Basic Metallurgy

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 Objective of this Lecture:

• The trainees will be able to understand:

Basics of crystal structure
What is solid solution
Fe – Fe3C Phase Diagram

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 Solids : the Atomic arrangement

Crystalline: periodic arrangement of atoms with

Solids definite repetitive pattern of atoms.
Amorphous: random arrangement of atoms.

Crystalline Amorphous

The periodic and repetitive arrangement of

atoms in a crystal structure is called space
lattice.
Smallest repetitive unit of space lattice is unit
3
cell.
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 Crystal Structure
• Arrangement of atoms , ions , molecules in a crystalline solid is
called crystal structure.
• Is also called space lattice
• Crystal is also called grain.

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Slip plane and slip direction of FCC
Slip planes
Slip planes
Miller Indices
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 DIFFERENT TYPES OF UNIT CELLS:
• Depending upon the lattice parameters, there are seven types of unit cells.
1) Triclinic in which a≠b≠c and α≠β≠γ;
2) Monoclinic in which a≠b≠c and α= γ=900 ≠ β
3) Orthorhombic in which a≠b≠c and α= β = γ = 900
4) Hexagonal in which a=b≠c and α= β= 900, and γ≠ 900
5) Rhombohedral in which a=b=c and; α= β = γ ≠ 900
6) Tetragonal in which a=b≠c and α= β = γ = 900
7) Cubic in which a=b=c and and α= β = γ = 900

• Some geometrical patterns can have more than one way of arranging atoms.
• Total 14 different types of crystals are found in nature.
• Most metals and many other solids have unit cell structures described as Body
Center Cubic (BCC), Face Centered Cubic (FCC) & Hexagonal Close Packed
(HCP).

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 Simple Cubic Structure (SC)
• Rare due to low packing density (only Po has this structure)
• Close-packed directions are cube edges.
• Coordination # = 6
(# nearest neighbors)

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 Atomic Packing Factor (APF):SC
Volume of atoms in unit cell*
APF =
Volume of unit cell
*assume hard spheres

• APF for a simple cubic structure = 0.52

volume
atoms
atom
4
a unit cell p (0.5a) 3
1
3
R=0.5a APF =
a3 volume
close-packed directions unit cell
contains 8 x 1/8 =
1 atom/unit cell
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 Primary Crystalline Structures: BCC
• Atoms at each corner of the unit cell and one atom at the centre of
the unit cell.
• Each unit cell has a total of 2 atoms.
• The closest packed direction ( direction in which if the atoms are
aligned will ensure minimum volume of unit cell.) is along body
diagonals.
• BCC unit cell has a packing factor of 0.68.
• The structure has lesser number of slip planes, so comparatively
harder and less malleable structure.
• Some of the materials that have a BCC structure include Lithium,
Sodium, Potassium, Chromium, Barium, Alpha-iron and Tungsten.

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 Body Centered Cubic Structure (BCC)
• Atoms touch each other along cube diagonals.
--Note: All atoms are identical; the center atom is shaded
differently only for ease of viewing.

ex: Cr, W, Fe (), Tantalum, Molybdenum

• Coordination # = 8

2 atoms/unit cell: 1 center + 8 corners x 1/8

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 Atomic Packing Factor: BCC
• APF for a body-centered cubic structure = 0.68
3a

2a
Close-packed directions:
Adapted from R length = 4R = 3a
Fig. 3.2(a), Callister & a
Rethwisch 8e.

Volume of atoms
4 volume
Volume of unit cell 2 p ( 3 a/4 )3
3 atom
APF =
volume
a 3
unit cell 15
 F.C.C Structure

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 Primary Crystalline Structures: FCC
• The structure has atoms located at each of the corners plus at the
centers of all the cubic faces.
• Each of corner atoms is shared among eight unit cells & each of face
centre atoms is shared by adjacent cells .
• It has a coordination number of 12. No. of closest neighbors is
called Coordination Numbers.
• The unit cell consists of a net total of four atoms.
– Eight one eighths from corners atoms.
– Six halves of the face atoms
• Face diagonals are the closest pack direction

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 Primary Crystalline Structures: HCP
• Atoms located at each corner and centre of Top & Bottom Hexagons,
placed exactly one over the other plus at the middle gaps of these
hexagons.
• It has a coordination number of 12.
• The unit cell consists of a net total of six atoms:
Twelve sixths from corners atoms
Two halves of the face atoms
Three full from the middle atoms
• Face diagonals are the closest pack directions.
• Both FCC and HCP have packing factor of 0.74.
• In FCC the packing arrangement is abcabc.
• In HCP, the packing arrangement is ababab.
• HCP is less ready deformable than FCC because of lesser number of slip
planes, only three as against six in FCC.
• Some of the metals having HCP structure include Beryllium, Cadmium,
Magnesium, Titanium, Zinc and Zirconiuum.
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 Hexagonal Close-Packed Structure
(HCP)
• ABAB... Stacking Sequence

• 3D Projection • 2D Projection

A sites Top layer

c B sites Middle layer

A sites Bottom layer

a Adapted from Fig. 3.3(a),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

• Coordination # = 12 6 atoms/unit cell

• APF = 0.74 ex: Cd, Mg, Ti, Zn

• c/a = 1.633
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 Solid Solution
• Solutions can happen in solid state also: SOLID SOLUTIONS
What is Solid Solution?
• A solid mixture containing a minor solid
component distributed within the crystal lattice
of the major solid component without disturbing
its crystal structure.
• Major solid component is called solvent whereas
minor solid component is solute.
• Solvent matrix has void space within atoms.

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 Introduction
• If solute atoms are very small, they occupy the void spaces –
Interstitial solutions - Limited Solubility!
• If not, they dislodge some solvent atoms and occupy the location –
Substitution solution - Can be of unlimited solubility , however at
the cost of increase in overall volume.
• Substitution : it can be of limited proportion or unlimited solubility
depending upon the compatibility of the elements via crystal
structure, valency etc. of the phases.

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 Hume Rothery Principles

Some parameters which decides type of solid solutions

• Crystal structure factor

• Size factor
• Electronegativity factor
• Valency factor

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 Polymorphism

• In stable equilibrium, solids are crystalline

• Crystal structure of each solid is unique
• However, for some solids, crystal structure transforms from one to
another under application of temperature or pressure
• This is called polymorphism
• Allotropy is a result of polymorphism
 Equilibrium Diagrams
• Graphical representation of a System consisting of multiple phases.
• One or several components under equilibrium at different
temperature and composition.
• Also known as Phase Diagrams.
• Depending on no. of components present in the System it is called
Mono, Binary or Tertiary etc.
• Depending on the inter compatibility of the components –
Isomorphism, Eutectic, Peritectic.

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 Transformation & Grain Size

• A coarse grained structure is useless in Engineering application,

especially Dynamic loading.
• In Bogie, Axle, wheel etc. the minimum Grain size specified is at least
ASTM No.6 or higher
• Higher the ASTM No., lower and finer the grain size!
– No. of grains/Sq. Inch N = 2n-1
– Checked under Microscope in 100X against std. photograph

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 Iron Carbon Diagram

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 Introduction
• By far, the most important alloy system in
Engineering application – Mild steel & Cast
Iron
• Carbon forms interstitial solid solution in Iron
• The phase diagram has many unique features
– Limited solubility
– Forms compound of Iron & Carbon - Fe3C
– Shows Peritectic , Eutectic &Eutectoid reaction

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 Iron Carbon Diagram

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 Invariant Reactions

• Peritectic, at 1490 deg.C, with low wt% C alloys (almost no

engineering importance).
 The Invariant Reactions

• Eutectic, at 1130 deg.C, with 4.3wt% C, alloys called cast irons.

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 The Invariant Reactions

• Eutectoid, at 723 deg.C with eutectoid composition of 0.8wt% C,

two-phase mixture (ferrite & cementite). They are steels.

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 Definition of structures
• Ferrite is known as α solid solution.
• It is an interstitial solid solution of a small amount of carbon
dissolved in α (BCC) iron.
• Stable form of iron below 912 deg.C
• The maximum solubility is 0.025 % C at 723C and it dissolves
only 0.008 % C at room temperature.
• It is the softest structure that appears on the diagram.
 Definition of structures

Ferrite :Ferrite is magnetic

• Average properties are:
– Tensile strength = 40,000 psi;
– Elongation = 40 % in 2 in;
– Hardness > Rockwell C or
> Rockwell B 90
 Definition of structures

• Pearlite is the eutectoid mixture containing

0.80 % C and is formed at 723°C on very slow
cooling.
• It is a very fine plate like or lamellar mixture
of ferrite and cementite.
• The white ferrite background or matrix
contains thin plates of cementite (dark).
 Definition of structures

Pearlite
• Average properties are:
– Tensile strength = 120,000 psi;
– Elongation = 20 % in 2 in.;
– Hardness = Rockwell C 20, Rockwell B
95-100, or BHN 250-300.
 Definition of structures
• Austenite is an interstitial solid solution of Carbon dissolved
in  (F.C.C.) iron.
• Maximum solubility is 2.0 % C at 1130°C.
• High formability, most of heat treatments begin with this
single phase.
• It is normally not stable at room temperature. But, under
certain conditions it is possible to obtain austenite at room
temperature.
 Definition of structures

Austenite
• Average properties are:
– Tensile strength = 150,000 psi;
– Elongation = 10 percent in 2 in.;
– Hardness = Rockwell C 40,
approx; and
– toughness = high
 Definition of structures
• Cementite or iron carbide, is very hard, brittle intermetallic
compound of iron & carbon, as Fe3C, contains fixed carbon
content as 6.67 % C.
• It is the hardest structure that appears on the diagram, exact
melting point unknown.
• Its crystal structure is orthorhombic.
• It has :
– low tensile strength (approx. 5,000 psi), but
– high compressive strength.
 Definition of structures
• Ledeburite is the eutectic
mixture of austenite and
cementite.
• It contains 4.3 percent C and is
formed at 1130°C.
 Definition of structures

Martensite –
A super-saturated solid solution of carbon in ferrite.
It is formed when steel is cooled so rapidly that the change from
austenite to pearlite is suppressed.
The interstitial carbon atoms distort the BCC ferrite into a BC-tetragonal
structure (BCT).; responsible for the hardness of quenched steel.
The Austenite to ferrite / cementite transformation in
relation to Fe-C diagram
Schematic picture of the formation and
growth of pearlite

Cementite
Ferrite

Austenite
boundary
Nucleation & growth of pearlite
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Principal phases of steel and their Characteristics

Crystal
Phase Characteristics
structure
Ferrite BCC Soft, ductile, magnetic

Soft, moderate
Austenite FCC strength, non-
magnetic

Compound of Iron
Cementite Hard &brittle
& Carbon ,Fe3C
 Some Key Features
• The solid solution of carbon in α-iron is called Ferrite.
• The solid solution of carbon in y-iron is called Austenite
• Carbon solubility of y-iron at 11300C reaches 2.0%.
• The maximum solubility of carbon in α-iron is 0.025% (7230C), at
200C, the solubility is only 0.0025%.
• The solid solution of carbon in α-iron is called Ferrite.
• The solid solution of carbon in y-iron is called Austenite
• Carbon solubility of y-iron at 11300C reaches 2.0%.
• The maximum solubility of carbon in α-iron is 0.025% (7230C), at
200C, the solubility is only 0.0025%.
•

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 Summary of Primary Solidification
After primary solidification, all Fe-Fe3C
system will have:
• For C content up to 2%: Only Austenite
• From 2% to 4.3%: Austenite + Ledeburite
• At exactly 4.3%: Only Ledeburite
• From 4.3% to 6.67%: Ledeburite + Cementite
• At exactly 6.67%: Only Cementite
• Peritectic & Eutectic are invariant points

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 Definition of structures
• Ferrite is known as α solid solution.
• It is an interstitial solid solution of a small amount
of carbon dissolved in α (BCC) iron.
• stable form of iron below 912 deg.C
• The maximum solubility is 0.025 % C at 723C and
it dissolves only 0.008 % C at room temperature.
• It is the softest structure that appears on the
diagram.
Microstructure of different phases of steel
 The Austenite to ferrite / cementite
transformation in relation to Fe-C diagram
In order to understand the transformation processes, consider a
steel of the eutectoid composition. 0.8% carbon, being slow
cooled along line x-x‘.
• At the upper temperatures, only austenite is present, with the
0.8% carbon being dissolved in solid solution within the FCC.
When the steel cools through 723°C, several changes occur
simultaneously.
• The iron wants to change crystal structure from the FCC austenite
to the BCC ferrite, but the ferrite can only contain 0.02% carbon in
solid solution.
• The excess carbon is rejected and forms the carbon-rich
intermetallic known as cementite.
 Pearlitic structure

• The net reaction at the

eutectoid is the formation of
pearlitic structure.
• Since the chemical
separation occurs entirely
within crystalline solids, the
resultant structure is a fine
mixture of ferrite and
cementite.
The Austenite to ferrite / cementite transformation in
relation to Fe-C diagram

• Hypo-eutectoid steels: Steels having less than 0.8% carbon are

called hypo-eutectoid steels (hypo means "less than").
• Consider the cooling of a typical hypo-eutectoid alloy along line y-y‘.
• At high temperatures the material is entirely austenite.
• Upon cooling it enters a region where the stable phases are ferrite
and austenite.
• The low-carbon ferrite nucleates and grows, leaving the remaining
austenite richer in carbon.
 The Austenite to ferrite / cementite transformation
in relation to Fe-C diagram

• Hypo-eutectoid steels- At 723°C,

the remaining austenite will have
assumed the eutectoid composition
(0.8% carbon), and further cooling
transforms it to pearlite.
• The resulting structure, is a mixture
of primary or pro-eutectoid ferrite
(ferrite that forms before the
eutectoid reaction) and regions of
pearlite.
The Austenite to ferrite / cementite transformation in relation to
Fe-C diagram
• Hyper-eutectoid steels (hyper means "greater than") are those
that contain more than the eutectoid amount of Carbon.
• When such a steel cools, as along line z-z' , the process is
similar to the hypo-eutectoid steel, except that the primary or
pro-eutectoid phase is now cementite instead of ferrite.
The Austenite to ferrite / cementite transformation in relation to
Fe-C diagram
• As the carbon-rich phase nucleates and grows, the remaining
austenite decreases in carbon content, again reaching the
eutectoid composition at 723°C.
• This austenite transforms to pearlite upon slow cooling through
the eutectoid temperature.
• The resulting structure consists of primary cementite and
pearlite.
• The continuous network of primary cementite will cause the
material to be extremely brittle.
The Austenite to ferrite / cementite transformation in
relation to Fe-C diagram

Hypo-eutectoid steel showing primary cementite along grain boundaries

The Austenite to ferrite / cementite transformation in
relation to Fe-C diagram
• It should be noted that the transitions as discussed, are
for equilibrium conditions, as a result of slow cooling.

• Upon slow heating the transitions will occur in the

reverse manner.
The Austenite to ferrite / cementite transformation in
relation to Fe-C diagram
• When the alloys are cooled rapidly, entirely
different results are obtained, since sufficient time
may not be provided for the normal phase
reactions to occur.
• In these cases, the equilibrium phase diagram is no
longer a valid tool for engineering analysis.
• Rapid-cool processes are important in the heat
treatment of steels and other metals.
 Thank You

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