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Biology - Quick Guide

Biology - Structure and Functions

Introduction

The basic structural unit of an organ is known as the cell.

In 1665, Robert Hooke discovered the cell.

A cell is a living organism.

A human body has trillions of cells, which vary in shapes and sizes.
The organism, which is made up of more than one cell, is known as multicellular
organism.
The single-celled organisms are known as unicellular organism. E.g. Amoeba.

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A single-celled organism performs all the essential functions that a multicellular

organism performs.

Unlike other organisms, Amoeba has no definite shape; so, it keeps on changing its
shape.

Amoeba has pseudopodia, which means pseudo means false and podia means
feet.

Amoeba is a full-fledged organism capable of independent existence.

Shape of the cells are normally round, spherical, or elongated.

Protoplasm is known as the living substance of the cell.

The cells having nuclear substances without nuclear membrane are known as
prokaryotic cells. E.g. bacteria and blue green algae.

The cells having well organized nucleus with a nuclear membrane are designated as
eukaryotic cells. All multicellular organisms are eukaryotic cells.

Cell Structure and Function

The basic parts of a cell are cell membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus.

Cell membrane is also known as the plasma membrane.

The plasma membrane is porous and allows certain substances or materials move
both inward and outward.

The central dense round structure in the center is known as nucleus.

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The jelly-like substance between the nucleus and the cell membrane (as shown in
the above image) is known as cytoplasm.

Different organelles of cells are also present in the cytoplasm such as Mitochondria,
Golgi bodies, Ribosomes, etc.
Located in central part, nucleus is almost in spherical shape.

Nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by a porous membrane known as the

nuclear membrane.

The smaller and spherical structure, found inside the nucleus, is known as
nucleolus.

Nucleus contains thread-like structures known as chromosomes.

Chromosomes carry genes and help in inheriting the characteristics of the parents
to the offspring.

Gene is a fundamental unit of inheritance in living organisms.

The entire constituents of a living cell are known as protoplasm, which include
nucleus and cytoplasm.

Plant Cell

The cell membrane provides shape to the cells of plants and animals.

In plant cell, cell wall is an additional covering over the cell membrane.

An animal cell does not have cell wall.

Cell wall gives shape and rigidity to plant cells.

Cell wall gives protection, plant cells need protection against varying temperature,
high wind speed, atmospheric moisture, etc.

Bacterial cell also has a cell wall.

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Usually, most of the cells are microscopic in size and are not visible to the naked
eye.
The size of smallest cell is 0.1 to 0.5 micrometer found in bacteria.

The size of largest cell is 170 mm 130 mm, found in the egg of an ostrich.

The size of the cells however has no relation with the size of the body of the
animal or plant.

Some small colored bodies in the cytoplasm of the cells of Tradescantia leaf are
known as plastids.

Plastids are found in different colors.

Some plastids have green pigment and known as chlorophyll.

Green colored plastids are known as chloroplasts.

Chloroplasts give green color to the leaves.

Chlorophyll is essential for the photosynthesis.

Biology - The Fundamental Unit of Life

Introduction

The fundamental unit of life is cell.

Cell was first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665 in a simple microscope.

In 1674, Leeuwenhoek, with the help of developed microscope, discovered the

free living cells in pond water.

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In 1831, Robert Brown had discovered the nucleus in the cell.

In 1839, Purkinje used the term protoplasm for the fluid substance found in the
cell.

The cell theory was proposed by Schleiden (1838) and Schwann (1839).

According to the cell theory, all the plants and animals are composed of cells and
that the cell is the basic unit of life.

In 1855, Virchow further expanded the cell theory and suggested that all cells arise
from pre-existing cells.

In 1940, the discovery of electron microscope made possible to observe and

understand the complex structure of the cell.

Unicellular Organisms

The single cellular organisms, such as Amoeba, Chlamydomonas, Paramoecium,

and bacteria, are known as unicellular organisms.

Multicellular Organisms

The organisms consisting of many cells are known as multicellular organisms. E.g.
human being, animals, birds, etc.

Significant Characteristics of Cells

Each living cell has the aptitude to perform certain basic functions that are
characteristic of all living forms.
Each such cell has certain specific components within it known as cell organelles.

Different types of cells have different function and each cell organelle performs a
special function.

These organelles collectively constitute the basic unit of life known as cell.

All cells are found to have the same organelles, irrespective of their different
functions and the organism they found in.

Structural Organization of Cell

Following are the three basic features that every cell possesses −

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Plasma Membrane/Cell Membrane

Nucleus

Cytoplasm

Lets discuss each one of them in brief −

Plasma Membrane/Cell Membrane

Plasma membrane is the outermost covering layer of the cell (as shown in the
image given above).

Plasma membrane allows certain materials to enter inside the cell and come out
from the cell; therefore, it is known as selectively permeable membrane.

The movement of water molecules through the selectively permeable membrane is

known as osmosis.

Cell Wall

Plant cells have an addition protecting cover known as cell wall (absent in animal
cell).

The cell wall lies outside the plasma membrane; likewise, it also covers plasma
membrane.

The cell wall is essentially composed of cellulose.

Nucleus

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Nucleus or nuculeus is a Latin term and its meaning is kernel or seed.

The nucleus has a double layered covering, which is known as nuclear membrane
(see the image given above).

The nuclear membrane has some pores, which allow certain materials come inside
(in nucleus) and go outside (in the cytoplasm).

The most significant feature of nucleus is it contains chromosomes.

Chromosomes are rod-shaped structures and it is visible only when the cell is
about to divide.

Chromosomes are composed of DNA and protein.

DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid) molecules contain inheritance features from

parents to next generation.

DNA molecules also contain the information essential for constructing and
organizing cells.

Functional segments of DNA are known as genes.

DNA is present as the part of chromatin material.

Chromatin material is visible as entangled mass of thread like structures (as shown
in the image given below).

Whenever the cell is about to divide, the chromatin material gets organized into
chromosomes.

The nucleus plays a central and significant role in cellular reproduction.

The cell, which has no nuclear membrane, is known as prokaryotes (i.e. Pro =
primitive or primary; karyote karyon = nucleus). See the image given below:

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The cell, which has a nuclear membrane, is known as eukaryotes.

Prokaryotic cell does not have many other cytoplasmic organelles those are
present in eukaryotic cells (see the image given above).

Cytoplasm

Cells consist of cytoplasm inside the cell membrane, which contains many
biomolecules including proteins and nucleic acids.

There are many structures found in the cytoplasm known as cell organelles.

Cell Organelles

Following are the major cell organelles that play a major role in the functioning of
cell −

Nucleus

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Ribosome

Golgi apparatus

Lysosomes

Mitochondria

Plastids

Vacuoles

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Lets discuss each one in brief −

Nucleus is discussed above.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum (or simply ER) is a large network of membrane-bound

tubes and sheets (see the image given above).
Based on visual structure, ER is categorized as rough endoplasmic reticulum
(RER) and smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER).

When the ribosome attached on the surface of ER, it is known as Rough

Endoplasmic Reticulum and without ribosome, it is known as Smooth Endoplasmic
Reticulum.

The SER helps in the manufacturing of fat molecules, or lipids, which is important
for cell functioning.

One of the significant functions of ER is to serve as channels for the transportation

of materials (especially proteins) in various regions of the cytoplasm and also
between the cytoplasm and the nucleus.

Ribosome

The ribosomes, normally, present in all active cells.

Ribosome are the sites of protein manufacturing.

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Golgi Apparatus

The Golgi Apparatus is named after the name of its discover Camillo Golgi.

Golgi Apparatus consists of a system of membrane-bound vesicles arranged

roughly parallel to each other in stacks known as cisterns (see the image given
above).
The significant functions of Golgi Apparatus are the storage, modification, and
packaging of products in vesicles.

The Golgi apparatus also helps in the formation of lysosomes.

Lysosomes

Lysosomes are a sort of waste disposal system of the cell.

Lysosomes help in keeping the cell clean by digesting the foreign material as well as
worn-out cell organelles.

Lysosomes contain powerful digestive enzymes capable of breaking down all sorts
of organic materials.

Lysosome has a typical feature i.e. when the cell gets damaged lysosome most
likely bursts and the released enzymes digest their own cell. Because of this
reason, lysosome is also known as the suicide bags of a cell.

Mitochondria

Mitochondria, commonly, are known as the powerhouses of the cell.

Mitochondria release the energy required for various chemical activities (essential
for the life).

Mitochondria release energy in the form of ATP (Adenosine Triphopshate)

molecules.

ATP is popular as the energy currency of the cell.

Mitochondria have their own DNA and ribosomes; hence, they are capable to make
some of their own proteins.

Plastids

Plastids are present only in the plant cells (see image given below).

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Plastid is categorized as Chromoplasts (it is colored plastids) and Leucoplasts (It

is either white or colorless plastids).

Plastids contain chlorophyll pigment, which are known as Chloroplasts.

Chloroplasts play important role in the photosynthesis in plants.

Chloroplasts also contain various types of yellow or orange pigments.

Leucoplasts are the organelles in which some important materials such as starch,
oils, and protein granules get stored.

Plastids look like mitochondria (in terms of external structure).

Like the mitochondria, plastids also possess their own DNA and ribosomes.

Vacuoles

Vacuoles are commonly the storage sacs that contain solid or liquid materials.

In animal cell, vacuoles are small; whereas in plant cell, vacuoles are of large size.

Plant cells vacuoles are filled with cell sap and provide turgidity and rigidity to the
cell.

Biology - Tissues

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Introduction

A group of cells that are similar in structure and work together to accomplish a
particular function is known as tissue.

Tissues are categorized as −

Plant Tissue &

Animal Tissue

Lets discuss them in brief −

Plant Tissue

Following are the major types of plant tissue −

Meristematic Tissues

Permanent Tissues

Simple Permanent Tissues

Parenchyma

Collenchyma

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Sclerenchyma

Epidermis

Complex Permanent Tissue

Xylem

Phloem

Meristematic Tissue

Meristematic tissue mainly consists of actively dividing cells, and helps in increasing
the length and thickening the stems of the plant.

Meristematic tissue, commonly, present in the primary growth regions of a plant,

for example, in the tips of stems or roots.

Depending on the region (where the meristematic tissues are found); meristematic
tissues are classified as apical, lateral, and intercalary (see the image given
below).

Apical meristem (as shown in the above image) is present at the growing tips of
stems and roots and helps in their growth.

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Lateral Meristem is found in stem or root region and helps in their growth.

Intercalary meristem is found at the base of the leaves or internodes (on twigs)
and helps in growth.

Permanent Tissue

Cells of meristematic tissue later differentiate to form different types of permanent

tissue.

Permanent Tissue is further categorized as −

Simple Permanent Tissue and

Complex Permanent Tissue

Simple Permanent Tissue

Simple Permanent Tissue further categorized as −

Parenchyma

Collenchyma

Sclerenchyma

Epidermis

Parenchyma tissue provides support to plants and also stores food.

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Sometimes, parenchyma tissue contains chlorophyll and performs photosynthesis,

in such a condition, it is known as collenchyma.

The collenchyma tissue provides flexibility to plant and also provides mechanical
support (to plant).

The large air cavities, which are present in parenchyma of aquatic plants, give
buoyancy to the plants and also help them float, are known as aerenchyma.

The Sclerenchyma tissue makes the plant hard and stiff. For example, the husk of
a coconut is made up of sclerenchymatous tissue.

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The cells of Sclerenchyma tissue normally are dead.

The outermost layer of cells is known as epidermis.

The epidermis is usually made up of a single layer of cells.

The entire surface of a plant has the outer covering of epidermis, which protects all
the parts of the plant.

Complex Permanent Tissue

The complex tissue, normally, consists of more than one type of cells which work
together as a unit.

Complex tissues help in the transportation by carrying organic material, water, and
minerals up and down in the plants.

Complex Permanent Tissue is categorized as;

Xylem and

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Phloem

Xylem, normally, consists of tracheid, vessels, xylem parenchyma, and xylem

fibers.

Xylem is accountable for the conduction of water and mineral ions/salt.

Phloem, normally, is made up of four types of elements namely −

Sieve tubes

Companion cells

Phloem fibers and

Phloem parenchyma

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Phloem tissue transports food from leaves to other parts of the plant.

Biology - Animal Tissue

Introduction

The tissue found in animals have comparatively some different properties than the
plant tissue.

Types of Animal Tissue

Animal Tissues are divided as −

Epithelial Tissue

Connective Tissue

Muscular Tissue

Nervous Tissue

Lets discuss them in brief −

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Epithelial Tissue

Epithelial tissues are the covering and protective tissues in the animal body.

Epithelial tissue covers almost all organs and cavities within the body.

Epithelial tissue also forms a barrier to keep different body systems separate.

Epithelial tissue cells are closely packed (as shown in the image given above) and
form a continuous layer.

Connective Tissue

Connective tissues are made up of the cells those are separated by non-living
material, and known as an extracellular matrix.

This matrix could be either liquid or rigid.

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Connective tissues are further divided as −

Fibrous connective tissue

Skeletal connective tissue and

Fluid connective tissue

Tendons are the example of fibrous connective tissue.

Bone is an example of a skeletal connective tissue.

Bone forms the framework and provide supports to the body.

Blood is an example of fluid connective tissue.

Blood has a fluid (liquid) matrix known as plasma.

In plasma, the red blood cells (RBCs), the white blood cells (WBCs), and the
platelets are remaining suspended.

Muscular Tissue

Muscular tissue largely consists of elongated cells, and also known as muscle
fibers.

The muscular tissue is accountable for the movements in our body.

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The muscular tissue contains special proteins known as contractile proteins; and
this protein helps in contraction and relaxation and supports free movement.

Nervous Tissue

The brain, spinal cord, and nerves all are composed of the nervous tissue.

Cells of the nervous tissue are extremely particular and sensitive for being
stimulated and then transmitting the stimulus swiftly from one place to another
within the body.
The cells of nervous tissue are known as nerve cells or neurons.

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Nerve impulses allow us to move our muscles whenever we want to do so.

Biology - Diversity in Living Organisms

Introduction

Biodiversity term is used to define the diversity of life forms.

Biodiversity is a word more often used to refer to the variety of life forms found in
a particular geographic region.

Diversity of life forms of a geographic region provides stability in the respective

region.

Base of Classification

Greek thinker Aristotle first classified animals based on their place of residence
whether they lived on land, in water, or in the air.

Later, all the living organisms are identified and categorized on the basis of their
body design in form and function.

The idea of evolution was first described by Charles Darwin in 1859 in his book
namely The Origin of Species.

Charles Darwin first described this idea of evolution in 1859 in his book, The Origin
of Species.

Hierarchy of Classification Groups

Some biologists, namely Ernst Haeckel (1894), Robert Whittaker (1959), and Carl
Woese (1977) have attempted to classify all living organisms into broad categories
and named them Kingdoms.

Whittaker categorized into five kingdoms namely −

Monera

Protista

Fungi

Plantae

Animalia

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Further, these kingdoms have been classification by naming the sub-groups at

various levels as −

Lets discuss each kingdom in brief −

Monera

The organisms of Monera kingdom do not have a defined nucleus or organelles,

neither do any of them show multi-cellular body designs.

The examples of this monera kingdom are bacteria, anabaena, blue-green algae or
cyanobacteria, and mycoplasma.

Protista

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The organisms of Protista kingdom include many kinds of unicellular eukaryotic

organisms.

The examples of Protista kingdom are algae, euglena, diatoms, and protozoans,
etc.

Fungi

The organisms of fungi kingdom are heterotrophic eukaryotic organisms.

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The organisms of this kingdom use decaying organic material as their food and
therefore, they are also known as saprophytes.

Plantae

The organisms of this kingdom are multicellular eukaryotes with cell walls.

The organisms of plantae are autotrophs and they use chlorophyll for making their
food (i.e. photosynthesis).

All plants are examples of plantae kingdom.

Animalia

The organisms of Animalia kingdom are all organisms which are multicellular
eukaryotes without cell walls.
Organisms of Animalia kingdom are heterotrophs.

Biology - Plantae Kingdom

Introduction

Plantae kingdom includes all sorts of plants belonging to multicellular eukaryotes.

These plants are autotrophs and they use chlorophyll for the photosynthesis.

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Classification of Plantae Kingdom

Based on distinct body structure, components, etc. plantae kingdom is further

classified as −

Thallophyta

Bryophyta

Pteridophyta

Gymnosperms

Angiosperms

Lets discuss each of them in brief −

Thallophyta

The plants of thallophyta do not have well-differentiated body design.

The plants in thallophyta are known as algae and they are predominantly aquatic.

Some of the significant examples of thallophyta are Spirogyra, Ulothrix,

Cladophora, Chara, etc.

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Bryophyta

The plants of amphibian group are categorized as bryophyta.

Though not distinctly developed, but the plant body can be differentiated to form
stem and leaf-like structures.

The examples of bryophyta are moss (Funaria) and Marchantia.

Pteridophyta

Plants of pteridophyta have defined roots, stem, and leaves.

Pteridophyta plants have specialized tissue that transports water and other
materials from one part to another part of the plant.

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Examples of pteridophyta are Marsilea, ferns, and horse-tails.

The commonality among the thallophytes, the bryophytes, and the pteridophytes
are all of them have naked embryos, which are known as spores.

The reproductive organs of plants of these groups are known as cryptogamae,

which means hidden reproductive organs.

Gymnosperm

The plants of gymnosperm bear naked seeds.

These plants are normally perennial, evergreen, and woody.

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Examples of gymnosperm are pines (such as deodar, cycas, etc.

Angiosperms

The plants of angiosperm bear covered seeds.

Plants of angiospherms are also known as flowing plants.

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Plant embryos in seeds have a typical structures known as cotyledons, which is

also called as seed leaves.

Biology - Animalia Kingdom

Introduction

The organisms, which are eukaryotic, multicellular, and heterotrophic, are

categorized as Animalia kingdom.

The organisms of Animalia kingdom have no cell-wall.

Most of animals of Animalia kingdom are mobile.

Classification of Animalia Kingdom

Based on the extent and type of the body design differentiation, Animalia kingdom
classified as −

Porifera

Coelenterata

Platyhelminthes

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Nematoda

Annelida

Arthropoda

Mollusca

Echinodermata

Protochordata

Vertebrata

Pisces

Amphibia

Reptilia

Aves

Mammalia

Lets discuss each of them in brief −

Porifera

The literal meaning of porifera is the organisms with holes.

The organisms of porifera are non-motile and attached to some solid support.

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The examples of this group are Sycon, Spongilla, Euplectelia, etc.

Coelenterata

Organisms of coelenterata group live in water.

The organisms of this group have cavity in their bodies.

Hydra and sea anemone are the common example of coelenterate.

Platyhelminthes

The organisms of this group do not have true internal body cavity or coelom; so,
they neither have well-developed organs.

The bodies of organisms of this group are flattened from top to bottom; therefore,
they are also known as flatworms.

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Planareia, liverfluke, tape worm, etc., are the typical examples of this group.

Nematoda

The organisms of nematode have cylindrical body.

The organisms have tissue, but as such no well-developed body (i.e. no real
organ).

The filarial worms (causing elephantiasis disease), roundworm in the intestines,

etc., are the common examples of nematodes.

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Annelida

The organisms of annelida group live almost everywhere including fresh water,
marine water as well as on land.

Earthworms, nereis, and leeches are the familiar examples of annelida.

Arthropoda

Arthropoda, probably, is the largest group of animals.

The animals of this group dont have well defined blood vessels rather there is an
open circulatory system.
The literal meaning of arthropod is jointed legs; so, they have jointed legs.

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Prawns, butterflies, houseflies, spiders, scorpions, etc. are the typical examples of
arthropod.

Mollusca

The organisms of mollusca are invertebrate.

Most of the organisms of Mollusca group live in water.

Snails and mussels are the typical example of Mollusca.

Echinodermata

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The organisms of Echinodermata have spiny skinned.

Echinodermata are free-living marine organisms.

The examples of echinodermata are starfish, sea urchins, feather star, etc.

Protochordata

The organisms of protochordata are normally marine. E.g. Balanoglossus,

Herdemania, and Amphioxus

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The organisms of protochordata show a typical feature of body design, called as

notochord; however, it does present there throughout the life.

Vertebrata

Vertebrata has been discussed in a separate chapter.

Biology - Vertebrata
Introduction
The organisms of this kingdom have a true vertebral column and the internal skeleton
structure.

Classification of Vertebrata

Vertebrates are further classified as −

Pisces

Amphibia

Reptilia

Aves

Mammalia

Lets discuss each of them in brief −

Pisces

The organisms of this group are typically different types of fishes.

Fishes can live only in water.

The skin fish is covered with scales/plates.

Fish use oxygen dissolved in water by using gills

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The tail of fish helps in their movements.

Fishes are cold-blooded organisms and their hearts have only two chambers.

Fishes lay eggs.

Amphibia

The organisms of amphibia have mucus glands in the skin, and they have three-
chambered heart.

Amphibian can live in water as well as on land.

The organisms of amphibian respire through either gills or lungs.

The organisms of amphibia lay eggs.

Reptilia

The organisms of this group are cold bolded.

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The organisms of reptilia lay eggs with tough coverings.

Aves

The organisms of Aves group are warm-blooded.

The organisms of Aves group lay eggs except a few, such as bat.

Most of the Aves have feathers.

Mammalia

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The organisms of Mammalia group are warm-blooded and they have four-
chambered hearts.

Mammalia are typically characterized for their mammary glands.

Mammary glands produce milk to nourish the young one.

Most of the mammals produce live baby; however, a few of mammals, such as,
the platypus and the echidna lay eggs.

Mammals skin has hairs along with sweat and oil glands.

Biology - Transportation in Humans

Introduction

The blood is responsible to transport food, oxygen, and waste materials in human
bodies.

Blood usually consists of a fluid medium known as plasma where the cells remain
suspended.

Plasma is responsible to transport food, carbon dioxide, and nitrogenous wastes in

dissolved form.

However, oxygen is carried by the red blood cells.

Many other substances such as salts, are also transported by the blood.

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A Human Heart

The heart is one of the most significant muscular organs of a human body.

As both the oxygen and the carbon dioxide get transported by the blood; so, to
avoid the oxygen-rich blood from mixing with the blood containing carbon dioxide,
the heart has different chambers.

Oxygen-rich blood from the lungs comes to the thin-walled upper chamber of the
heart on the left, i.e. the left atrium (see the image given above).

When it is collecting the blood, the left atrium relaxes; however, while the next
chamber, i.e. the left ventricle expands, then it (left atrium) contracts, so that the
blood is transferred to it.

Further, when the muscular left ventricle contracts (in its turn), the blood is
pumped out to the body. Likewise, de-oxygenated blood comes from the body to
the upper chamber on the right, the right atrium (as it expands).

When the right atrium contracts, the corresponding lower chamber, the right
ventricle, dilates and this act transfers blood to the right ventricle, which in turn
pumps it to the lungs for oxygenation.

The ventricles have thicker muscular walls (than the atria do), as ventricles have to
pump blood into various organs.

There are valves that ensure that the blood does not flow backwards when the
atria or ventricles contract.

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The separation of the right side and the left side of the heart is beneficial, as it
avoids oxygenated and deoxygenated blood from mixing.

The animals, which do not use energy to maintain their body temperature, their
body temperature depends on the temperature in the environment.

Such animals (e.g. amphibians or many reptiles), have three-chambered hearts,

and bear some mixing of the oxygenated and de-oxygenated blood streams.

Fishes, on the other hand, have only two chambers to their hearts; however, the
blood is pumped to the gills and get oxygenated there, and then passes directly to
the rest of the body.

Blood Pressure

The force that blood exerts against the wall of a vessel is known as blood
pressure.

The blood pressure is much greater in arteries than in veins.

During the ventricular systole (i.e. contraction), the pressure of blood inside the
artery, is known as systolic pressure.

On the other hand, the pressure in artery during ventricular diastole (relaxation), is
known as diastolic pressure.

The normal measurement of systolic pressure is about 120 mm of Hg and diastolic

pressure is 80 mm of Hg. Increase of this pressure is known as high blood pressure
or hypertension.

The instrument that measures the blood pressure is known as

sphygmomanometer.

Lymph

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Some amount of plasma, proteins, and blood cells escape (through the pores
present in the walls of capillaries), into intercellular spaces in the tissues and form
the tissue fluid known as lymph.

Though lymph is similar to the plasma of blood, but it is colorless and contains less
protein.

An important function of lymph is to carry digested and absorbed fat from intestine
and drains excess fluid from extra cellular space back into the blood.

Biology - Transportation in Plants

Introduction

The plants have low energy needs, as they use relatively slow transport systems.

Plant transport systems move energy from leaves and raw materials from roots to
all their parts.

The xylem (tissue) moves water and minerals obtained from the soil to all other
parts of the plants.

The phloem (tissue) transports products of photosynthesis from the leaves (where
they are synthesized) to other parts of the plant.

Movement of Water in Plants

Water moves into the root from the soil and then steady it moves into the root
xylem, creating a column of water, which is progressively pushed upwards.

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Evaporation of water molecules from the cells of a leaf (see the image given
above) creates a suction process, which pulls water from the xylem cells of roots;
this process keeps going on.

The loss of water in the form of vapor from the leaves (i.e. aerial parts) of the
plant is known as transpiration.

Transpiration, likewise, helps in the absorption and upward movement of water and
minerals dissolved in it from roots to the leaves.

Transpiration also helps in the temperature regulation (in plants).

The transport of soluble products of photosynthesis is known as translocation,

which occurs in the part of the vascular tissue known as phloem.

Along with photosynthesis products, the phloem also transports amino acids and
other substances, which are ultimately delivered to roots, fruits, seeds, and to
growing organs.

Biology - Excretion
Introduction

The biological process that involves in the removal of the harmful metabolic wastes
from the human body is known as excretion.

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Different species (organisms) use different processes for the excretion. E.g. many
unicellular organisms remove their wastes by simple diffusion process from the
body surface into the surrounding water.

Excretion in Human Beings

The body parts that the excretory system (of human beings) includes are −

A pair of kidneys

A pair of ureters

A urinary bladder

A urethra

Kidneys are located in the abdomen (see the image given below), one on either
side of the backbone.

Urine that produced in the kidneys passes through the ureters into the urinary
bladder where it gets stored until released through the urethra.

On the other hand, plants have completely different process for excretion than
those of animals.

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Oxygen (released in the day-time) itself can be considered as a waste product

generated during photosynthesis.

Many plant waste products are stored in leaves that fall off.

Some other waste products, in plants, are stored as resins and gums, especially in
old xylem.

Biology - Control and Coordination

Introduction

In multicellular organisms, following the general principles of body organization,

some specialized tissues are used to provide the control and coordination activities.

Nervous System

Nervous system is specialized system that provide control and coordination in

animals.

All information, coming from our environment is detected by the specialized tips of
some nerve cells, which are usually located in sense organs.

The information, acquired at the end of the dendritic tip (shown in the image given
below) of a nerve cell, sets off a chemical reaction that creates an electrical
impulse.

This (electrical) impulse, which travels from the dendrite tip to the cell body, and
then along the axon to its end of the axon, sets off the release of some chemicals.

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These chemicals cross the gap, or synapse, and create a similar electrical impulse in
a dendrite of the next neuron (see the image given below).

Likewise, the nervous tissue is made up of an organized network of nerve cells or

neurons, and is dedicated for carrying information via electrical impulses from one
part of the body to another.

Reflex Actions

If the nerves that detect heat, cold, or any such kind of more sensational element
move muscles in a simpler way; so, the process of detecting the signal or the input
and responding to it by an output action, is known as reflex action and such
connection is known as a reflex arc (see the image given below).

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Human Brain

The communication between the central nervous system and the other parts of
the body is established by the peripheral nervous system.

Peripheral nervous system consists of cranial nerves, which arise from the brain
and spinal nerves.

The brain (shown in the image given below) facilitates us to recognize, think, and
take actions accordingly.

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The brain is categorized into three major parts or regions, namely the fore-brain,
mid-brain, and hind-brain.

Among these three parts (of the brain), fore-brain is the main thinking part of the
brain; further, fore-brain are specialized for hearing, smell, sight, etc.

When brain gives command, muscle moves it happens because muscle cells have
special proteins that change both their (muscles) shape and arrangement in the cell
in response to nervous electrical impulses.

Biology - Hormones in Animal

Introduction

Human body has different glands (as shown in the image given below) that secret
Hormones (liquid substance), which are essential for the different body functions.

Adrenaline Hormone is secreted from the adrenal glands. It is secreted directly into
the blood and then carried to different parts of the body.

On the other hand, plants have hormones that control and regulate their directional
growth.

Iodine is essential for the thyroid gland that makes thyroxin hormone.

Further, Iodine is an essential element for the synthesis of thyroxin.

Deficiency of Iodine, that might cause goiter.

The term goiter refers to the abnormal expansion of the thyroid gland (resulting
into swollen neck).

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Thyroxin Hormone regulates carbohydrate, protein, and fat metabolism in the body
and provide the best balance for body growth.

Growth hormone, which is secreted by the pituitary gland, regulates growth and
development of the body.

The deficiency of growth hormone in childhood causes dwarfism short height.

During the age of 10-12, there are certain physical change in the bodies of children,
which is caused by the secretion of testosterone in boys and oestrogen in girls.

As shown in the image given above, it is significant difference between male and
female body i.e. males have testis (secretes Testosterone Hormone) and females
have ovary (secretes Oestrogen Hormone).

Insulin is a hormone, which is produced by the pancreas and helps in regulating the
sugar levels of blood.

If insulin is not secreted in proper amounts or on a proper time, the sugar level in
the blood rises, which may cause different harmful effects in the body.

Biology - How do Organisms Reproduce?

Introduction

A basic occurrence in reproduction is the creation of a DNA copy; to produce

copies of the DNA, cells use chemical reactions.

The DNA in the cell nucleus is actually the information source for creating proteins.
Likewise, if the information is changed here, then different proteins will be created.
And, these different proteins will eventually lead to altered the body designs.

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DNA copies that generated would be similar, but may not be identical to the
original. And, because of these variations, the new born cells are slightly different.

Further, the consistency of DNA copying during reproduction process is significant

for the maintenance of body design and features.

Modes of Reproduction Used by Cell Organisms

The modes by which various Cell Organisms reproduce depend on their body
designs. However, it is broadly categorized as −

Asexual Reproduction &

Sexual Reproduction

Lets discuss each of them in Brief −

Asexual Reproduction

Asexual Reproduction can be studied through the following different sub-categories

−

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Fission

Fragmentation

Regeneration

Budding

Vegetative Propagation

Spore Formation

Lets discuss each of them in brief −

Fission

In some unicellular organisms such as Amoeba, the cell split into two cells during
the cell division and produce two new organisms (see the image given below).

It is also known as binary fission.

Many bacteria and protozoa simply split into two equal halves during their cell
division and produce two identical organisms.

Remember, some other single-celled organisms, such as Plasmodium (the malarial

parasite), divide into many daughter cells simultaneously, known as multiple
fission (see the image given below).

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Fragmentation

After the maturity, some multicellular organisms, such as Spirogyra, simply breaks
up into smaller pieces and these pieces or fragments grow into new individuals.

Regeneration

Some of the organisms, such as Planaria, if its body cut or broken up into many
pieces, then many of these pieces grow into complete separate individuals; the
whole process is known as regeneration.

Budding

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In some organisms, such as Hydra, because of the repeated cell division at one
specific place, a bud develops, which later (once fully grown) gets detached from
the parent body and becomes a new independent individual (see the image given
below).

Vegetative Propagation

Under a favorable condition, there are many plants, which parts like the root, stem,
and leaves develop into new plants; such process is known as vegetative
propagation (see the image given below).

Spore Formation

Some plants and many algae undergo sporic formation (through meiosis cell
division) that leads to the formation of spores. Further, these spores grow into
multicellular individuals.

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Biology - Sexual Reproduction

Introduction

The sexual mode of reproduction comprises the process of combining DNA from
two different individuals.

There are two germ-cells (responsible for producing a new organism); one is large
and contains the food-stores whereas the other one is smaller and likely to be
motile.

The motile germ-cell, normally, is known as the male gamete and the germ-cell
containing the stored food is known as the female gamete.

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

As shown in the image given below, flowers have different parts, such as sepals,
petals, stamens, and carpels. Among these, stamens and carpels are the
reproductive parts and contain the germ-cells.

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Stamen is the male reproductive part, which produces pollen grains (yellowish
substance).

Carpel, which is present in the center of a flower, is the female reproductive part.

Carpel is made of three parts.

The bottom part, which is swollen, is the ovary; the middle part, which is
elongated, is known as the style; and the terminal part, which may be sticky, is
known as the stigma.

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The ovary contains ovules and each ovule has an egg cell.

The male germ-cell that produced by the pollen grain fuses with the female gamete
present in the ovule.

The fusion of the germ-cells or fertilization produces zygote, which is capable of

growing into a new plant.

The flower, which contains either stamens or carpels, is known as unisexual, such
as papaya, watermelon, etc.

The flower, which contains both stamens and carpels, is known as bisexual, such
as Hibiscus, mustard, etc.

Reproduction in Human Beings

Human beings have typical sexual reproduction process where mature male and
female mate to produce a new baby.

Male Reproductive System

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The male reproductive system produces the germ-cells; further, other part of the
reproductive system delivers the produced germ-cells to the site of fertilization.

The formation of sperms or germ-cells takes place in the testes.

The formation of sperm typically requires a lower temperature than the normal
body temperature.

The testes secrete hormone, namely testosterone that brings changes in the
appearance of boys at the time of their puberty.

The formed sperms are then delivered through the vas deferens, which unites with
a tube coming from the urinary bladder.

The urethra, likewise, acts as a common passage for both the sperms and urine.

The sperms are fluids that consist of mainly genetic material; it has a long tail that
helps to move towards the female germ-cell.

Female Reproductive System

The female germ-cells or eggs are produced in the ovaries.

The egg is transported from the ovary to the womb through a thin oviduct known
as fallopian tube.

The two oviducts unite and form an elastic bag-like structure known as the uterus,
which opens into the vagina through the cervix.

During the sexual intercourse, most likely, the egg and the sperm (zygote) get
fertilized and implanted in the lining of the uterus.

The thickened lining (of the uterus) and richly supplied blood nourish the growing
embryo (in the uterus).

The embryo receives nutrition from the mothers blood with the help of a special
tissue known as placenta.

Likewise, the development of a child inside the mothers body, takes about nine
months.

Biology - Reproduction in Animals

Introduction

Reproduction is the most essential for the continuation of a species.

Reproduction ensures the continuation of similar kinds of species, generation after

generation.

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Modes of Reproduction

Following are the two modes of reproduction −

Sexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction

Let us discuss each one separately −

Sexual Reproduction

In animals, males and females have different reproductive organs.

The reproductive parts in animals produce gametes that fuse and form a zygote.

The zygote develops into a new similar species.

The type of reproduction through the fusion of male and female gametes is known
as sexual reproduction.

The male gametes, produced by testes, are known as sperms.

The female gametes, produced by ovary, are known as ova (or eggs).

In the process of reproduction, the first step is the fusion of a sperm and an ovum
(egg).

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Fusion of the egg and the sperm is known as fertilization (as shown in the above
image).

During the fertilization, the nuclei of the sperm and the egg fuse together and form
a single nucleus that result into the formation of a fertilized egg also known as
zygote (shown in the image given below).

The zygote further divides repeatedly to give rise to a ball of cells that begin to
form groups. The groups develop into different tissues and organs constituting a full
body. In the process, the developing structure is known as an embryo (shown in
the image given below).

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The embryo continues to develop in the uterus and develops body parts such as
head, face, ear, eyes, nose, hands, legs, toes, etc.

The stage of the embryo in which different parts of the body develop and can be
identified is known as foetus (shown in the image given below).

In a defined period of time, when the development of the foetus is complete, the
mother gives birth to the baby.

The animal which gives birth to young ones is known as viviparous animal. E.g.
Human, cow, dogs, etc.

The organism that lays eggs is known as oviparous animal. E.g. all birds (except
bats), lizard, etc.

Asexual Reproduction

The type of reproduction in which only a single parent, gets divided into two new
offspring, is known as asexual reproduction. E.g. Hydra and Amoeba.

In hydra, the individuals develop from the buds; therefore, this type of asexual
reproduction is known as budding (shown in the image given below).

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In amoeba, nucleus gets divided into two nuclei; therefore, such kind of asexual
reproduction is known as binary fission.

Cloning

Cloning is the modern science technique to produce an exact copy of a cell, any
other living part, or a complete organism.

For the first time, cloning of an animal was successfully performed by Ian Wilmut
and his colleagues at the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh, Scotland.

In 1996, they cloned successfully a sheep and named that Dolly.

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Biology - Reaching the Age of Adolescence

Introduction

The phase of life, when the body undergoes radical changes, leading to
reproductive maturity, is known as adolescence.

Adolescence normally begins around the age of 11 and lasts up to 18 or 19 years

of the age. However, the phase of adolescence varies from person to person.

Starting from thirteen (13) to nineteen (19), teen is suffix and common in every
number; therefore, adolescents are also known as teenagers.

In girls, adolescence phase may begin one year or two years earlier than the boys.

During the adolescence phase, the human body undergoes several changes, which
are marked as the onset of puberty.

The most important change, which marks puberty, is that the boys and the girls
become capable of reproduction.

Puberty, however, ends when an adolescent phase attains reproductive maturity.

Changes at Puberty

The most conspicuous change during the puberty is the swift increase in height.

In the beginning, girls grow faster than boys, but by reaching 18 years of the age,
both attain their maximum height.

The rate of body growth (in terms of height) varies from person to person.

The changes occurring in adolescent boys and girls are also much different.

At puberty, especially the boys voice boxes or the larynxes begin to grow and
develop larger voice boxes.

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The growing larynxes in boys can be seen as a protruding part of the throat; it is
known as Adams apple.

In girls, the larynx is small; hence, it is not visible from the outside.

Adolescence is also the phase of change in a persons way of thinking.

Hormones, which are the chemical substances, are responsible for the changes in
adolescence.

The testes (in boys), at the onset of puberty, release testosterone hormone.

Once puberty is reached in girls, ovaries begin to produce the hormone namely
estrogen; it is responsible to the breasts develop.

Endocrine glands release hormones directly into the bloodstream.

In the body, there are many endocrine glands or ductless glands.

The sex hormones are under the control of hormones released by the pituitary
gland.

Reproductive Phase of Life in Humans

At puberty, the released egg (in women), and the thickened lining of the uterus
along with its blood vessels get shed off in the form of bleeding known as
menstruation.

The first menstrual flow begins at puberty and is known as menarche.

Menstruation occurs once in about 28 to 30 days.

By the age of 45 to 50 years, the menstrual cycle stops, which is known as

menopause.

The thread-like structures in the fertilized egg are known as chromosomes.

All human beings have 23 pairs or 46 chromosomes in the nuclei of their cells.

In boys, out of 23 pairs of chromosomes, two chromosomes named X and Y are

the sex chromosomes.

In girls, out of 23 pairs of chromosomes, two chromosomes named X and X are

the sex chromosomes.

When a sperm carrying X chromosome fertilizes with the egg, the zygote would
have two X chromosomes that develop into a female child (as shown in the image
given below).

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When a sperm carrying Y chromosome fertilizes with the egg, the zygote would
have two chromosomes i.e. X and Y and such zygote develops into a male child
(as shown in the image given above).

Biology - Heredity and Evolution

Introduction

The principle of heredity determines the process by which traits and characteristics
of an organism are reliably inherited.

There are some organisms (especially plants) in which there are very less
variations and sometimes difficult to establish the differences, but in some other
organisms (especially human beings), there are comparatively greater variations.
This is the reason that offspring do not look similar.

Rules for the Inheritance of Traits Mendels Contributions

Johann Mendel is known as "father of modern genetics."

In human beings, the rules for inheritance of traits and characteristics are related to
the fact that both the father and the mother equally contribute the genetic material
to their child.

Further, each trait of an offspring is usually influenced by both paternal and

maternal DNA.

Johann Mendel, who was an Austrian scientist, had experimented on peas and gave
the laws of inheritance.

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Mendel used a various contrasting visible characters of garden peas round/wrinkled

seeds, tall/short plants, white/violet flowers and many more to prove his law of
inheritance.

Mendels law of inheritance became popular as as the laws of Mendelian inheritance.

The frequency of an inherited trait changes one after another generation. This
happens because of change in genes (as genes control traits).

Evolution Charles Darwin

Charles Darwin was an English geologist, biologist, and naturalist; and, he is best
known for his contributions to the science of evolution.

In 1859, Darwin published his book On the Origin of Species explaining the
theory of evolution (by natural selection).

Darwins theory of evolution describes - how life evolved from a simple to more
complex forms; whereas, Mendels experiments explains the mechanism for the
inheritance of traits from one generation to the next.

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Evolution is basically the generation of diversity and the shaping of the diversity by
the means of environmental selection.

Over period of time, variations in the species may advise survival advantages or
merely an example of the genetic drift.

Further, changes in the non-reproductive tissues, are largely because of

environmental factors (not by inheritance).

Study of the process of evolution of human beings specifies that most likely all
human beings belong to a single species that evolved in Africa continent and over
period of time spread across the world in phases.

The complex organs and other features most likely evolved and adapted to cope
up with changing environment; the whole phenomenon is known as evolution. E.
g., feathers (of birds) are believed to have been initially evolved for warmth, but
later adapted for flight.

Biology - Life Processes

Introduction

The processes, which collectively perform the maintenance of our body system,
are known as life processes.

The maintenance processes protect us from damage and break-down; however, to

keep these maintenance processes working properly, we need to provide energy
to them. Healthy food is the best source of such energy.

Nutrition

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We need energy from outside in order to grow, develop, synthesize protein, and
other substances.

The ultimate source of energy is varieties of healthy foods. These foods provide us
nutrition essential for our survival.

Depending upon the sources, nutrition is categorized as Autotrophic Nutrition and

Heterotrophic Nutrition.

Autotrophic Nutrition

The autotrophic nutrition is prepared through the process of photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis is a process by which autotrophic organisms (green plants) take in

substances from the outside and then convert them into stored forms of energy.

During the process of photosynthesis, carbon dioxide and water, are converted into
carbohydrates in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll.

The final product carbohydrates provide energy to the plant.

Usually, green leaves are responsible for the photosynthesis process.

During the photosynthesis process, the chlorophylls present in the leaves, absorb
the light energy and convert it (light energy) into chemical energy and split the
water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen. And, finally carbon dioxide is reduced
to hydrogen.

A cross-section of a leaf is shown in the above image; in the above image, green
dots are cell organelles, which are known as chloroplasts; the chloroplasts contain

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chlorophyll.

Heterotrophic Nutrition

There are different sources of heterotrophic nutrition; however, the nutrition, which
is derived from the autotrophic organisms is known as heterotrophic nutrition.

For example, Amoeba (a unicellular organism) takes in food by using temporary

finger-like extensions of the cell surface.

The finger-like extensions of the cell surface fuse over the food particle and form a
food-vacuole (see the image given below).

Nutrition in Human Beings

The alimentary canal, starting from the mount to the anus, is fundamentally a long
tube and accountable for the whole nutrition process.

As shown in the image below, the alimentary canal has different parts that play
different functions.

When we eat any food stuff that we like, our mouth waters, which is not only
water, but also mixed with a fluid known as saliva.

Saliva is secreted by the salivary glands.

The saliva contains an enzyme known as salivary amylase; this salivary amylase
breaks down the starch to give sugar. Starch is a complex molecule.

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After the mouth, the food is taken to the stomach through the food-pipe known as
oesophagus.

The muscular walls of the stomach support in mixing the food thoroughly in the
presence of more digestive juices.

Further, the digestive functions are taken care by the gastric glands, which is
present in the wall of the stomach.

The gastric glands release hydrochloric acid, a protein digesting enzyme known as
pepsin, and mucus.

The small intestine (shown in the image above) is the site of the complete
digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.

The walls of the small intestine comprise glands, which secrete intestinal juice.

Further, the digested food is taken up by the walls of the intestine.

The inner lining of the small intestine has typical features i.e. numerous finger-like
projections known as villi. Villi increase the surface area for absorption.

The villi are profusely supplied with the blood vessels; the villi take the absorbed
food to each and every cell of the body, where it is utilized for obtaining energy,
repairing of old tissues, and building up new tissues.

The unabsorbed food is sent into the large intestine where more villi absorb water
from this unabsorbed food.

The rest of the waste material is removed from the body through the anus.

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Biology - Respiration
Introduction

The food material, taken in during the process of nutrition, is used by cells and then
they provide energy for various life processes.

Some organisms use oxygen to break-down glucose completely into carbon

dioxide and water, such processes normally take place in cytoplasm.

The following diagram illustrates the whole process of break-down of glucose

through various pathways −

During cellular respiration, the energy released, is immediately used to synthesize a

molecule known as ATP.

ATP is further used to fuel all other activities in the cell. However, in these
processes, ATP is broken down and give rise to a fixed amount of energy. This
energy usually drives the endothermic reactions taking place in the cell.

Adenosine triphosphate or simply ATP is a small molecule used in cells as a

coenzyme (see image given below).

More often, ATP is referred as the energy currency for most of the cellular
processes (especially intracellular energy transfer).

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Likewise, ATP transports chemical energy within cells for metabolism purpose.

In plants, at night, when the process of photosynthesis is not taking place, for such
a period, CO2 elimination is the major exchange activity.

On the other hand, during the day, the CO2, which is getting generated during
respiration, is used up for the photosynthesis process, hence there is no CO2
release. But, at this time, oxygen release is the major event.

The terrestrial animals can breathe the oxygen free available in the atmosphere,
but animals that live in water have to use the oxygen dissolved in water.

The rate of breathing in aquatic organisms is much faster than that of terrestrial
organisms, because the amount of dissolved oxygen (in water) is fairly low in
comparison to the amount of oxygen present in the air.

Respiration in Human

In human beings, air is inhale into the body through the nostrils.

Through the nostrils, the air passes through the throat and into the lungs.

Further, there are Rings of cartilage, present in the throat; these rings ensure that
the air-passage does not collapse (see the image given below).

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Within the lungs, the passage gets divided into smaller and smaller tubes (see the
image above), which finally terminate in balloon-like structures known as alveoli.

The alveoli provide a base or surface where the exchange of gases can take place.

The walls of the alveoli comprise an extensive network of blood-vessels. So, while
breathing in, we lift our ribs and flatten our diaphragm; as result of this, the chest
cavity becomes larger. During the process, air is sucked into the lungs and fills the
expanded alveoli.

The blood, on the other hand, brings carbon dioxide from the rest of the body for
release into the alveoli, and the oxygen in the alveolar air is taken up by blood in
the alveolar blood vessels for further transportation to all the cells in the body.

Remember, during the breathing cycle, when we take air in and let it out, the lungs
always store a residual volume of air so that there is sufficient time for the oxygen
to be absorbed and for the carbon dioxide to be released.

In human bodies, the respiratory pigment is haemoglobin; and the haemoglobin

has a high affinity for oxygen.

The haemoglobin is present in the red blood corpuscles.

In comparison to oxygen, carbon dioxide is more soluble in water and hence it is

mostly transported in the dissolved form in blood.

Biology - Microorganisms: Friend and Foe

Introduction

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The living organisms (available around us), which we cannot see with our naked
eyes, are known as microorganisms or microbes.

Microorganisms are classified into the following four major groups −

Bacteria

Fungi

Protozoa

Algae

Viruses

Viruses are also microscopic microorganism.

Viruses get reproduced only inside the cells of the host organism, which may be a
bacterium, plant, or animal.

The common ailments, such as cold, influenza (flu), and coughs are caused by
viruses.

The serious diseases, such as polio and chicken pox are also caused by viruses.

The diseases like dysentery and malaria are caused by protozoans.

The diseases like typhoid and tuberculosis (TB) are caused by bacteria.

The single celled microorganisms are known as bacteria, algae, and protozoa.

The multicellular microorganisms are known as fungi and algae.

The microorganism can survive in any type of environment ranging from ice cold to
hot desert.

Microorganisms are also found in the bodies of animals and human beings.

Microorganisms, such as amoeba, can live alone; whereas the fungi and bacteria
live in colonies.

Some of the microorganisms are beneficial to us in many ways whereas some

others are harmful and cause diseases to us.

Friendly Microorganisms

Microorganisms are used for various purposes, such as preparation of curd, bread,
cake; production of alcohol; cleaning up of the environment; preparation of
medicines; etc.

In agriculture, microorganisms are used to increase soil fertility by nitrogen fixation.

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The bacterium lactobacillus helps in the formation of curd.

The microorganisms, yeast is used for the commercial production of alcohol and
wine.

For the large scale use of yeast, it is grown on natural sugars present in grains like
wheat, barley, rice, crushed fruit juices, etc.

The process of conversion of sugar into alcohol (by yeast) is known as

fermentation.

Streptomycin, tetracycline, and erythromycin are some of the commonly used

antibiotics; these are made from fungi and bacteria.

These days, antibiotics are mixed with the feed of livestock and poultry that check
microbial infection in the animals.

Several diseases, such as cholera, tuberculosis, smallpox and hepatitis can be

prevented by vaccination.

In 1798, Edward Jenner discovered the vaccine for smallpox.

Harmful Microorganisms

The microorganisms that cause diseases to human beings, animals, and plants, are
known as pathogens.

Pathogens enter into humans body through the air while breathing, the water while
drinking, or the food while eating.

Some pathogens are transmitted by direct contact with an infected person or

carried through an animal.

The microbial diseases that normally spread from an infected person to a healthy
person through air, water, food or physical contact are known as communicable
diseases. E.g. cholera, common cold, chicken pox, tuberculosis, etc.

Female Anopheles mosquito carries the parasite of malaria and known as carrier.

Female Aedes mosquito carries the parasite of dengue virus.

Human Diseases

The following table illustrates some Common Human Diseases caused by

Microorganisms −

Human Disease Causative Microorganism Mode of Transmission

Tuberculosis Bacteria Air

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Measles Virus Air

Chicken Pox Virus Air/Contact

Polio Virus Air/Water

Cholera Bacteria Water/Food

Typhoid Bacteria Water

Hepatitis B Virus Water

Malaria Protozoa Mosquito

Microorganisms causing Disease in Animals

In 1876, Robert Kch discovered the bacterium (Bacillus anthracis), which causes
anthrax disease.

Anthrax, a dangerous disease caused by a bacterium, affects both human and

cattle.

Foot and mouth disease of cattle is caused by a virus.

The following table illustrates some Common Plant Diseases caused by

Microorganisms −

Causative Mode of
Plant Disease
Microorganism Transmission

Citrus canker Bacteria Air

Rust of wheat Fungi Air, seeds

Yellow vein mosaic of bhindi

Virus Insects
(Okra)

Food Preservation

Salts and edible oils are the common chemicals usually used to check the growth
of microorganisms, they are known as preservatives.

Sodium benzoate and sodium metabisulphite are also used as common

preservatives.

Common salt is usually used to preserve meat and fish for ages.

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Sugar reduces the moisture content, which prevents the growth of bacteria;
therefore, Jams, jellies, and squashes are preserved by sugar.

Use of oil and vinegar averts spoilage of pickles, as bacteria cannot live in such kind
of environment.

When the milk is heated at about 700C for 15 to 30 seconds and then swiftly
chilled and stored; the process prevents the growth of microbes. This process was
conceptualized by Louis Pasteur; therefore, it is known as pasteurization.

Nitrogen Cycle

Biology - Why do We Fall Ill

Introduction

Health means a state of mental, physical, and social well-being.

The health of an organism largely depends on his/her surroundings or the

environment.

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Major causes of poor health are - the garbage, which is thrown in an open area
nearby residence or streets, or/and the open drain water lying stagnant around the
residence area.

The public cleanliness is the key of good health.

Some diseases, last only for a short period of time, are known as acute diseases.
E.g. cold, fever, etc.

The diseases that last for a long period of time, even as much as a lifetime, are
known as chronic diseases. E.g. asthma, osteoporosis, etc.

Chronic diseases, normally, have very severe long-term effects on peoples health
as compared to the acute diseases.

Infectious Diseases

When microbes are the immediate causes of a disease, it is known as infectious

diseases.

Some of the major agents of infectious diseases are viruses, bacteria, fungi, and
some single-celled animals (protozoans).

Some diseases are caused by the multicellular organisms; such as worms.

Kala-azar or black fever is caused by a protozoan parasite of genus Leishmania

(shown in the image given below).

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Acne is caused by staphylococci bacteria (shown in the image given below).

Sleeping sickness is caused by protozoan organism namely Trypanosoma (shown

in the image given below).

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Means of Spread

Most of the microbial agents can commonly move from an affected person to
other in number of ways.

The microbial agents are communicated, therefore, also known as communicable

diseases.

Airborne Diseases

Some of the microbes can spread through the air; example of such airborne
diseases are common cold, pneumonia, and tuberculosis.

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Waterborne Diseases

Some diseases can also be spread through water, known as waterborne diseases.
E.g. cholera etc.

Vector-borne Infections

Some diseases are transmitted by different animals including human beings; in fact,
these animals carry the infecting agents. Therefore, such animals are intermediaries
and known as vectors.

Mosquitoes are the most common vectors.

Prevention

Infectious diseases can be prevented by means of public health hygiene measures.

Infectious diseases can be prevented through proper immunization (in advance).

Biology - Natural Resources

Introduction

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The resources, available on the Earth and the energy being received from the Sun,
are essential to meet the basic necessities of all life-forms on the Earth.

The biotic component incorporates all living of the biosphere.

The abiotic component incorporates the air, the water, and the soil of the
biosphere.

Chapters Categories
Biogeochemical Cycles

Biogeochemical cycles explain a constant interaction between the biotic and abiotic
components of the biosphere.

Biogeochemical cycles are a dynamic phenomenon that helps to maintain the

stability in the ecosystem.

The significant biogeochemical cycles are −

Water Cycle

Carbon Cycle

Nitrogen Cycle

Oxygen Cycle

Lets discuss each of them in brief −

Water Cycle

The whole process, starting from the water evaporation, rainfall to flowing back
into the sea via rivers, is known as the water-cycle.

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As shown in the image given above, water cycle is a complex phenomenon. During
the process of water cycle, it helps ecosystem by maintaining its balance.

Water cycle helps in making new fertile soil, increasing the fertility of soil, providing
nutrition to the biotic components in different ecological regions, etc.

Carbon Cycle

Carbon is found on the Earth in various forms, such as diamond and graphite (in
solid form) and in combined state i.e. carbon and dioxide (as a gas).

Carbon is one of the essential elements for the photosynthesis.

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The process of photosynthesis converts carbon dioxide, which is present in the

atmosphere or dissolved in water into glucose molecules.

The glucose provides energy to living things that involves the process of
respiration.

In the process of respiration, oxygen may or may not be used to convert glucose
back into carbon dioxide.

Lastly, the carbon dioxide goes back into the atmosphere.

Nitrogen Cycle

About 78 percent part of our atmosphere is shared by nitrogen alone.

Nitrogen is a part of many molecules, which are essential for the life.

There are a few varieties of bacteria that help in nitrogen-fixing.

These special bacteria convert the comparatively inert nitrogen molecules into
nitrates and nitrites essential for the life in direct or indirect way.

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The nitrogen-fixing bacteria are largely found in the roots of legumes.

Oxygen Cycle

In the total constituents of our atmosphere, about 21 percent is shared by oxygen.

Oxygen is also found in the Earths crust.

Oxygen is an essential component of most of the biological molecules, including

carbohydrates, nucleic acids, proteins, and fats (or lipids).

Oxygen, present in the atmosphere, is used especially up in the three following

processes −

Combustion

Respiration

Formation of oxides of nitrogen

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Oxygen is returned back to the atmosphere by the process of photosynthesis.

Oxygen is lifeline of most of the organisms found on the earth, but for some
bacteria, it is poisonous.

Biology - Our Environment

Introduction

Environment is a natural world in which all living beings and non-living things exist.

The substances, which are broken down by the biological processes, are known as
biodegradable.

The substances, which are NOT broken down by the biological processes, are
known as non-biodegradable.

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Ecosystem

An ecosystem comprises of biotic components (all living organisms) and abiotic

components (all physical factors, such as temperature, rainfall, wind, soil and
minerals) of a given area. E.g. Lake ecosystem, Forest ecosystem, Marine
ecosystem, etc.

In a given geographic region, all the living organisms interact with each other and
their growth, reproduction, and other activities are largely dependent on the abiotic
components of the ecosystem.

In an ecosystem, all green plants and certain blue-green algae can produce their
food (themselves) by the process of photosynthesis; hence, they are known as
the producers.

The organisms, depending on the producers either directly or indirectly, can be

termed as herbivores, carnivores, omnivores and parasites.

All those animals that eat plants are known as herbivores (also known as
primary consumers). E.g. cow, goat, rabbit, deer, etc.
All those animals that eat other animals are known as carnivores (also known as
secondary consumers) E.g. tiger, lion, snake, etc.

All those animals that eat both plants (and its products) and other animals are
known as omnivores.
The larger size of carnivores and omnivores animals are known as tertiary
consumers.
The microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi, break-down the dead remains and
waste products of organisms and hence they are known as decomposers.

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The pyramid given above illustrates that the population of producers is maximum
and as we go up, the population of subsequent consumers keeps decreasing.

Food Chain

A series of animals (of different biotic level) feeding one another forms a food
chain.
Each level of the food chain forms a trophic level (see the image given below).

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In the given image, (a) illustrates food chain in nature; (b) illustrates food chain in a
grassland region; and (c) illustrates food chain of pond ecosystem.

The autotrophs (i.e. producers) exist at the first trophic level.

The herbivores (i.e. the primary consumers) come at the second trophic level.

The small carnivores (i.e. the secondary consumers) comes at the third trophic
level and larger carnivores or the tertiary consumers comes at the fourth trophic
level.

Transmission of Energy

While transmission of energy from one trophic level to second, large amount of
energy gets lost, which cannot be used again.
The green plants (i.e. producers) in a terrestrial ecosystem capture about 1% of
the energy of sunlight and convert it into food energy.

Secondly, when primary consumers eat green plants, about 10% of the food eaten
is transmitted into its own body and made available for the next level of
consumers.

Food Web

When the (food) relationship is shown in a series of branching lines instead of a

straight line, it is known as a food web (see the image given below).

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Biology - Conservation of Plants and Animals

Introduction

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The varieties of plants and animals that exists on earth, are essential for the
wellbeing and survival of mankind.

Clearing of forests and using that land for other purposes is known as
deforestation.
Some major consequences of deforestation are forest fires and frequent droughts.

Deforestation increases the temperature and pollution level on the earth.

Deforestation increases the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

Deforestation causes soil erosion; removal of the top layer of the soil exposes the
lower, hard and rocky layers; likewise, the fertile land gets converted into deserts
and known as desertification.

Deforestation also decreases the water holding capacity of the soil.

Biological diversity or biodiversity refers to the variety of organisms that exist

on the earth, their interrelationships as well as their relationship with the
environment.

Biosphere Reserves

To protect and conserve the biodiversity, the government set up rules, methods,
and policies and created the protected areas such as wildlife sanctuaries, national
parks, biosphere reserves, etc.

Plantation, cultivation, grazing, cutting trees, hunting, and poaching are strictly
prohibited there.

The protected area where animals are protected from all sorts of human
interference or disturbance (which can harm) to them and their habitat is known as
Sanctuary.
The protected area reserved for wild life where they can freely live, use the
habitats, and natural resources is known as National Park.

The large protected area for the conservation of wild-life, plant and animal
resources, and traditional life of the tribals living in the area is known as Biosphere
Reserve.

A biosphere reserve assists to maintain the biodiversity and culture of the

respective region.

A biosphere reserve may also have some other protected areas within it. E.g. The
Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve has one national park namely Satpura and two
wildlife sanctuaries namely Bori and Pachmarhi.

Endemic species are the species of plants and animals, which are found
exclusively in a particular region.

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Endemic species are not naturally found anywhere else other than the place where
it is found. It means, a specific type of plant or animal may be endemic to a zone,
a state or a country. E.g. Bison, Indian giant squirrel and Wild Mango are endemic
fauna of Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve (see the images given below0.

The animals whose numbers are falling to a level that they might face extinction
are categorized as the endangered animals.

The book that keeps the record of all the endangered species is known as Red
Data Book.

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