and form the compound sodium chloride (NaCl).

Na+ (g) + Cl– (g) ® Na+Cl– (s) or NaCl
Ex 2: Formation of aluminium chloride (AlCl3)
Aluminium chloride formation can be explained as follows:
Formation of aluminium ion (Al3+), the cation:
13
Al(g) ® 13
Al3+ (g) + 3e-
Electronic configuration 2, 8, 3 2, 8
or [Ne] 3s23p1 [Ne]

56
 Formation of chloride ion (Cl-), the anion:
3Cl(g) + 3e- ® 3Cl–(g)
Electronic configuration 2, 8, 7 2, 8,8
or
[Ne] 3s2 3p5 [Ne] 3s2 3p6 or [Ar]
Each aluminium atom loses three electrons and three chlorine atoms gain them one electron
each and form three bonds between Al and Cl
The compound AlCl3 is formed from its component ions by the electrostatic forces
of attractions.

A
Al3+ (g) + 3Cl– (g) ® AlCl3 (s)

AN
Some more example for ionic compounds: MgCl2 ,Na2O, MgO etc
Properties of Ionic compounds.
The properties of these compounds are as follows.

G
i. Ionic compounds are solids at room temperature.
ii. They are soluble in polar solvents like water.
iii. They are insoluble in non-polar solvents.
N
iv. Ionic compounds are good conductors of electricity.
v. Have high melting and boiling points.
A
EL

Covalent bond
· The sharing of electrons between the atoms to get octet in valance shell leading to the
formation of a chemical bond which is called as ‘covalent bond’.
T

· Here the atoms may be similar or dissimilar. The shared electrons belong to both the atoms.
Example: Formation of Fluorine ‘F2’ molecule
T,

1. Fluorine atom has 7 electrons in the outer orbit. It requires one electron for the octet
configuration.
ER

2. Each Fluorine atom contributes one electron and two fluorine atoms form a pair of electrons.
That electron pair is mutually shared by both the atoms.
3. The pair of electrons shared by the atoms is called as bonded pair of electrons.
SC

4. After sharing electron pair each fluorine atom has octet configuration. The resulting entity
is called fluorine molecule.

57
Formation of Oxygen (O2) molecule
1. The electronic configuration of 8O is 2, 6. Oxygen atom has six electrons in its valence
shell.
2. It requires two more electrons to get octet in its valence shell.
3. Therefore, two oxygen atoms come close and each oxygen atom contributes two electrons
each for bonding.
Thus, there exist two covalent bonds between two oxygen atoms in O2 molecule as there are
two pairs of electrons shared between them and two covalent bonds are formed.
Ammonia (NH3) molecule

A
1. In ammonia molecule, three N – H single covalent bonds are present.

AN
2. Electron configuration of 7N is 2, 5 and 1H is 1.
3. Nitrogen atom contributes three electrons for bonding.
4. Three hydrogen atoms at the same time contribute one electron each for bonding.

G
5. Six electrons form three pairs and each pair is shared between nitrogen and one hydrogen
atom as shown below: A N
EL

Water (H2O) molecule

T

1. In water molecule (H2O), there are two O – H single covalent bonds.

2. Electron configuration of 8O is 2,6 and 1H is 1.
T,

3. Oxygen atom needs ‘2’ electrons to attain octet in its valence shell.
4. Therefore, it shares ‘2’ electrons with two hydrogen atoms to form
ER
SC

Properties of Covalent compounds

The compounds formed by the covalent bond are called covalent compounds (F2, O2 etc.).
The properties of these compounds are as follows.
i. Covalent compounds are generally liquids or gases at room temperature.
ii. They are soluble in non-polar solvents.
iii. They are insoluble in polar solvents.
iv. Covalent compounds are poor conductors of electricity.

58
 v. There exists a force between the atoms of the molecule. But it is weaker than the electrostatic
force
It is proposed by sidgwick and powal and improved by Gillespie and Nyholm
Draw backs of electronic theory of valence:
I. Bond lengths and bond energies are not same when the atoms that form the bond are different
2. Failed to explain the shapes of mole cules.
II. Valence – shell – electron – pair repulsion – theory (VSEPRT)
It seggels the following:
1. VSEPRT considers electrons in the valence shells which are in covalent bonds and in lone

A
pairs as charge clouds that repel one another and stay as far apart as possible. This is the

AN
reason why molecules get specific shapes.
2. If we know the total number of electron pairs in the valence shell as covalent bonds and lone
pairs in the central atom, it will help us to predict the arrangement of those pairs around the
nucleus of the central atom and from that the shape of the molecule.

G
3. Lone pairs occupy more space around the central atom than bond pairs. Lone pair means
unshared electron pair or non-bonding electron pair.
A N
4.1 If two bond pairs are present in two covalent bonds around the nucleus of the central atom
without any lone pairs in the valence shell, they must be separated by 1800 to have minimum
repulsion between them. Thus, the molecule would be linear
EL

Ex-: Beryllium Chloride (BeCl2)

T
T,
ER

4.2 If three bond pairs are there in three covalent bonds around the nucleus of the central atom,
without any lone pairs they get separated by 1200 along three corners of a triangle. Therefore,
the shape of the molecule is trigonal-planar.
SC

Example: BF3

59
 Similarly, Bond angles in CH4, NH3, H2O can be explained.
Valence bond theory
To describe covalent bonding, a quantum mechanical model called valence bond theory has been
suggested by Linus Pauling (1954). It is explained as follows:
1. A covalent bond between two atoms is formed when the two atoms approach each other
closely and one atom overlaps its valence orbital containing unpaired electron, the valence
orbital of the other atom that contains the unpaired electron of opposite spin.
Eg: In the formation of H2 molecule, the 1s orbital of one ‘H’ atom containing an unpaired
electron overlaps the ‘1s’ orbital of the other ‘H’ atom containing unpaired electron of

A
opposite spin giving H-H bond and H2 molecule.

AN
G
2. The greater the overlapping of the orbitals that form the bond, the stronger will be the bond.
This gives a directional character to the bond when other than ‘s’ orbitals are involved.
3.

4.
N
Each bonded atom maintains its own atomic orbitals but the electron pair in the overlapping
orbitals is shared by both the atoms involved in the overlapping.
A
If two atoms form multiple bonds between them the first bond formed is sigma(s) other
bond are P bonds. Two nuclei due to end-end or head on overlap and attracted to both the
EL

nuclei. Sigma bond is more stronger than p bond

Pi (P) bond is a weaker when componed with sigma (s) bond due to the lateral overlap of
‘p’ odd orbitals which is not to greater extent.
T

Formation of Chlorine Cl2 molecule

T,

In the formation of Cl 2 molecule, the 3pz orbital of one chlorine atom containing an unpaired
electron overlaps the 3pz orbital of other chlorine atom that contains unpaired electron of opposite
ER

spin

Cl electron configuration is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3px2 3py2 3pz1

SC

Formation of (N2) Nitrogen molecule

7
N has electronic configuration 1s2 2s2 2px 1 2py1 2pz1. px orbital of one ‘N’ atom overlaps the ‘px’
orbital of the other ‘N’ atom giving px - px bond along the inter-nuclear axis. The py and pz orbitals
of one ‘N’ atom overlap the py and pz orbital of other ‘N’ atom laterally, respectively perpendicular
to inter-nuclear axis giving py -py and pz -pz bonds. Therefore, N2 molecule has a triple bond
between two nitrogen atoms.
60
Valence bond theory-Hybridization
Hybridization: Hybridization is a phenomenon of intermixing of atomic orbitals of almost
equal energy which are present in the outer shells of the atom and their reshuffling or redistribution
into the same number of orbitals but with equal properties like energy and shape

A
Formation of BeCl2 (Beryllium chloride) molecule

AN
1. 4
Be has electronic configuration 1s2 2s2. It has no unpaired electrons.
2. It is expected not to form covalent bonds, but it forms two covalent bonds one each with two
chlorine atoms.

G
3. To explain this, an excited state is suggested for Beryllium in which an electron from ‘2s’ shifts

4.
5.
to 2px level.
Electronic configuration of 4 Be is 1s2 2s1 2p1 and
A N
Be atom in its excited state allows its 2s orbital and 2px orbital which contain unpaired electrons
EL

to intermix and redistribute to two identical orbitals.

6. As per Hund’s rule each orbital gets one electron.

T

7. The new orbitals based on the types of orbitals that have undergone hybridization are called sp
orbitals. The two sp orbitals of Be get separated by 1800.
T,

8. 17
Cl is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3px2 3py2 3pz1
ER

9. Now, each chlorine atom comes with its 3pz1 orbital and overlaps it the s, p orbitals of Be
forming two identical Be-Cl bonds (sp-p bonds). ClBeCl bond angle is 1800. Both the bonds
are of same strength.
SC

Formation Bloron tri flouride (BF3) molecule

B has electronic configuration 1s22s22p1x . It has an uppaired electron
5

61
 Ù

Boron under goes excitation to get 1s22s12px1 2py1

The intermixing of 2s2 2px, 2py form three sp2 hybrid orbitals formed

These three sp2 orbitals overlap with P orbitals of 3, flourines (1s22s12px2 2py22pz1) to form BF3

A
molecule with bond angle 120o

AN
Formation of Annomia ( NH3) module

G
107048/
A N
N has electron configuration 1s22s22px1 2py12pz1 and 1H is 1s1
7
EL

7
N It undergoes sp3 hybridization and form four sp3 orbitals
One of the four sp3 orbitals get a pair of electrons and other three form bonds with three hydrogens
to form NH3 with bond angle 1070 48|
T
T,

Formation of water (H2O) molecule

8
O has electron configuration 1s22s22px2 2py12pz1 and 1H is 1s1
ER

Oxygen under goes hybridization and form 4 identical sp2 orbitals

Two sp3 orbitals of oxyzen atoms overlap s orbitals of hydrogen to form

SC

H2O with

Bond angle in 104031|

When the covalent bond is formed between aloms of different elements the shared electron pair
shift mole towards the atom of mole electro negative element the bond formed between this
type of atoms is called covalent bond partial ionic and partial covalent bond.
Formation of HCl
In HCl molecule the shared electron pair shift more towards Cl, hence H possess partial positive
charge and Cl possess partial negative charge.

62
 -δ
g
+δ
Ex: H+Cl H - Cl

Polar compounds dissolves in polar compounds and non-polar compounds dissolve in non-polar
compounds

ASSESSMENT
Very Short Answer Questions

A
1. Why do bond energies are same if Be forms one covalent bond with s orbital and other with
p orbital to forms BeCl2 molecule?

AN
2. Write the bond angles of H2O, NH3, CH4, BeCl2 molecules.
3. Why does bond angle of H2O molecule is 1040 311?
4. Explain hybridization of orbitals.

G
5. Give examples for ionic compounds.
6.
7.
8.
Give examples for covalent compounds.
Give examples for pyramidal shaped compounds.
A N
What is the shape of H2O, NH3, CH4, BeCl2 molecules?
EL

9. Draw the shape of H2O, NH3, CH4, BeCl2 molecules with the concept of hybridization.
10. Represent each of the following using Lewis notation
T

a) Calcium
b) Bromine (Br2)
T,

c) Carbon dioxide (CO2)

d) Beryllium
ER

Short Answer Questions

1. Write the difference between valence electrons and co-valence of an electron.
SC

2. Write the difference between ionic bond and covalent bond

3. Write the difference between sigma bond and pi bond
4. Explain formation of NH3 molecule using concept of hybridization.
5. Write the difference between sigma bond and pi bond
6. Draw the structure of Nitrogen Molecule (N2) and Oxygen molecule (O2) based on Valence
bond theory.
7. Write the limitations of valence bond theory.
8. Explain polar compounds with suitable examples.
9. Explain octet rule with examples.
63
Essay Type Questions

1. Explain valance bond theory with an example

2. Explain formations of BeCl2 by using VSEPRT
3. Explain formation of ionic bond between Na and Cl
4. How do covalent bonds are formed? Explain with an example of oxygen.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Among the following the atom with octet configuration ( )

A
A) O B) N C) Ne D) Na

AN
2. Example for ionic bond ( )
A) NO B) CO2 C) NaCl D) SO2

G
3. Covalent bond is formed by ( )
A) losing of electrons B) gaining electrons

4.
C) sharing of electrons
Ionic bond is first explained by
A N D) transfer of ions
( )
EL

A) Lewis B) Kossel C) Rutherford D) Chadwick

5. The No. of SP3 orbitals when 2S and all 2P orbitals are hybridized ( )
T

A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4
6. No of sigma bonds formed in N2 molucule ( )
T,

A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4
ER

7. Coordination number of Na in NaCl ( )

A) 2 B) 4 C) 6 D) 8
8. The no. of electrons in outer most shell of noble gases except He is ( )
SC

A) 3 B) 5 C) 8 D) 10
9. Bond angle in ammonia molecule is ( )
A) 1090 B) 1070481 C) 1040311 D) 900
10. The possible chemical bond between Mg and O ( )
A) No bond is formed B) ionic bond
C) covalent bond D) coordinate covalent bond

64
 9. ELECTRIC CURRENT

· Conductor : The material which allows the flow of electrons is called a conductor.
Ex: Copper wire.

Ordered motion of electrons

· Non conductor (Insulator) : The material which does not allow the flow of electrons is
called a non- conductor.

A
Ex: Nylon wire.
·

AN
When the ends of a conductor are connected to the terminals of a battery (source) the free
electrons move in an orderly manner. This ordered motion leads to electric current.
Electric current:

G
· The electric current is defined as the amount of charge crossing any cross-section of the
conductor in one second.
·
Electric current I= Q
t
A N
If ‘Q’ coulomb of charge crossing through any cross-section in time ‘t’ then

· The S.I unit of electric current is Ampere. 1 Ampere= 1coulumb / 1second.

EL

· One coulomb of charge contains 6.25 x1018 electrons.

· The electric current is measured by an ammeter.
T

· Ammeter is connected in series in the circuit

Potential difference:
T,

· The work done by the electric force on unit positive charge to move it from one point to
another in electric field is called potential difference. It is denoted by 'V'
ER

· V= W/ q where W=Work done by electric force and q=charge

· The S.I unit of potential difference is ‘Volt’. 1 Volt= 1 joule /1 coulomb
SC

Electromotive force(emf):
· The work done by chemical force to move unit positive charge from negative terminal to
F d
positive terminal of the battery is called emf. e = q
e

· An electric cell is a device that maintains constant potential difference between its terminals.
The electric cell converts chemical energy into electrical energy.
· Voltmetre is used to measure potential difference and emf between two terminals of battery.
It is connected parallally in the circuit.

65
Simple electric circuit
A circuit consisting of simple electrical elements like cell (bettery), key, bulb and
connecting wires is called a simple electric circuit.

Bulb

Wires

Battery

A
.
Key

AN
OHM'S LAW: Simple electric circuit

Lab Activity:

G
Aim :To show that the ratio V/I is constant for a conductor.
A
voltmeter, thin iron spoke of length 10 cm, LED and key.
N
Material required: 5 dry-cells of 1.5 V each, conducting wires, (copper wires) an ammeter, a

Precautions:
EL

V
1. Take care while connecting wires to the source.
2. The readings of voltmeter and ammeter are to be taken without parallax error.
T

3. The temperature of the iron spoke is constant during the flow of

current through it.
T,

Procedure:
a) Let us take a iron spoke and connect it with conducting wires at
ER

both ends.
b) These two wires connected to a cell of 1.5 V through an ammeter and key in series.
c) Connect a voltmeter across two ends of iron spoke.
SC

d) Close the key and note the readings of current in ammeter and potential difference in voltmeter.
e) Now connect two cells in series in the circuit and note the readings of ammeter and voltmeter.
f) Repeat the experiment with 3,4 and 5 cells in series and record the values of current (I) and
potential difference in the given tabular form and calculate V/I value in each case.
S.No Potential difference(V) Current(I) V/I

66
Observations:
As the potential difference a cross the iron spoke increases
electric current also increases. And the ratio between them is
constant. i.e.,
V/I = Constant
Result : From the table we can conclude that the potential
difference between the ends of iron spokes is directly
proportional to current passing through it.
A graph is drawn with ‘V’ on X-axis and ‘I’ on Y-axis gives a
straight line passing through origin.

A
That is V I
(in volt)

AN
v
Þ = constant.
I
iron spoke is a ohmic material

(in ampere)
G
By using a LED instead of iron spoke and record the values of
potential difference and current and draw a graph between ‘V’ and

constant.
A N
‘I’, the nature of the graph is a nonlinear curve. That is V/I is not

Ohmic materials: The materials which obey the ohm’s law are
EL
called ohmicmaterials.
(in volt)
Ex.Metals.
Non ohmic materials :The materials which do not obey the ohm’s law are called non-ohmic
T

materials .
Ex. LED , Thermistors.
T,

OHM’S LAW: "At constant temperature the potential difference between ends of a conductor
is directly proportional to electric current passing through it."
Va I
ER

V=IR , R is a constant called resistance.

Limitation of ohm’s law:
SC

1. The ohm’s law can be applied only to metal conductors provided temperature and other physical
conditions remain constant.
2. It is not applicable to gaseous conductors, semiconductors.
Resistance: The property of a material which obstructs the flow of electrons in a conductor is
called resistance.
Resistance R=V/I
The SI unit of resistance is ‘Ohm’ It is denoted by 'W'
1 Ohm=1Volt /1Ampere;
1 Ohm: When 1 volt potential difference applied across ends of wire and 1ampere current
flows through it then the resistance is said to be 1ohm.

67
Electric shock:
· Electric shock can be experienced when a potential difference exists between one part of
the body and another part.
· The electric shock is a combined effect of potential difference, electric current and
resistance of the body.
· When a bird stands on a high voltage wire the potential difference does not exist between
its legs because it stands on a single wire. Hence it does not feel any electric shock.
Factors affecting the resistance of a material:

A
The factors affecting the resistance of a material are,
1) length (l) 2) Area of cross section (A) 3) Temperature 4) Nature of material

AN
Length of the conductor and resistance:
Aim: To prove resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to the length (l)

G
Materials required: Iron spokes of different lengths with same cross sectional area, Battery, ammeter,
key, wires.
Precautions:
1.
A N
Iron spokes must have same area of cross-section.
EL

2. The readings of ammeter should be taken as without parallax error.

Procedure:
· Connect the iron spoke across the battery and ammeter using connecting wires.
T

· Close the key and measure current (I) in the ammeter which is connected in series.
T,

· Repeat the experiment with iron spokes of different lengths and note the current(I) in
ammeter.
ER

Observations: We observe that as length of spoke increases the current in ammeter decreases when
potential difference is constant which implies resistance of circuit increases.
Result: Hence we conclude that resistance of conductor increases with length of the conductor.
SC

Rµ l
Cross section area and resistance:
Aim: To prove resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to area of cross section of
conductor (A).
Materials required: Iron spokes of different cross sectional area of same length Battery, ammeter,
key, wires etc.
Precautions:
1. Length of the iron spokes must be the same.
2. The readings of ammeter should be taken as without parallax error.
68
Procedure:
a) Connect the iron spoke across the battery and ammeter using connecting wires.
b) Close the key and measure current (I) in the ammeter.
c) Repeat the experiment with iron spokes of different cross sectional areas and note the
current(I) in ammeter.
Observations: We observe that as area of cross section of spoke increases the current in ammeter
increases when Potential difference is constant which implies resistance of the circuit decreases.
Result: Hence we conclude that resistance of conductor decreases with increase in cross sectional
1
area of the conductor. R µ

A
A
“The resistance of a conductor (R) is directly proportional to length (l) and inversely proportional

AN
to area of cross-section (A).”
Specific resistance (Resistivity): The resistance of a conductor of unit length and unit area of
cross-section is called specific resistance.

G
· S.I unit of specific resistance is ohm-metre. (W - m)
· The resistivity depends on temperature and nature of the material. It is independent of physical

·
A N
dimensions like length and area of cross section of the conductor.
Resistance depends on temperature, nature of the material and also Physical parameters
like length and area of cross section.
EL

Applications of specific resistance (Resistivity):

The value of resistivity determines the conductivity of materials.
1. Metals like copper behave as good conductors used in preparing electric wires due to
T

low resistivity.
2. The filament of an electric bulb is usually made of tungsten, because of its high resistivity
T,

and high melting point(34220 C).

3. The alloys like nichrome possess larger values of resistivity and this makes them
ER

suitable for use of heating elements in electric irons, electric toasters etc.
Electric Circuits:
The closed path created by the connecting wires through a battery along which
SC

electrons flow is called an electric circuit.

Series combination of resistors:
· The number of resistors connected such that same current flows through each resistor, then
is said to be a series combination.
· In series combination the potential difference is different acrosseach resistor.

Let us consider three resistors R1, R2 and R3 connected in series across a battery of potential
difference’V’ and current through each resistor is “I”
where Req =equivalent resistance

69
 Req = R1 + R2 + R3

“The equivalent resistance of three resistors connected in series

V is equal to the sum
of their individual resistances.” V1 V2 V3
Parallel combination of resistors: I R1 R2 R3 I
· The number of resistors connected such that the potential difference across each resistor
is the same then it is said to be a parallel combination.
· In parallel, combination the current through each resistor is different.
Let us consider three resistors R1, R2 and R3 connected

A
I1
A
in parallel across a battery of potential difference ’V’ R1
I I2 I

AN
and I1, I2 and I3 are the currents through resistors R1, A
R2
R2 and R3 respectively. I3
A
1/Req = 1 / R1 + 1/ R2 + 1/R3 R3

G
Req = equivalent resistance

ã
A N
“The reciprocal of equivalent resistance Req is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of
the individual resistances.”
The electrical appliances in house-hold circuit are connected in parallel because if any
appliance is switched off, the other appliances are not affected. If they are connected
EL

in series, if one appliance is switched off all the other appliances will switch off.
ã The headlights of a car are connected in parallel, Because in parallel wiring both
T

headlights get the same power. If one light goes off the other will work.
Kirchoff’s laws:
T,

a) Junction Law:
· The sum of the currents entering into the junction is equal to sum of the currents leaving the
ER

junction.
· This law is based on the law of conservation of charge.
I1
· Let i1 , i4 and i6 are the currents entering the junction whereas
SC

I2
i2 , i3, and i5 are the currents leaving the junction then I6

I3
i1 + i4 +i6 = i2 + i3 +i5 I5
I4
b) Loop Law:
· The algebraic sum of all the potential differences in a closed circuit is zero.
· This law is based on the law of conservation of energy.

70
Sign conventions:
a) When we move from negative terminal to positive terminal across a
battery, emf is taken as positive.
b) When we move from positive terminal to negative terminal across a battery,
emf is taken as negative.
c) When we move in the direction of electric current through the resistor,
the potential difference is taken as negative.

A
d) When we move in the direction opposite to electric current through the

AN
resistor, the potential difference is taken as positive.
Electric power:

G
The rate at which electric energy is consumed is termed as electric power.
· Electric power P = Work done /Time of flow of current
·

·
P=
P = I2R
W/t
A N
EL

· P = V2/R
· S.I unit of electric power is watt (W)
T

· Generally power consumption expressed in bigger units of power like KiloWatt.

1kW=1000W
T,

· Power also expressed in horsepower 1HP = 746 W

ER

· The consumption of electric energy is expressed in kiloWatt hour.

1kiloWatt hour (kWh) = 3.6 × 106 J
Overloading:
SC

· If the value of current flow goes above the required value of the circuit then the wire fails to
bear the load of electric current. This is called overloading.
· This leads to fire accidents.
· To protect from overloading we use electric fuses in the household circuits.
Fuse:
· The fuse consists a thin wire having low melting point Due to this, if current in a circuit
increase above a particular point the fuse wire gets heated and melts.

· A piece of wire made of lead and tin alloy is used in making a fuse.
71
 ASSESSMENT
Very Short Answer Questions
1. What happens if a high melting point conductor is used as a fuse in house-hold connections?
2. Do electric bulbs in houses and decorative bulbs are connected in the same way?
3. What happens to the resistance of a conductor if we increase its length?
4. Why does overload occurs in a circuit? Explain.
5. In a house-hold circuit 220V voltage and 440W of resistance are connected, then find the
electric current?

A
Short Answer Questions

AN
6. Find the curent passing through a human body having resistance 1,00,000W conneccted this
source of 240V.

G
7. Two resistances 4W & 8W are connected to get least resistance then find resultant resistance
in the circuit?
8.
in the circuit?
A N
Two resistances 4W & 8W are connected to get high resistance then find resultant resistance
EL
9. Find the resultant resistance and current flowing in the given circuit?
8W
20W
T

8W
4A i
T,

12v 8A
10. Draw a simple circuit using Battery, Ammeter,Voltmeter,
Connecting wires, switch. 8A 4A
ER

11. Observe the given Junction and then find the value of i.
4A 4A
SC

8A

12. Two bulbs have ratings 100W, 220V, and 60W, 220V. Which bulb has the greater resistance?
Essay Type Questions
13. Write the required materials, procedure, precautions and observations in an activity to prove
ohm’s law.
14. Write the required materials, procedure, precautions and observations in an activity to find
relation between resistance and cross-section area.
15. Write the required materials, procedure, precautions and observations in an activity to find
relation between resistance and length of the conductor.

72
 16. Solve the loop 1) ABCDA 2) ADCBA
2A 12v 4W

4W

4W
12 V
17. Write the loop equations for the given loops.
i) ABDCA & ACDBA ii) ABDCA & ACDBA

A
3W 3W
A 2A B A 2A C

AN
3W 3W

G
C D B D
12V 12V
Multiple Choice Questions
1.
A
This is used to measure potential difference
N ( )
A) Ammeter B) Voltmeter C) Thermistor D) Electric motor
EL

2. In an electric cell chemical energy converts into ( )

A) Mechanical energy B) Magnetic energy C) Electric energy D) Heat energy
T

3. Joule/coulomb is same as ( )
A) Watt B) Ampere C) Volt D) Ohm
T,

4. The material which obey the ohm’s law is ( )

ER

A) Copper B) Silicon C) LED D) Transistor

5. The resistance of the material will not depends on ( )
A) length B) Cross sectional area
SC

C) Nature of the material D) No. of electrons

6. The filament of an electric bulb usually made of ( )
A) Tungsten B) copper C) Silver D) Lead
7. The resistors of values 2W , 4W and 6W are connected in series. The equivalent resistance
of the circuit is ( )
A) 2W B) 4W C) 6W D) 12W
8. Junction law is based on Law of conservation of ( )
A) mass B) charge C) energy D) Momentum

73
 10. ELECTROMAGNETISM
1.Magnetism
· Field: The space around an object like magnet in which the object can exert its force
called field.
· Field strength: A force that acts without any contact is called field strength.
Magnetic Field:
· The field around by the magnet is called ‘magnetic field’.
· Magnetic field has direction and it varies from one point to another.

A
· The compass needle shows that almost same direction along North and South at places

AN
far from the magnet.
· The strength of the field varies with distance from the magnet.
· The magnetic field is 3-Dimensional.

G
Lines of magnetic field:
· A magnetic field exists in the region surrounding a bar magnet and is characterized

·
by strength and direction.
A
The direction of the field can be determined by
N
EL
using a compass.
· Field lines are imaginary lines.
· The tangent drawn to the field line at a point
T

gives the direction of the field.

· The field is strong when lines are crowded(near
T,

the poles of a bar magnet) and field is weak

when lines are spaced apart(at long distances Magnetic field lines
ER

from the bar magnet).

· The field is said to be non-uniform when any one of the characteristics of field i.e.,strength
or direction changes from point to point.
·
SC

The field is said to be uniform if both strength and direction are constant throughout the
field

Magnetic flux - Magnetic flux density:

· The number of lines passing through the plane of
area‘A’ perpendicular to the field is called magnetic
flux. It is denoted by ‘Ø’.
B
· The S.I unit of magnetic flux is Weber.
· Magnetic flux density B: magnetic flux density is Area A

defined as the magnetic flux passing through unit area fig-3(a)

taken perpendicular to the field.
74
 · B is also known as magnetic fieldinduction.
· The ratio of “magnetic flux passing through a plane perpendicular to the field to the area of
the plane” is called the magnetic flux density.
· The flux through the area ‘A’ be Ø, then the flux through unit area perpendicular to the field

is equal to

· Magnetic flux density =

B=
Ø=BA

A
· If the area is making some angle(r) with field lines, then

AN
B=
Ø = BAcosr Ø

· Units of magnetic flux density is Weber/(meter)2. It is also called Tesla.

G
2. Magnetic field due to electric currents:
·
N
Current carrying wires produce magnetic fields around them.
Oersted experiment:
A
Aim: To observe magnetic field around a current carrying conductor
EL

Apparatus: 9V Battery, 24-gauge copper wire, switch, Magnetic compass, thermocole sheet, two
wooden sticks of heights 1cm with slits.
T

Precautions:
i. Don’t touch wire with your hands directly
ii. Keep all other magnets away from the arrangement.
T,

Procedure:
· Take a thermocole sheet and fix two thin
ER

wooden sticks of height 1 cm.

· Arrange a copper wire of 24-gauge
passes through the slits of wooden sticks.
·
SC

Connect two ends of copper wire to a

battery through a switch.
· Keep a magnetic compass below the wire.
· Now switch on the circuit and observe the changes in the compass needle.
· Now reverse the battery poles again observe the changes in the compass needle.
Observations:
· When there is current in the circuit, deflection observed in the magnetic compass.
· When the battery poles reversed the direction of magnetic compass needle adjust to
opposite direction to the previous.
Result:
· Observed magnetic field around a current carrying conductor
75
Magnetic field due to straight wire carryingcurrent:

Aim:To Observe magnetic field due to straight wire carrying current.

Apparatus: 9V Battery, 24-gauge copper wire, 10 Magnetic compasses, retort stand, wooden plank,
rubber cork, switch.

Precautions:
i. Care should be taken not to touch the wire to retort stand or to your hands
ii. Keep all other magnets away from the arrangement.
Procedure:

A
· Place a wooden plank on the table and make a Stand

AN
hole to it.
· Now place retort stand on the plank.
· Pass 24-gauge copper wire through the hole of
Compass
the plank and rubber cork of the retort stand in

G
Table needle
such a way that the wire be arranged in a vertical
position. Battery

·
·
Connect the two ends of wire to the battery.
A
Place 6 to 10 magnetic compass needles in a
circular path around the hole.
N Switch Wooden
plank
EL

· Switch on the circuit and observe the deflections Conducting

wire
in the magnetic compasses.
· Now reverse the terminals of battery and again
T

observe the deflections in magnetic compasses.

Observations:
T,

· The needles in the compass are align as tangents of the circle and they show the direction
of magnetic field around straight wire. i.e., the magnetic field lines around a current
ER

carrying straight wire are in circular shape and they are closed.
· When the battery poles reversed, the direction of magnetic compass needles adjust to
opposite direction to the previous one.
SC

Result:
· Observed magnetic field due to straight wire carrying current.
Observe the below diagram if the current flow out of the page the filed lines are in anti-clock
wise direction, if current flows into the page the field lines are in clockwise direction.

Current out of the page Current into the page

76
Right Hand Thumb Rule: When you curl your right-hand fingers in the I
B
direction of current, thumb gives the direction of magnetic field.
Magnetic field due to circular coil:

Aim: To Observe magnetic field due to a circular coil

Apparatus: 9V Battery, 24-gauge copper wire, Magnetic compasses, wooden

plank, White paper, switch.

Precautions:
i. Care should be taken not to touch the wire directlywith your hands

A
ii. Keep all other magnets away from the arrangement.

AN
Procedure:
· Take thin wooden plank covered with white paper.
· Make two holes on its surface at certain distance
· Pass insulated copper wire through the holes and wind the wire

G
4 to 5 times through holes such that it forms a coil.
· Connect the two ends of wire to the battery through a switch
and switch on the circuit.
N
· Place a compass needle on the plank at the centre of the coil,
put dots on either side of the compass.
A To current
supply
circuit

· Again, place the compass at one of the dots, put dot further. Do
EL

the same till dots reach the edge of the plank.

· Do the same for points on other side of the coil, draw a line by joining dots. You will get a field
line of the circular coil.
T

· Do the same for the other points taken in between holes, draw corresponding lines.
Observations:
T,

· The direction of the field lines perpendicular to the plane of the coil.
· If the current in the coil is in anti-clock wise direction, the plane of coil which faces you is
North pole. If it is clock wise the plane of coil is south pole.
ER
SC

Result:
· Observed magnetic field due to circular coil carrying current.
Right Hand Thumb Rule:When you curl your right-hand fingers in the direction of current, thumb
gives the direction of magnetic field.
B B
I I
N

77
Magnetic field due to solenoid:
Aim: To Observe magnetic field due to a solenoid.
Apparatus: 9V Battery, 24-gauge copper wire, iron filings, wooden plank, White paper, switch.
Precautions:
i. Care should be taken not to touch the wire directly with your hands
ii. Keep all other magnets away from the arrangement.
Procedure:
· Take a wooden plank covered with white paper, make
equidistant holes on the surface.

A
· Pass copper wire through the holes as shown in fig, this

AN
forms a solenoid. To current
supply circuit
· Join the ends of the coil to battery through a switch.
· Switch on the circuit, current passes through the coil.
·

G
Now sprinkle iron filings on the surface of the plank
around the coil and give a small jerk.
Observations:
·
·
N
An orderly pattern of iron filings is seen on the paper.
A
he magnetic field lines set up by solenoid resemble
EL

those of a bar magnet indicating that solenoid behaves

like a bar magnet.
· The filed lines outside solenoid are continuous with
T

those inside. Thus, the magnetic field lines are closed

loops.
·
T,

The direction of the field lines is determined by using

right hand thumb rule. One end of the solenoid behaves
like a north pole and other end is south pole.
ER

· Outside the solenoid the direction of filed lines is from

north to south pole while inside the direction is from
south to north.
SC

Result:
· Observed magnetic field due to solenoid carrying current.
3. Electro Magnetic Induction:
Magnetic Force on Moving Charge and Current Carrying X indicates the direction of B
and it is into the page
wire:
· A charge ‘q’ moves with a velocity ‘v’ perpendicular to the
magnetic field ‘B’ then the force experienced by a charge q v
moving in a magnetic field is F= q v B.
· There is an angle ‘θ’ between direction of field ‘B’ and velocity
‘V’, the magnetic force experienced by the charge is given by,
F= qV Bsinθ.
78
RIGHT HAND RULE: “If the fore-finger points towardsthe direction of
velocity of charge or current, middle fingerpoints to the direction of field
F
(B) then thumb gives d irectionof force when the three fingers are stretched v or I
in such a way thatthey are perpendicular to each other”.

B out of
· The magnetic force on a straight wire carrying current which is kept paper
perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field B is
F=ILB.
Assume that the ends of
Where I-Current
the wire is connected to

A
L- the length of wire which confined to magnetic field the terminals of the battery

AN
B- Magnetic flux density
· ‘θ’ be the angle between direction of current(I) and magnetic
B L B
field(B), then the force acting on the current carrying wire

G
is given by I=0 I

F = ILB sin θ (at any angle)

A N
The result of magnetic force applied on a current carrying wire:
Aim: To observe the force exerted by a current carrying wire placed perpendicularly in uniform
magnetic field.
EL

Apparatus:Wooden plank, two long wooden sticks, horse shoe magnet, 9V battery, 24-gauge copper
wire, switch.
T

Precautions:
i. Care should be taken not to touch the wire directly with your hands.
T,

ii. Keep all other magnets away from the arrangement.

Procedure:
ER

· Take wooden plank, fix two long wooden sticks on it.

· A copper wire is passed through the splits of the
wooden sticks.
SC

· Connect the ends of wire to the battery through I S N

F
the switch.
· Now, close the circuit and pass the current.
· Bring a horse shoe magnet near the copper wire as
shown in the fig and observe deflection of wire.
· Change the polarities of the horse shoe magnet,
again observe deflection of wire.
Observations:
· The current carrying wire experiences a force and deflected either downward or upward.
· The direction of force exerted on wire can be determined by using right hand rule.
79
· The reason is, a magnetic field is created by a horse shoe magnet and amagnetic field is also
created around a current-carrying wire.These fields are overlapped and give non- uniform field.
· The net field on one side of wire is strong and other side is weak.Hence a non-uniform field is
created around the wire.This non uniform field shown in the below diagram. In this the wiretries to
move to the weaker field region.

A
AN
Field lines due to horseshoe Current into the
magnet between its poles page

Result:

G
· Observed the force exerted by a current carrying wire placed perpendicularly in uniform

·
magnetic field.
ELECTRIC MOTOR:
A N
In electric motors, electrical energy isconverted into
EL

mechanical energy.
· Uses: Electric motors are used in electric cars, rolling mills
lifts, drilling machines, fans, hair
T

dryers, blowers, tape recorders, refrigerators, washing

machines, etc.
T,

Working method:
· A rectangular coil ABCD iskept in uniform magneticfield.
ER

· The direction of the currentin the coil is clock wise.

· By the right-hand rule magnetic force on side AB acts
inwardsperpendicular to themagnetic field andon CD act
SC

outwards.
· As the direction of current in BC and DA are parallel to the
field,magnetic force does notact on them.
· The magnetic force due to external magnetic fieldon sides AB and CD are equal and in
oppositedirection.
· Net force on the coil is Zero but coil rotates.
· Two forces equal in magnitude and opposite in direction must act on the either side of the coil
bring coil into rotation in clockwise direction.(as seen from the top of the end)
· If the direction of current in the coil unchanged it rotates up to vertical position, then due to
inertia it rotates further in clockwise direction. But now the sides of the coil experience force
which are in opposite direction, try to rotate in anti-clock wise direction. As a result, coil
comes to halt and rotates in anti-clock wise direction.
80
Working Principle of the Motor:
Anticlockwise
rotation
· To make the coil rotate continuously the direction
N
of current throughthe coil is reversed in every half
rotation, the coilwill rotate continuously in one and B
C S
the samedirection due to inertia of motion.
· To achieve this brushes B1 and B2 are used. These
brushes are connected to the battery. A
· The ends of the coil are connected to sliprings C1 D
C
and C2 which rotate along with the coil. Slip-ring
Communica tor
1
C2
· Initially C1 is in contact with B1 and C2 with B2. After

A
half rotation the brushes come into contact with Current
B1 (reverses at
other slip rings in a such way that the direction of B2 half turn)
Brushes

AN
current through the coil is reversed.
· Thus, the direction of rotation of the coil remains +
- fig-12(c)
same.
· The direction of current in the coil turns into opposite direction for every half rotation. This is

G
the main principle behind the working of electric motor.
Electro Magnetic Induction:
· While the bar magnet is moved towards the coil, the
needle in galvanometer deflects, showingthat a current
has been set up in thecoil.
A N
· The galvanometer does not deflect if the magnet is at rest.
EL

· If the magnet is moved away from the coil, the needle in

thegalvanometer again deflects,but in the opposite
direction, which means that a current is set up in the coil
T

in the oppositedirection.
· “Whenever there is a continuous change of magnetic flux
T,

linkedwith a closed coil, acurrent is generated in the

coil.”
Faraday’s Law:
ER

· The current generated is called induced current and is set up by aninduced electromotive force
(induced EMF).
· This phenomenon of getting induced current is called electromagnetic induction.
· “The induced EMF generated in a closed loop is equal to the rate of change of magnetic
SC

flux passing through it.”

· In mathematical form, we can write this as,
Induced emf =

ε=

The equation is called Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.

Where Ø is flux linked with coil, Ø0 be the flux linked with single turn, if there is ‘N’ turns in
the coil, the flux linked with the coil is ‘NØ0’.

81
Lenz Law:
· The induced current will appear in such a
direction that it opposes the changes in the S N
fluxin the coil. S N
Applications of Faraday’s law of
S N N S
electromagnetic induction:
· During security check, people are made to walk S N
through a large upright coil of wire which S N fig-15
produces a weak AC (alternating) magnetic
field. If we are carrying any significant

A
quantities
of iron, the magnetic flux linked with the large coil changes and the induced current generatedin

AN
coil triggers an alarm.
· The tape recorder which we use to listen to songs (or) record voices works on the principle
of electromagnetic induction.
· The principle of electromagnetic induction in the case of using ATM card when its magnetic

G
strip is swiped through a scanner.
· An induction stove works on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
· Generators also work based on this rule.
Generator:
A N
· Generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Principle:
EL

· According to the law of electromagnetic induction, As the coil rotates, the magnetic fluxpassing
through the coil changes then inducedcurrent is generated in the coil.
AC Generator:
T

Working method:
1. Consider initially the coil, positioned in such away that magnetic flux passes through it.
T,

2. When the coil is at rest in vertical position, withside A of coil at top position and side B
atbottomposition.No current will be induced in it. Thus, current inthe coil is zero at this
ER

position.

Rotation
SC

A
S
B
N
Slip

fig-17(a):

Brushes

82
3. When the coil is rotated in clockwise direction, current will be induced in it and it flowsfrom A
to B.
4. During the first quarter ofrotation, the current increasesfrom zero to a maximum andreaches
peak value when the coilis in horizontal position.
5. If we continue the rotation of coil,current decreases during thesecond quarter of the rotation
andonce again becomes zero.
6. During the second half part of therotation, current generatedfollows the same pattern as that
inthe first half except that thedirection of current is reversed.
7. The current obtained by thisprocess changes its directionalternatively for each half cycle

A
asshown in figure.

AN
8. This current is called alternating current(AC).
DC Generator:
Working method:

G
1. If two half-slip rings are connected to ends of thecoil as shown in figure, the AC generator
works as DCgenerator to produce DC current. A N
2. When the coil is in the verticalposition the induced currentgenerated during the first
halfrotation, rises from zero tomaximum and then falls to zeroagain.
3. As the coil moves further from this position, the ends of the coil go to other slip rings.
EL

4. Hence during the second half rotation, the current is reversed in the coil itself. But the ends of
the coil move from one half slip ring to another. It leads to the single direction current.
T

5. The current generated in the second half rotation of the coil is identical with that duringthe
first half of direct current (DC) as shown in figure for one revolution.
T,
ER

Rotation
SC

A
S
B

N Commutator

Brush

R
DC Generator

83
 ASSESSMENT

Very Short Answer Questions

1) List the equipment required for Oersted experiment.
2) Explain magnetic field.
3) Write the properties of magnetic field lines.
4) Write the Ampere right-hand Thumb rule.
5) Does the shape of the image change when the Bar Magnet is brought near the TV screen?

A
6) What is the magnetic force acting on a charge moving parallel to the direction of the magnetic

AN
field?
7) Explain the role of commutator in electric motor?
8) Write the difference between AC generator and DC generator?

G
Short Answer Questions
1)
2)
Write the observations of Oersted experiment.
Explain the following Terms
A N
EL

a) Magnetic flux (b) Magnetic flux density

3) Draw a diagram of the lines of force when the electric current is perpendicular to the surface
of paper
T

4) Draw a diagram of the magnetic field produced by the solenoid.

T,

5) Explain Lenz's rule.

6) Where are electric motors used in daily life?
ER

7) Draw the electric motor diagram and label its parts.

8) Draw the AC dynamo diagram and label its parts.
SC

Essay Type Questions

1) Explain the activity with neat diagram that a magnetic field is formed around a current carrying
wire
2) Explain the activity that magnetic lines of force formed due to a current-carrying wire are
closed loops
3) Explain experimental procedure that the effect of magnetic force acting on a current-carrying
wire.
4) Explain the construction and working of electric motor.
5) Explain working of AC generator with the help of a diagram.
84
 6) Explain Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction with an activity.
7) Write some of the applications of Faraday's law from daily life
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Converts electrical energy into mechanical energy ( )
A) Motor B) Battery C) Generator D) Switch
2. It converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. ( )
A) Motor B) Battery C) Generator D)Switch

A
3. Force acting on a current carrying wire perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field ( )
A) O B) ILB C) 2ILB D) ILB/2

AN
4. ___________ induced in a coil due to relative motion Bar Magnet ( )
A) Electricity B) Heat C) Friction D) force

G
5. Thumb in right hand thumb rule indicates _________________ direction ( )
A) Magnetic field B) induced emf
6. Frequency of DC current..
A C) Motion.
N D) Velocity
( )
A) 0 B) 50 Hz C) 60 Hz D) 100 Hz
EL

7. ATM Cards working rule ( )

A) Faraday’s electromagnetic induction B) Right-handed rule
T

C) Left-handed rule D) Ampere'srule

T,

8. Unit for magnetic field ( )

A) Weber / m2 B) Tesla C) Web-m2 D) weber
ER

9. units for magnetic flux ( )

A) Tesla B) Weber C) Web-m2 D) Weber / m2
SC

10. A coil of wire carrying current is placed in the uniform magnetic field. Then ( )
A) Creates a magnetic field B) Rotates

C) Vibrates D) Dissolves.

85
 11. PRINCIPLES OF METALLURGY
· Metals like gold(Au), silver(Ag) and copper(Cu) are available in nature in free state as
they are least reactive. Other metals mostly are found in nature in the combined form due
to their high reactivity.
· The elements or compounds of the metals which occur in nature in the earth crust are called
minerals.
· The minerals from which the metals are extracted without economical loss are called ores.
· The ores of many metals are oxides sulphides, chlorides and carbonates.

A
Ex: Oxide Ores : Al2O3.2H2O (Bauxite), ZnO (Zincite), Fe3O4 (Magnetite)
Chloride Ores: NaCl (Rock Salt), AgCl (Horn Sivler) , KClMgCl2.6H2O (Carnalite)

AN
Sulphide Ores: ZnS (Zinc Blende), HgS (Cinna bar), CuFeS (Copper Iron Pyrites)
Carbonate Ores: MgCO3,(magnesite) CaCO3 (Lime stone)

G
Reactivity of metals
Based on reactivity we can arrange metals in descending order of their reactivity as shown

·
below:
N
Decreasing order of High reactivity metals : K > Na > Ca > Mg > Al
A
· Decreasing order of Moderate reactivity metals : Zn > Fe > Pb > Cu
EL

· Decreasing order Low reactivity metals : Hg > Ag > Pt > Au

Extraction of metals from the ores:
T

Extraction of a metal from its ore involves mainly three stages.They are
1. Concentration or dressing of the ore.
T,

2. Extraction of crude metal from the ore.

ER

3. Refining or purification of the metal.

1. Concentration or dressing of the ore:
Ores contain large amount of impurities. The impurities like sand and clay are called gangue.
SC

Dressing of the ore means removing unwanted material like gangue from the ore.The physical
methods adopted in dressing of the ore are:
Hand picking :This method is used if the ore particles and impurities are different in one of the
properties like colour,size, etc.The ore particles are handpicked and separated from impurities.
Washing:
This method is used when ore particles are more denser than impurities.Ore particles are
crushed and kept on a slopy surface.They are washed with controlled flow of water. Less
dense impurities are washed away by water flow. Ore particles are left behind on the slope.

86
Froth flotation: Froth bubbles
carrying sulphide
This method is used for sulphide Ores which ore particles Compressed
have no wetting property whereas the Air
impurities get wetted. Water containing pine
Sulphide ore
oil is taken in flotation cell.The ore with particles
impurities is finely powdered and kept in
flotation cell. Air under pressure is blown to Water
containing
produce froth in water. Froth so produced, takes pine oil
ore particles to the surface whereas impurities Gangue
settle at the bottom. Froth is separated and
washed to get ore particles.

A
Powdered ore
Magnetic separation:

AN
Magnetic
This method is used if either ore or impurity wheel
Non
is a magnetic substance.The impurities are Magnetic
wheel
separated using electromagnetic wheel as
Moving belt
shown in figure.

G
Non Magnetic ore Magnetic ore

2. Extraction of crude metal from the ore:

A N
Extraction of the metal from its Ore depends on the reactivity of the metal.
EL

A) Extraction of metals at the top of the activity series:

· The ores of highly reactive metals like K,Na,Ca,Mg and Al cannot be reduced by simple
chemical methods as they need very high temperatures.
T

· Again electrolysis of their aqueous solutions also is not feasible because water in the solution
would be discharged at the cathode in preference to the metal ions.
T,

· The only method available is electrolysis of their fused compounds.

ER

· In this method, fused metal compound is used as electrolyte. Graphite rod is used as anode
and steel rod is used as cathode. A large quantity of electricity is passed to keep the ore in
molten state.
· Example: On electrolysis of molten NaCl , sodium metal is deposited at cathode and chlorine
SC

will be liberated at anode.

B) Extraction of metals in the middle of the activity series:
· The ores of Zn, Fe, Sn, Pb and Cu metals are generally present as sulphides or carbonates
in nature. Sulphide ores are roasted to convert them into oxides before reducing them to
metal.
· The metal oxides can be reduced to the corresponding metal by using reducing agents such
as carbon or carbon monoxide.
· The metals can be obtained by the reaction of metal oxides with highly reactive metals such
sodium, calcium, aluminium etc. These displacement reactions are highly exothermic. The
amount of heat evolved is so large that the metals produced are in molten state.

87
 · The reaction of iron oxide(Fe2O3) with aluminium produces molten iron which is used to
join railings of railway tracks or cracked machine parts.
Fe2O3 + 2 Al ——-> 2Fe + Al2O3 +heat.
This reaction is known as thermite reaction.
C) Extraction of metals at the bottom of the activity series:
· Metals at the bottom of the activity series are often found in free state. Their reactivity with
other atoms is very low. The oxides of these metals can be reduced to metals by heat alone
and sometimes by displacement from their aqueous solutions.
3. Refining or purification of the metal:

A
· The process of obtaining the pure metal from the impure metal is called refining of the

AN
metal.
Some refining methods:
a) Distillation:

G
On distillation, low boiling metals like zinc and mercury can be separated from high boiling
impurities. The pure metal is obtained as distillate.
b) Poling:
·
A N
The molten metal is stirred with logs(poles) of green wood. The impurities are removed
EL

either as gases or they get oxidized and form scum over the surface of the molten metal.
Blister copper is purified by this method.
c) Liquation:
T

· In this method a low melting metal like tin can be made to flow on a slopy surface to
separate it from high melting impurities.
T,

d) Electrolytic refining:
· In this method, the impure metal is used as anode,pure metal is used as cathode and soluble
ER

salt of the same metal is used as electrolyte.

· On electrolysis,the required metal gets deposited on the cathode in the pure form. Using
this method, pure copper can be obtained from blister copper.
SC

Corrosion:
· The rusting of iron, tarnishing of silver, development of green coating on copper and bronze
are some of the examples of corrosion.
To investigate the conditions under which Iron rusts.
Aim: To investigate the conditions under which Iron rusts.
Material required:
Test tubes, clean Iron nails, distilled water, oil, anhydrous calcium chloride.
Procedure:
· Take three test tubes and place clean Iron nails in each of them.

88
 · Label these test tubes as A, B and C.
· Pour some water in test tube A and cork it.
· Pour boiled distilled water in test tube B, add about Air Air Dry
1 ml of oil and cork it.The oil will float on water and B C air
A Layer
prevent the air from dissolving in the water. of oil

· Put some anhydrous calcium chloride in test tube C Rusty

ir on
and cork it. Anhydrous calcium chloride will absorb nails
the moisture, if any,from the air.
· Leave these test tubes for a few days and then observe. Water

A
Observations: Boiled Anhydrous
distilled water calcium chloride
· Iron nails get rust in test tube A.

AN
· Iron nails do not get rust in test tubes B and C
· In test tube A, the nails are exposed to both air and water.
· In test tube B, the nails are exposed to only water.

G
· In test tube C, the nails are exposed to dry air .
Result :
Precautions:
A
Clean Iron nails without any rust should be taken.
N
Corrosion of iron (commonly known as rusting) occurs in the presence of water and air.
EL

Methods to prevent Corrosion:

Corrosion can be prevented by:
· Painting the surface of metals
T

· Oiling or greasing the surface.

· Galvanization.
T,

· Electroplating
· Alloying
ER

A few important processes used in Metallurgy:

Smelting: Smelting is a pyrochemical process, in which the ore mixed with flux and fuel is strongly
heated. The product obtained is a molten metal.The smelting is carried out in blast furnace.
SC

Flux: Flux is a substance added to the ore to remove the gangue from it .The impurities(gangue) in the
ore react with flux and form slag which is removed.If the gangue is acidic substance,flux used will be
basic substance.
Roasting: Roasting is a process of heating the ore strongly in free supply of air or oxygen.
Calcination: Calcination is a process of heating the ore strongly in the absence of air or oxygen.
FURNACE:
Furnace is the one which is used to carry out pyrochemical processes in metallurgy. We
have mainly three parts in a furnace known as hearth, chimney and fire box.

89
 ASSESSMENT

Very Short Answer Questions

1. Why do metals like gold, silver are used in making ornaments?
2. Write the physical methods followed for concentration of ore.
3. Arrange the metals copper(Cu), Gold(Au), Zinc(Zn), Alluminium(Al) and Sodum(Na) in
descending order of their reactivity.
4. Write the chemical equation showing the thermite reaction.
5. Suggest any two methods to prevent corrosion of metals in daily life.

A
6. Guess and write what happens if there is no oxidation in nature.

Short Answer Questions

AN
7. Classify the given ores into oxides and sulphides.
Bauxite (Al2O3), Zinc blende (ZnS), Haematite (Fe2O3) Cinnabar(HgS).

G
8. Differentiate roasting and calcination of ores.
9. Which method do we adopt for extraction of high reactivity metals? Explain.

Essay Type Questions

A N
10. Write experimental procedure to prove that air and water are essential for corrosion of iran
EL

metal.
11. Explain the methods of extraction of metals with different reactivities from their ores.
12. Express the process of froth flotation with neat diagram
T

13. Draw the diagram of magnetic seperation method and lebel it

T,

Multiple Choice Questions

1. The impurity present in the ore is called as ( )
ER

A) gangue. B) flux C) slag. D) mineral

2. The oil used in the froth flotation process is ( )
A) kerosene oil B) pine oil C) coconut oil D) olive oil
SC

3. The metal that occurs in the native form is ( )

A) Pb B) Au C) Fe D) Hg
4. The most abundant metal in the earth’s crust is ( )
A) Silver B) Aluminium C) Zinc D) Iron
5. The reducing agent in thermite process is ( )
A) Al B) Mg C) Fe. D) Si
6. Blister copper is purified using ( )
A) Distillation B) Liquation C) Electrolytic refining D) Magnetic separation.

90
 12. CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

Introduction:
· Carbon was discovered in prehistory. Ancients used to manufacture charcoal by burning
organic material
· Carbon is a non-metal. It belongs to 14th group. IVA group in modern periodic table. Valence
is 4. - Atomic number 6 electron configuration is 1s22s22p2
·

A
Carbon has 6 protons. So it cannot gain 4 electrons to get octet. Because carbon's electro
negativity is 2.5

AN
· Carbon cannot lose 4 electrons. Because it needs huge amount of energy.
· Carbon has to satisfy tetra valency by sharing electrons with other atoms. It has to form
four. covalent bonds.

G
Possibilities of bond formation by Carbon atom
· N
Four single covalent bonds with atoms of same element
A
H
EL

I
Ex: CH4 : H – C – H
I
T

H
T,

· Four single covalent bonds with atoms of different elements

ER

H
I
H – C – Cl
SC

Ex:
I
Br
· One double bond and two single bonds.

H H

C º C
Ex : C2H4 :
H H

91
 · One triple bond and one single bond
Ex : C2H2 : H – C º C-H
· Electronic configuration of carbon
ground state Excited State
1s22s22px12py1 2pz0 1s22s12px12py12pz1

· Carbon has four unpaired electrons in excited state. So it can form four covalent bonds.
· These four valence electrons are with different energies

A
Promotion of an electron
·

AN
If carbon forms four bonds rather than two, more energy is released and molecule becomes
more stable
· When carbon is ready to form four bonds gets energy and promotes an electron from 2s to

G
the empty 2pz orbital and hence has four unpaired electrons
Hybridisation
·
·
This concept was introduced by Linus Pauling.
A N
The redistribution of orbitals of almost equal energy in individual atoms to give equal number
EL
of new orbitals with identical properties (energy, shape) is called Hybridisation
· The newly formed orbitals are called as hybrid orbitals.
Ex : In the excited carbon, one s-orbital and Three p- orbitals inter mix and reshuffle into four
T

identical orbitals
2s, 2px 2py 2pz ® Four sp3 orbitals
T,

­ ­ ­ ­ ® ­ ­ ­ ­
ER

2s 2px 2py 2pz sp sp sp sp 3

3 3 3

· Such hybridisation is known as sp3 hybridisation

· Now carbon can form single bonds with other monovalent bonds.
SC

Ex: When carbon reacts with hydrogen, four sp3 orbitals of carbon overlap with s-orbitals of
four Hydrogens. This leads to form sp³-s sigma bonds

· Four hydrogen atoms are oriented at an angle of 109°281

· Shape of the molecule is Tetrahedron

92
SP² hybridisation
Ex: In the formation of CH2=CH2, (Ethene), carbon, undergoes sp² hybridisation by intermixing
of one 2s orbital and two 2p orbitals (2Px 2Py) and three sp² hybridised orbitals are formed.
· One p orbital in carbon remains unhybridised. sp² orbitals get separated around nucleus of
carbon atom by angle 120°
· One sp² orbital of one carbon atom overlaps the sp² orbital of other carbon atom and sp² -sp²
sigma bond is formed.
· Remaining two sp² orbitals of each carbon overlap s orbitals of hydrogen atoms. and sp2 -s
sigma bond is formed.
· The unhybridised pz orbitals of two carbon atoms overlap laterally to form P-bond

A
· There are two bonds between two carbon atoms. one s bond and one P-bond.

AN
H H

C C

G
H H
SP hybridisation A N
Ex: In the formation of H-C = C-H (ethyne) commonly known as acetylene, carbon under goes
sp hybridisation by intermixing of one 2s orbital and one 2p orbital (2px) hence two sp
orbitals are formed
EL

· Two 2p orbitals (2py, 2pz) in carbon remain. unbybridised.

· One sp-orbital of one. carbon overlaps the sp-orbital of another carbon atom and sp- sp
sigma bond is formed.
T

· The other sp-orbital of each carbon atom overlaps the s-orbital of a hydrogen and sp-s
sigma bond is formed.
T,

· The unhybridised 2p orbitals (2Py 2pz) of one carbon atom overlap laterally unhybsidised
2p orbital (2py 2pz) of another carbon atom to form two P-bonds. (Ppy- py, P pz-pz)
ER

· There are three bond between two carbon atoms. One s bond and two P-bonds
Allotropes of Carbon
· The property of an element to exist in two or more physical forms having similar chemical
SC

properties but different physical properties is called allotropy

· The different forms of the element are called allotropes
· Allotropy occurs due to difference in the arrangement of atoms in the molecules.
· There are two types of allotropes.
Amorphous forms
Ex: Coal, Coke, Charcoal
lamp black, Gas carbon
Petroleum coke
Crystalline forms
Ex: Diamond, graphite. Buck minster fullerene.
93
Diamond:
· Diamond forms covalent network structures.
· Carbon undergoes sp³ hybridisation in diamond.
· Each carbon has tetrahedral environment.
· Diamond is one of the hardest materials as C-C bonds are very strong.

A
AN
G
Lattice structure of diamond Diamond structure

Graphite:
·
A N
Graphite forms a two dimensional layer structure with C-C bonds within the layers.
· C-C bonds between the layers are relatively weak
EL

· Carbon atoms are in trigonal planar enviroment in the layer structure.

· Interaction between the sp² orbitals lead to the formation of C-C bonds.
T

· Unhybridised pz orbitals interact to form a P - system.

· This interaction known as London dispersion forces between the layers.
T,

· The distance between layers is 335 A0

·
ER

The interaction between layers is weakened by the presence of water. This is the reason why
it is easy to cleave graphite
· So graphite is used as "lead" in pencils also as lubricant.
·
SC

Graphite is a good conductor of electricity.

Reason : Delocalised P electron system.
Buckminster Fullerene (C60)
· These are molecules of varying sizes that are composed of carbon.
· This arrangement leads to form hollow sphere, ellipsoid tube depending on orientations.
· Spherical fullerenes are called bucky balls.
· Buckminster fullerene contains nearly spherical C60 molecules with the shape of a soccer
ball.
· C60 molecule contains 12 pentagonal and 20 hexagonal faces on its foot ball shape.

94
Nanotubes
Nano tubes consist of hexagonal arrays of covalently bonded carbon atoms.
Nanotubes are good conductors of electricity.
Nanotubes are used instead of copper in integrated circuits to connect components
Versatile nature of carbon
· All molecules that make life possible contain carbon
Ex: carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, hormones.
·

A
The food we get from nature, medicines cotton, silk, fuel are carbon compounds.
· Synthetic materials also compounds of carbon.

AN
Ex: fabrics, plastics, rubber
Catenation:

G
· If any element forms bonds between its own atoms to give big molecules, the element is
known to have catenation property.
· N
The ability of carbon to form bonds in many ways is the reason behind catenation property
of it
A
EL

Hydro carbons
· The compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen in their molecules are called
hydrocarbons;
T

· Hydro carbons are of two types.

T,

1) open chain hydrocarbons

2) closed chain hydrocarbons.
ER

· Open chain hydrocarbons are also called as aliphatic/acyclic hydrocarbons.

· Closed chain hydrocarbons are also called as cyclic hydrocarbons
SC

· Hydrocarbons are classified differently as Alkanes, Alkenes, Alkynes.

· Alkanes containing only single bond between Carbon atoms (C-C)
· Alkenes containing atleast one double bond between carbon atoms (C=C)
· Alkynes containing atleast one triple bond between carbon atoms C º C
· Alkanes are also known as saturated hydrocarbons
· Alkenes, Alkynes- are also known as unsaturated hydrocarbons

95
Examples:
a) CH3-CH2-CH3 open chain, saturated hydrocarbon
b) CH3-CH=CH2 open chain, unsaturated hydrocarbon
CH - CH2
c) || |
CH- CH2 closed chain, unsaturated hydrocarbon
CH3 - CH- CH - CH3
d) | | branched chain open chain Saturated
CH3 CH2 - CH3
Binding of Carbon with Other Elements

A
· Carbon forms compounds not only with atoms of hydrogen but also with oxygen, nitrogen,

AN
sulphur etc.
· The atom or group of atoms in the molecule influence the properties of organic compound
is called as functional group

G
Halohydro carbons: Compounds containing C, H, X
X ® F, Cl, Br, I….halogens
Ex : - CH3Cl, CH3-CH2-Br
Alcohols:
A N
Hydrocarbons that contain -OH group are called alcohols Gen formula is R-OH
EL

Ex: CH3OH, CH3-CHOH-CH3

Aldehydes:
T

Hydrocarbons with functional group –CHO are called aldehydes Gen formula R-CHO
H
-C=O CH3 – C =O
T,

I I
H H
ER

Formaldehyde Acetaldehyde
C
C= O
SC

Ketones: Hydrocarbons with group are called ketones

C

R
General formula C =O
R1

O O
II II
Ex: CH - C - CH3 CH3 – CH2 - C - CH3
3

Dimethyl ketone Ethyl methyl ketone

96
Carboxylic acids: Hydrocarbons with -COOH group are called carboxylic acids.
Gen formula R-COOH

H–C=O CH3-C=0
I I
Ex:
OH OH

Formic acid Acetic acid

Ethers: Ethers are formed when hydrogen atom In H20 are replaced by two alkyl groups.

A
Gen formula R-O-R1

AN
Ex: CH3-O-CH3 CH3-CH2-O-CH3

Dimethyl ether Ethyl methyl ether

G
Esters : These are derivatives of carbonylic acids. If alkyl group replaces hydrogen in R-COOH,
esters are obtained

Gen formula R-COOR

O
A N
O
EL

II II
CH3 – C –OCH3 CH3 – CH2 – C – OCH3
T

Dimethyl ester Ethyl methyl ester

T,

Amines: If hydrogen atom is replaced from NH3 by alkyl group amines are formed

Gen formula R-NH2

ER

CH3-NH2 methyl amine

Isomerism:
SC

- The phenomenon of possessing same molecular formula but different properties by the compounds
is known as isomerism. The compounds are called as isomers.

Ex: CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3 CH3-CH-CH3

I
CH3

formula C4H10 formula C4H10

butane iso -butane or 2-methyl propane

97
Homologous Series
The series of compounds in which two successive compounds differ by -CH2 unit Called homologous
series
Ex: 1) CH4, C2H6, C3H8,.....
2) CH3OH, C2H5OH, C3H7OH..

· They have general formulae.

Alkanes - CnH2n+2
alkenes - CnH2n

A
alkynes - CnH2n-2

AN
· They possess similar chemical properties.
· Members in series are known as homologs.

G
Note: Go through Tables 1,2,3 in Page No’s 270, 271 in text book.
IUPAC Nomeclature of Carbon Compounds
Prefix
Secondary
Word root
Primary Indicates no.of
A N Suffix
Primary suffix ane/ene/ Secondary suffix
EL

prefix prefix carbons in a principal yne/ enyne (Main functional

chain of a compound group)
T

1. Alkyl group Cyclo

2. Halide group It follows the word root
T,

3. Alcoxy group
4. NO2, NO etc. for C-C - ane
ER

5. Secondary
functional group for C=C - ene
when there are
SC

more than one for C=_C - yne

functional group
Numerical prefix Numerical - 1, 2, 3, 4
1, 2, 3, 4
Number prefix Number suffix
Mono, di, tri mono, di, tri

7,8 - di bromo 3, 5 - di chloro octa 3,4 - di ene 1, 2 - di - ol

CH2Br-CHBr-CH2-CCl=C=CCl-CHOH -CH2OH
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

98
Numbering Carbon Atoms:
1. Longest chain rule: select principal chain so that maximum number of corbons are in chain.
1 2 3 4 5
CH3 - CH - CH2 - CH - CH3
| |
CH3 CH3
2. Counting no of carbons:
1. We can number carbon atoms from left to right or right to left so that substituents. containing
carbons get least numbers.

A
2. The functional group carbon should be given lowest number even if it does not obey Rule
(1).

AN
3. Lowest number rule.
Substituent containing carbon should be given lowest number.

G
5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5
CH3 -- CH -- CH2 -- CH2 -- CH3 CH3 -- CH -- CH2 -- CH2 -- CH3
CH3

(Incorrect method)
A N CH3
(Correct method)
EL
4. Lowest Sum rule:
If there are more than one substituents in carbon compounds, the parent chain is numbered from the
end which give the lowest sum of substituent carbons
T

CH3
| CH3
1 2 3 4 5 6 |
T,

CH3 - CH - CH2 - CH2 - C - CH3 6 5 4 3 2 1

| | CH 3
- CH - CH 2
- CH 2
- C - CH 3
| |
ER

CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3

2 + 5 + 5 = 12 (Incorrect method) (2+2+5=9 Correct method)
A) Halide Group: Chloride - chloroe, Floride-floro, Bromide – bromo : Iodide-Iodo
SC

B) Alkyl Group:
Methane – CH4 Methyl- CH3
Ethane- C2H6 Ethyl – C2H5
Propane - C3H5 Propyl – C3H7
Butane C4H10 Butyl – C4 H9
C) Functional groups
- COOH- Oic acid

99
 - OH Alcohol (ol)
- C C=O ketone (one)
C
C
- C=O Aldehyde (al)
H
-COOR Ester
R-O-R Ether
- NH2 Amine
NO2 Nitro

A
D) Decending order of priority for choosing naming

AN
- COOH > COOR > CHO >> C=O > R - OH > -NH2
Example

G
H H H H H
| | | | |
1. H - C - C - C - C - C- H (or) CH3 -CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3
| | | | |
H H H H H
A
All are hydrogens. so, number can be given from
N
EL
H H H H H
| | | | |
2. H - C - C - C - C - C- H (or) CH3 -CHCl-CH2-CH2-CH3
| | | | |
H Cl H H H
T

In above compound, chlorine substituted hydrogen should be given less number

T,

5 4 3 2 1
CH3 - CHCl - CH2 - CH2 - CH3 (Incorrect)
ER

1 2 3 4 5
CH3 - CHCl - CH2 - CH2 - CH3 (Correct)

3. CH3 - CHCl - CCl2 - CH - CH3

SC

|
CH3
This compond has three chlorine atens and one methyl group (CH3)
5 4 3 2 1
CH3 - CHCL - CCl2 - CH - CH3 (Incorrect)
|
CH3
1 2 3 4 5
CH3 - CHCl - CCl2 - CH - CH3 (Correct)
|
CH3
2, 3, 3 - trichloro - 4 - methyl - pentane

100
 4. CH3-CHCl-CH=C Br - CH3 this compound has 1-chlorine, 1-Bromine and a bouble bond.
Double bonded carbon should be given Lowest number
1 2 3 4 5
CH3 - CHCl - CH = CBr - CH3 (Incorrect)

5 4 3 2 1
CH3 - CHCl - CH = CBr - CH3 (Correct)
2- Bromo, 4 chloro - pent - 2- ene

Cl
|

A
CH2 - C - CH - CH = CH
| || |

AN
OH O OH
3- Chloro - 1, 5 - di hydroxy - pent - 4 ene - 2 - one.
How to draw structure of a compound

G
We can write the structures from the name of the compound as follows:
1)
2)
A N
From the word root in the name write the carbon atoms in the main chain
Select counting of carbon atoms in the appropriate manner from left to right or right to left
as for the name given.
EL

3) Attach the substituents to respective carbon atoms as per their numbers and numerical
designations.
T

4) Find the functional group if any from the name of the compound see that it is correctly
arranged in the structure.
T,

5) Keeping in view that the tetravalency of each carbon atom has to be satisfied use hydrogen
atoms in the required number and complete the structure.
ER

Examples :
CH3 OH
| |
1 2 3 4 5
SC

CH3 - CH - CH - CH2 -CH3

Chemical properties of carbon compounds

1. Combustion reactions

Carbon, and its compounds burn in presence of oxygen or air to give CO2, heat and light
Eg: 1) C+ O2 ® CO2 + Energy
2) 2C2H6 + 7O2 ® 4CO2+6H2O + Energy
3) CH3CH2OH + 3O2 ® 2CO2 + 3H2O + Energy

101
2. Oxidation reactions
Oxidizing agents or Oxidants are substances that oxidize other substances themselves undergo
reduction Alkaline Potassium permanganate or Acidified Potassium dichromate in solutions
act as oxidizing agents and supplies oxygen to convert alcohols into carboxylic acids Ethyl
alcohol undergoes oxidation to form the product Acetaldehyde and finally Acetic acid (see
following equation)

CH3CH2OH alkaline KMnO 4 +Heat CH3CHO CH3COOH

ac idified
Ethanol Ethanal (Acetal- Ethanoic acid
K2Cr 2O 7+Heat
dehyde)
(Ethyl alcohol) (Acetic Acid)

A
3. Addition reactions

AN
Unsaturated organic compounds that contain multiple bonds (= bonds) like alkenes and
alkynes undergo addition reactions to takes place in presence of 'Ni'acts as catalyst

CH3C =_ C–CH3 CH3CH=CH–CH3 CH3–CH2–CH2–CH3

G
Ni catalyst Ni catalyst
H2 H2
But–2-yne But–2-ene But ane

4. Substitution reactions
A N
Alkanes undergo substitution reactions in presence of sunlight For example, methane (CH4)
reacts with chlorine in the presence of sunlight
EL

Hydrogen atoms of CH4, are replaced by chlorine atoms.

CH4 + Cl2 sunlight CH3Cl + HCl
T

Methane Methyl Chloride Hydrogen Chloride

T,

CH3Cl + Cl2 sunlight CH2Cl2 + HCl

Methyl Chloride Methylene Chloride Hydrogen Chloride
ER

CH2Cl2 + Cl2 sunlight CHCl3 + HCl

Methylene Chloride Chloroform Hydrogen Chloride
SC

CHCl3 + Cl2 sunlight CCl4 + HCl

Chloroform Carbon Tetrachloride Hydrogen Chloride

Some important carbon compounds

Ethanol (Ethyl alcohol)
Preparation: Ethanol is prepared on large scale from ethene by the addition of water vapour to it in the
presence of catalysts like P2O5 Tungsten oxide at high pressure and temperature.
CH2 = CH2 + H2O catalyst CH3CH2OH
ethene 100-300 atm Ethanol (ethyl alcohol)
At 300 0C
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Properties
Ethanol is a colourless liquid with characteristic sweet odour. Pure ethanol boils at 78.3 0C.
Pure ethanol is called absolute (100 %) alcohol.
Denatured alcohol is ethanol that contains impurities that make it undrinkable. The impurities
are methanol, methyl isobutyl ketone, aviation gasoline etc. It is toxic and 200 ml of it is a
fatal dose to an adult. Solution of about 10% ethanol in gasoline (gasohol) is a good motor
fuel.
Chemical properties
1) Ethanol reacts with metallic sodium to liberate hydrogen and form sodium ethoxide.

A
2C2H5OH + 2Na ® 2C2H5ONa+ H2

AN
Ethanol sodium ethoxide

2) Ethanol reacts with conc. H2SO4 at about 170°C (443 K) to give ethene.

G
at 170oC
CH3CH2OH CH2 = CH2 + H2O
Conc. H2SO4
ethene
A N
Uses: Ethanol is used in large scale in medicines in drugs such as tincture iodine and cough
EL

syrups
Ethanoic acid (acetic acid)
T

Ethanoic acid is a colourless liquid with characteristic unpleasant odour.

It is soluble in water.
T,

Chemical Reactions
Acidity:
ER

1) Ethanoic acid reacts with active metals like Na to liberate hydrogen. This reaction is similar
to that of ethanol.
2CH3COOH + 2Na ® 2CH3COONa + H2
SC

acetic acid sodium sodium acetate

2) Ethanoic acid reacts with NaOH to form sodium acetate and water.
CH3COOH + NaOH ® CH3COONa + H2O
Sodium Hydroxide

3) Ethanoic acid reacts with sodium carbonate and sodium hydrogen carbonate which are weaker
bases and liberates CO,
2CH3COOH + 2Na2CO3 ® 2CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
Sodium Carbonate

103
 CH3COOH + NaHCO3 ® CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
Sodium bi cacrbonate

Uses: 5-8% solution of acetic acid in water is called vinegar and is used widely as a preservative
in pickles.

Esterification Reactions:

Preparation of ester : Take 1 ml of ethanol (absolute alcohol) and 1ml of glacial acetic acid
along with a few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid in a test tube.

Esterification

A
The reaction between carboxylic acid and an alcohol in the presence of conc. H2SO4 to form

AN
a sweet odoured substance, ester with the functional

Soaps Saponification and Micelles

G
Soap is a sodium or potassium salt of a higher fatty acid The formula of a soap in general is
RCOONa or RCOOK, where R = C15H31; C17H35 etc.

Ex:

palmitic acid (C15H31COOH),

A N
EL

stearic acid (C17H35COOH),

oleic acid (C17H33COOH) etc.

T

Fats are esters of higher fatty acids and the trihydroxy alcohol known as glycerol.
T,

Saponification reaction

Alkaline hydrolysis of tri esters of higher fatty acids producing soaps is called saponification
ER

Micelle

A spherical aggregate of soap molecules in water is called micelle. When soap is dissolved in
SC

water, it forms a colloidal suspension in which the soap molecules cluster together to form
spherical micelles

Micelle 3D structure of a micelle

104
Cleansing action of soap
Soap has one polar end (the end with carboxy) and one non-polar end (the end with hydrocarbon
chain) as shown in the figure.
The polar end is hydrophilic in nature and this end is attracted towards water.
The non-polar end is hydrophobic in nature and it is attracted towards grease or oil on the cloth,
but not attracted towards water.
When soap is dissolved in water, its hydrophobic ends attach themselves to dirt and remove it
from the cloth, as shown sequentially in the figure that follows.

A
The hydrophobic end of the soap molecules move towards the dirt or grease particle.

AN
The hydrophobic ends attached to the dirt particle and try to pull out The molecules of soap
surround the dirt particle.

ASSESSMENT

G
Very Short Answer Questions
1.
2.
3.
Explain how carbon get four unpaired electrons
What do you mean by hybridysation?
A
Write down the reason behind allotropy?.
N
EL

4. Write down examples for amorphous forms. of carbon allotropes.

5. What would be the reason for diamond be known as hardest material?
6. It is easy to cleave the graphite. Give the reason.
T

7. What are the uses of graphite.

8. What type of fullerenes are known as bucky balls?
T,

9. Name the allotrope of carbon used in integral circuits ?

10. Name the atom or group of atoms that influence the chemical properties of carton compounds.
ER

11. What happens if a piece of sodium is dropped in ethanol?

12. Which hydrocarbons participate in addition reactions? Why?
Short Answer Questions
SC

1. In order to get octet and become stable, Carbon can neither gain elections nor lose electrons
Identify reasons behind such situation.
2. List the possibilities for the chemical bonds carbon to form.
3. Catenation property enables carbon to have millions of compounds. Explain
4. Explain the concept Isomerism with an example.
5. Write IUPAC names of given compounds.
6. Which hydrocorbons undergo substitution reaction? Explain with an example.
7. Draw a diagram of soap particle showing hydro phobic end and hydrophilic end.
8. A compond A dehydrates at 170°C in presence of conc. H2SO4 and formed another compound B. If
compond B is C2HO4 then what is compound A ? Write chemical equation for this reaction
105
Essay Type Questions

1. Explain sp³-hybridisation with an example.

2. Explain sp²-hybridisation with an example
3. Emplain sp-hybridisation with an example
4. Which hydrocarbons undergo substitution reactions? Give one example?
5. Supply Examples for
a) Alchohols b) Ketones
c) Ethers d) Aldehydes e) Carboxilic acids.

A
Multiple Choice Questions

AN
1. Valence of Carbon is [ ]
a) 3 b) 6 c) 4 d) 5

G
2. Identity true statements. [ ]
1. Carbon has 4 protons
2. Carbon can form ionic bonds
A N
EL

3. Bond angle in CH4 is 1200

4. Carbon has catenation property
4 3 1 2
T

a) b) c) d)

3. General forumula of Alkynes [ ]

T,

a) Cn H2n b) CnH2n-2 c) CnH2n+2 d) C2n H2n+2

ER

4. Identify correct order of preference of functional groups. [ ]

A) R-OH > - COOH > - CHO B) -COOH> -CHO > R-OH
SC

C) -COOH > R-OH > - CHO D) R-OH > - CHO > - COOH
5. Gas released when acetic acid reacts with Sodium metal is [ ]
A) CO2 B) O2 C) H2 D) A and B
6. CH3CH2OH Converts into CH3COOH is an example for -------------- [ ]
A) Oxidation B) Addition reaction
C) Dehydration D) Combustion.
7. What is present in cough syrup [ ]
A) Acetic acid B) Ethyl Alcohol C) Ester D) Ethene

106
 Writers
Sri C.V. Harikrishna, SA, ZPHS Toopranpet, Yadadri Bhongir.
Sri Dandala Madhusudhan Reddy, SA, ZPHS Kodad, Suryapet.
Sri Tirumala Srinivasa Chary, SA, ZPHS Chinnatunla, Ranga Reddy.
Sri A. Nagaraja Shekhar, SA, ZPHS Kudunuru, B.Kothagudem.
Sri T. Ajay Singh, SA, ZPHS Somangurthi, Vikarabad.
Sri Kandula Bhaskar Reddy, SA, ZPHS Kulkacherla, Vikarabad.
Sri Bhaskar Desh, SA, ZPHS Isnapur, Sangareddy.

A
Sri P. Narayana Varma, SA, ZPHS Koratikal, Nirmal.

AN
Sri M. Aditya Kumar, SA, ZPHS Rajeshwarapuram, Khammam.
Sri A. Laxminadam, SA, ZPHS Indalwai, Nizamabad.
Sri A. Gnaneshwar, SA, ZPHS Mallakpally, Warangal (Urban)

G
Sri Shaik Jafar, SA, ZPHS Munagala, Suryapet.
Sri SSUM Sharma, SA, ZPHS Shivunipally, Jangaon.
A N
Sri K. Satyanarayana Prasad, SA, ZPHS Kapugal, Suryapet.
Sri Syed Samad, SA, ZPHS Venkatapuram, Khammam.
EL

Sri K. Krishna Mohan, SA, TSMS&JC Munagala, Suryapet.

Sri V. Madhusudhan Rao, SA, TSMS Narayanapur, Yadadri Bhongir
Smt Jabeen Ruksana, SA, TSMS & JC Pebbair, Wanaparthy.
T

Smt Fareeda Begum, SA, TSMS Palamakula Ranga Reddy.

Smt Srilatha Michael, SA, TSMS&JC Bongloor, Ranga Reddy.
T,

Team Assistance
ER

Smt. G. Usha, SCERT, Telangana, Hyderabad.

SC

Smt. R. Vasavi, SCERT, Telangana, Hyderabad.

Smt. V. Latha Madhavi, SCERT, Telangana, Hyderabad.

Sri Md. Ayyub Ahmed, SCERT, Telangana, Hyderabad.

Layout and Design

Smt Arifa Sultana, Telangana Academy, Hyderabad

107
 Chief Advisor
Smt. Vakati Karuna, IAS
Secretary, Education Department,
Telangana.

Advisor
Smt. A. Sridevasena, IAS
Director of School Education,

A
Telangana.

AN
Chief Co-ordinators

G
Smt. M. Radha Reddy,
Director, SCERT,
ATelangana.

Sri G. Ramesh
N
ASPD, Samagra Shiksha
EL

Telangana.

Co-ordinator
T

Smt. Tahseen Sultana, Professor & HoD,

T,

Department of Curriculum & Textbooks, SCERT,

Telangana, Hyderabad.
ER

Asst. Co-ordinator
Smt. I. Karunasree
SC

Department of Curriculum & Textbooks, SCERT,

Telangana.

Subject Incharge
Sri C.V. Harikrishna,
ZPHS Toopranpet, Yadadri Bhongir.

Sri Yanala Venkat Reddy

Rtd. School Assistant, Suryapet Dist.

108