Chapter 3 Curve Setting 1

CHAPTER 3 CURVE SETTING

3.1 Introduction

The horizontal alignment of a highway, railway or canal is made up of a series of straight lines
and curves. The straight portions are called tangents. The curves used to connect the tangents can
be simple circular, multiple circular with two different radii, or circular curves joined to the
tangents by spirals. Likewise the grade line on a profile of any length is made up of straight lines
and curves. The curves joining the grade lines are called vertical curves, and are generally
parabolas of second degree. Their function is to provide a smooth transition from one grade to
another- in other words, to spread out the change in grade over a distance L. Refer figures 3.1
and 3.2.

The current chapter gives the basic geometry of curves and how they are set out in the field using
various methods.

3.2 Notation for Circular Curves

Referring to fig 3.3 the point the notations used are defined below.

(PT)
V T B Point of intersection (PI) or vertex (V) is the point at
(PI) which the two tangents meet.
E C If the work is progressing from left to right, then
M AV is the back tangent and
T R VB is the forward tangent.
deflection angle between the tangents, which is
  equal to the angle subtended at the center of
the
A R curve, denoted by 
(PC O PC (point of curvature) or BC (beginning of curve)
or
TC (tangent-to-curve) is the beginning point of the
curve.
Fig.3.3 Notation of circular curves PT (point of tangency) or EC (end of curve) or CT
(curve to tangent) is the ending point of the
curve.
Long chord (C) is the chord joining the PC and PT along a straight line.
External distance (E) is the distance from the PI to the middle of the curve, measured along the
bisector of the central angle.
Middle ordinate (M) is the distance from the middle of the curve to the middle of the long chord.
Chapter 3 Curve Setting 2

Degree of curve (D) is the angle subtended at the curve center by a chord of 100m or 100ft length
according to chord definition, or it is the angle subtended at the curve center by an arc of 100m
or 100ft length according to arc definition.
As the station method is most commonly used in recording the horizontal distances, and as the
PC of a curve will rarely be at a full station, the distance c 1, from the PC to the first station on the
curve will, in general be less than 100m or 100ft. The central angle subtended by this distance is
designated as d1 . The distance from the last full station on the curve to the PT is designated as c 2
and the corresponding central angle is d2.
The radius of the curve is usually an integral multiple of 50-m or 50-ft.

3.3 Radius and Degree of a Curve

100m

R 100m R D R

D/2
D/2
R
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.4 Relation between radius and degree of a curve a) by chord and b) by arc definitions.

By chord definition (from fig. 3.4a)

sin(D/2) = 100 / 2R ==> R = 50 / sin(D/2) (3.1)
By arc definition (from fig. 3.4b)
100 / D = 2R / 3600 ==> D = 5729.578 / R (3.2)
For D = 10, equation 3.1 gives R = 5729.651m, and equation 3.2 gives R = 5729.578m.
For sharper curves with more curvature and short radii, their difference is quite obvious. The
student can illustrate this fact by taking D = 50.
The arc definition is most frequently used in highway practice, whereas the chord definition is
used in railway practice since the difference between the arc and chord length is insignificant in
the latter case.
Measurements in the field with tapes must be made along the chords, and not along the arc.
When the arc basis is used, either corrections have to be made for the difference between the arc
length and the chord length, or the chords are made short so as to reduce the error to a negligible
value. In the latter case, usually 100-m chords can be used for curves up to 1 0, 50-m chords for
curves from 10 to 30, 25-m chords from 3 to 5 0, and 10-m chords for curves sharper than 5 0, all
expressed in terms of the degree of the curve.

3.4 Equations for Circular Curves

Chapter 3 Curve Setting 3

The relationships involving the radius R of a circular curve, the deflection angle  between the
tangents, and other elements of the curve are shown in fig. 3.3. The following equations apply to

Tangent dis tan ce T  R tan (33. )
2

External dis tan ce E  R(sec  1) (34. )
2
both the chord and arc definitions. 
Middle ordinate M  R(cos  1) (35. )
2

Long chord C  2 R sin (36. )
2

The length of the curve, or the difference in stationing between the PC and the PT, is computed
by
L =  / D (expressed in stations), or L = 100  / D ( expressed in ft or m)
or l = R (where  is in radians) (3.7a, b, c)

3.5 Selection of a Curve

Any two given tangents can be connected by an infinite number of circular arcs. The curve used
in a particular case is determined by assuming one of D, R, T, L or E, and computing the others
knowing .
Field conditions frequently govern which quantity should be assumed. For instance, for a curve
to be constructed along a river bank, the external distance may be the limiting factor. Similarly,
on a winding road, the tangent lengths may govern the situation. On high-speed modern
pavements and railways, an attempt is made to keep the degree of the curve below a given
maximum. Where possible, radius of more than 300m (1000ft) is adopted.

3.6 Stations of PI, PC and PT

The location of a planned highway or railway or a canal is first located on the map sheet to fit the
existing conditions of man made and natural features, culture and topography. This is refereed to
as paper location. The coordinates of the PIs, PCs and PTs are carefully scaled from the map.
The coordinates can be used to determine the tangent lengths and deflection angles. Once the
lengths of tangents and deflection angles are known, the lines can be staked out and stationed by
using a theodolite. The net result of the field location of the tangents is a set of lines from the
point of beginning, throughout the project, together with the deflection angles between the lines
(fig 3.5a).






Fig 3.5a Stationing along tangents

The length of the curve can the be determined from equation 3.7. The line must be restationed to
make the stationing continuous along the straight line and curve combination ( fig 3.5b).
Chapter 3 Curve Setting 4

Fig 3.5b Stationing along straight line-curve combination

The station of the first PC is obtained by

PC1 = PI1 - T1 (3.8)
where T is the tangent length (equation 3.3).
The PT station is computed by
PT1 = PC1 + L1 (3.9)
in which L is the length of the first curve (by equation 3.7).
Subsequent PC stations are computed from
PC2 = PT1 + S1-2 (3.10)
where S1-2 = (PI2 - PI1 ) - ( T1 + T2 )

3.7 Setting out Circular Curves

3.7.1 Setting out by two tapes from the long chord

This method is suitable for curves of small radius such as kerb lines at road intersections, and
boundary walls. To set out the curve, points such as G must be located. The offsets y are
calculated for the corresponding distances x from F, which is the midpoint of AB the long chord,
and are set out at right angles to the long chord.
In fig 3.6 AF = FB = C/2

A V VD = E
G GH = y
FH = x
H G’ DF = M
F DO = R
Then, DF = DO - FO
C
R B  M R  R2  ( )2 (3.11)
2
O Draw GG’ parallel to AB. Then
G’O2 + FH2 = R2
( y + FO)2 + x2 = R2
{y + [R2 - (C/2)2]1/2}2 = R2 - x2
C
y  R2  x2  R2  ( )2 (3.12)
2
Equation 3.12 gives the offsets to be measured from the long chord at intervals x.

Example: Derive data necessary for setting out a kerb line if the radius of the curve is 12m, and
the deflection angle between the tangents is 900. Offsets are required at 2-m intervals.
Solution: The long chord C = 2R sin = 2* 12 * sin450 = 16 .97m
M = 3.51m by equation 3.11
Since offsets are needed at 2-m intervals, x = 0, 2, 4, 6, 8m respectively.
The offsets y are calculated from equation 3.12 for each value of x.
x, m = 0 2 4 6 8
y, m = 3.51=M3.34 2.82 1.90 0.45
Chapter 3 Curve Setting 5

3.7.2 Setting out by offsets from tangents

This method is also suitable for short curves, and no attempt is made to keep the chords of equal
lengths.

A y U V In fig 3.7 OA = AN = R
M N AU = MN = y
AM = UN =x
R R Then,
ON2 = MN2 + OM2
R2 = y2 + (R - x )2
O B x = R - (R2 - y2 )1/2
= R - R (1 - y2 / R2 )1/2
Expanding the term in the parenthesis by binomial
theorem,
x = R - R (1 - y2 /2R2 + .........)
y2
x approximately . (3.13)
2R
Given the radius of the curve and the offset intervals y, the curve can be set out by measuring
offsets computed from equation 3.13. The curve is set out in two parts, starting from each tangent
point.

Exercise: Generate data for setting out for a curve with the following properties:
Length of long chord = 100m, Radius of curve = 100m
a) x = 5m for setting out by the method of section 3.7.1
b) y 10m for setting out by the method of section 3.7.2

3.7.3 Setting out by deflection angles using a tape and theodolite

Curves are staked out usually by the use of deflection angles at the PC from the tangent to the
stations along the curve, together with the use of chords measured from station to station along
the curve. The method is based on the geometrical fact that an angle formed by a tangent and a
chord is measured by one-half its intercepted arc. Moreover, an inscribed angle is measured by
one-half its intercepted arc, and inscribed angles having equal or the same intercepted arcs are
equal. Thus in fig 3.8,

V I B <VAF = 1/2(<AOF) = 1/2(2) =


H <FAG = 1/2(<FOG) = 1/2(2
<VAG = 1/2 (<AOG) =
1/2(2
G < GAH = 1/2(<GOH) 1/2(2
<VAH = 1/2(<AOH) =
1/2(2
Chapter 3 Curve Setting 6

.
F .
<IAB = 1/2(<IOB) = 1/2(2
A O

Fig 3.8

Let  be the deflection angle between the back tangent and the chord to the first station on the
curve. From the geometrical fact explained above, the central angle subtended by the chord or arc
to first station is 2
2/ c1 = 3600 / R => c1 / R minutes (3.14 a)
where c1 is the length of the initial subchord (to first station on the curve).
Similarly, the deflection angle between chords from the PC to two successive stations on the
curve is given by
1718.873 c / R minutes (3.14b)
where c is the normal chord length between the successive stations on the curve.
For a final subchord length of c2, the deflection angle  is
 = 1718.873 c2 / R minutes (3.14c)
(Note: It is recommended that the length of the normal chord be not more than R/20 so that the
length of the chord can be approximated to the length of the corresponding arc.)
Since the deflection angles are to be set out from the tangent AV, the total deflection angles for
setting out stations on the curve ( such as F, G, H, I, ...) have to be computed as:
<VAF = 
<VAG = 
<VAH = 
<VAI = 
<VAB = ( CHECK)
Note that the sum of all deflection angles must equal a check on the computations.
The procedure for locating the curve in the field is as follows: the PI is marked on the ground and
the deflection angle  is measured with the theodolite. Then based on an assumed value of one of
the elements of the curve ( Section 3.5), the other elements and the stationing of the PC and the
PT are computed and marked on the ground. Deflection angles foe full stations and substations
will be computed as discussed above. With the theodolite set up at the PC, a backsight is taken
along the back tangent line toward the PI. Then the deflection angle to the first station (1) is
turned off to locate the first curve station. The initial subchord is measured by a tape from the PC
along the line of sight, thus locating the first station on the curve. To locate the second station on
the curve, the second deflection angle (2) is turned off on the horizontal circle of the theodolite.
The normal chord distance between the first and second curve stations is laid off by measuring
from the first curve station, and the forward end of the chord is brought on the line of sight. This
procedure establishes the second curve station. Each station is located by a line of sight from the
PC and a chord distance from the preceding station, until the end of the curve is reached or until
another set up on the curve is necessary. The previously established position of the PT provides a
check on the field work.
For a left-hand curve, the angles to be turned off on a clockwise-graduated theodolite are
(3600 - 1 ), (3600 - ), (3600 - 3), etc. where 1 , 2 ,3 , etc. are computed as outlined above.
These angles are turned from the back tangent.

Solved Example : Tabulate data needed to set out by a theodolite and tape a circular curve of
radius 600 m to connect two straights having a deflection angle of 18 024’. The through chainage
of the PI is 2140.00 m and a normal chord length of 20 m is to be used.
Chapter 3 Curve Setting 7

Solution : Given  = 18024’ , R = 600 m, normal chord c = 20 m

Check that c < R/20 => R/20 = 30 m > c . Hence, OK. A (PC)
Tangent distance, T = R tan(/2) = 600 tan9012’ = 97.20 m T V (PI)
Chainage of PI = 2140.00m = 21 + 40.00
T = 97.20 m = 0 + 97.20
Chainage of PC = 2042 80 m = 20 + 42.80 R T
Next full station on the curve ( @ 20-m intervals) = 20 + 60.00
Therefore, length of initial subchord c 1 = 20 + 60.00 - 20 + 42.80 = 17.20 m O
Length of normal chord c = 20 m R B (PT)
Length of curve = R/180 = 600* 18024’ * /180 = 192.68 m
Chainage of PT = Chainage of PC + L = 22 + 35.48
Last full station on the curve (@ 20-m intervals) = 22 + 20.00
Therefore, length of final subchord c 2 = 22 + 35.48 - 22 + 20.00 = 15.48 m
:. The curve has an initial suchord of 17.20 m
eight normal chords of 20 m
and a final suchord of 15.48 m.

Calculation of deflection angles

Given the chord length c, the deflection angle from station to station on the curve is given by
 = 1718 873 c/R minutes
Hence, c1 /R = 1718.873 * 17.20/ 600 = 49.27 ’
 = 1718.873 c/R = 1718.873 * 20/ 600 = 57.30 ’
 = 1718.873 c2 /R = 1718.873 * 15 48/ 600 = 44.35 ’
Now, calculate the chainage of each station and the cumulative deflection angles from the back tangent
to each station on the curve ( tabulated below).

Chainage Chord, m Deflection angle Total defl. Angle Total def. Angle on 20’’ theodolite
PC = 20 + 42.80 0 0 0 0
20 + 60.00 17 20 49.27’ 0049.27’ 0049’20’’
+ 80.00 20.00 57.30’ 0
1 46.57 ’
1046’40’’
21 + 00.00 20.00 57.30’ 2043.87’ 2044’00’’
+ 20.00 20.00 57.30’ 0
3 41.17 ’
3041’20’’
+ 40.00 20.00 57.30’ 0
4 38.47 ’
4038’20’’
+ 60.00 20.00 57.30’ 0
5 35.77 ’
5035’40’’
+ 80.00 20.00 57.30’ 0
6 33.07 ’
6033’00’’
22 + 00.00 20.00 57.30’ 0
7 30.37 ’
7030’20’’
+ 20.00 20.00 57.30’ 0
8 27.67 ’
8027’40’’
+ 35.48 15.48 44.35’ 0
9 12 ’
9012’00’’ = /2 ( check!)

Exercise: Treat the above curve as a left-deflecting curve and tabulate data necessary for setting out by a
clockwise graduated theodolite and tape from the PC.

3.7.4 Setting out by two theodolites

This method is suitable when the ground between the tangent points A and B is difficult to chain
or tape, as for example on very steep slopes, or if the curve is partly or wholly over water or
marsh. Two theodolites one being set at each tangent point, are used. The main disadvantage is
two instruments, and two surveyors and their assistants for locating pegs, are needed.

In fig 3.9, let AF be the initial subchord to the first station on the curve. From geometry,
<VAF = <FBA = 1
<FAG = <FBG =  and so on.
In order to locate station F on the curve using a clock wise graduated theodolite, the deflection
angle at A ( the PC) is set to  and the deflection angle at B( the PT) is set to 360 0 -
. To locate the next station G, the deflection angle at A is set to , and the
Chapter 3 Curve Setting 8

deflection at B is set to360 0 - . A peg is driven at the point where the lines of sight of
the two theodolites intersect. This can be located by using a string and a range pole.

A (PC) V (PI)

R
G

O
R B (PT)

.
Fig. 3.9

Solved Example: Calculate the deflection angles that are to be set off on the theodolite for the
solved example of section 3.7.3 given that the curve is to be set out by using two theodolites.
Solution: The individual deflection anglesand are calculated in the same manner.

Chainage Chord, m Defl. Angle (iTotal defl. from A, i Total del. From B,
i 3600 - i
PC = 20 +42.80 0 0 0 350048’00’’
20 +60.00 17.20 49.27’ 0049’20’’ 351037’20’’
’ 0 ’ ’’
+ 80.00 20.00 57.30 1 46 40 352034’40’’
’ 0 ’ ’’
21 + 00.00 20.00 57.30 2 44 00 353032’00’’
’ 0 ’ ’’
+ 20.00 20.00 57.30 3 41 20 354029’20’’
’ 0 ’ ’’
+ 40.00 20.00 57.30 4 38 20 355026’20’’
’ 0 ’ ’’
+ 60.00 20.00 57.30 5 35 40 356023’40’’
+ 80.00 20.00 57.30’ 6033’00’’ 357021’00’’
’ 0 ’ ’’
22 + 00.00 20.00 57.30 7 30 20 358018’20’’
’ 0 ’ ’’
+ 20.00 20.00 57.30 8 27 40 359015’40’’
’ 0 ’ ’’
+ 35.48 15.48 44.35 9 12 00 360000’00’’
3.7.6 Possible difficulties in setting out simple curves

1) When the entire curve can not be set out from one tangent point

Suppose that it is impossible to locate

stations beyond F from the set up at A
( the PC). The transit is shifted to F. A
backsight with the A-vernier set on 180 0
and telescope direct is taken on the last
instrument station, the PC in this case.
The upper motion is released and the
telescope is turned towards G with the
angle (Fbeing set off on
the horizontal circle. The line of
sight is thus directed along chord FG.
The angle (F turned from the
Chapter 3 Curve Setting 9

line AF extended, is equal to the

deflection angle at the PC for point G;
therefore, the vernier setting to locate
point G from
the transit station A is the same that
which would have been used had the
transit been remained at A ( the PC).
The following procedure may be used to orient the transit at any point on the curve.
1. Compute deflection angles as for use at the PC.
2. When set up at any point on the curve, backsight at any preceding transit station with the
telescope direct and the A-vernier set on 180 0 + deflection angle to the preceding station for
curves deflecting to the right, and 180 0 - deflection angle to the preceding station for angles
deflecting to the left.
3. To locate stations in the forward direction along the curve, release the upper motion, turn the
instrument through 1800 , and turn the previously computed deflection angles.

2. When the point of intersection is inaccessible

To locate A and B ( the PC and PT) on the ground, V
a) Measure <AXY and <BYX with a theodolite. A X 
b) XY where X and Y are any two convenient
points on the tangents.
C) Deduce <VXY = 1800 - <AXY Y
River
<VYX = 1800 - <BYX
Evaluate ,  = 3600 - <AXY - <BYX B
d) Evaluate VX = XY (sin<VYX/sinXVY)
VY = XY (sin VXY/sinXVY)
E) Knowing  and R, AV = T = R tan /2
AX = AV - VX
BY = BV - VY
:. Measure AX from X to locate A ( the PC). Similarly, measure BY from Y to locate B ( the
PT).

3) When the instrument can not be set up at the first tangent point
This may be due to soft ground encountered at the PC. There are two cases.
Case a When the curve deflects to the right, the setting out should proceed from the instrument
set up at the PT with the following deflection angles set off on the vernier: 360 0 -
23600 - 2 3600 - 23, etc. for stations starting from near the PC.
The total deflection angles are those computed for use at the PC.
Case b For a curve deflecting to the left the angles to be set off on the theodolite are
 , etc. for stations starting from near the PC.

3.8 Compound Curves

A compound curve consists of two or more simple curves which deflect in the same direction, are
tangent to one another, and have two or more centers on the same side of the curve. Figure 3.12
shows a two-center compound curve.
There are several variables: TL, TR, RL, and RR of which six are independent. Given
four of the variables, all other data necessary for setting out the curve can be computed as
outlined below.
In fig 3.12,
Chapter 3 Curve Setting 10


Since AA’V and A’D B’ are tangent to the first curve,
AA’ = A’D = t1
Similarly, BB’ = DB’ = t2
and t1 = RL (tan 
t2 = RR (tan 
’V = ( t1 + t2)(sin sinand B’V = (t1 + t2 )(sin /sin
:. TL = t1 + (t1 + t2) (sin sinand
TR = t2 + (t1 + t2 )(sin /sin 

Procedure for location of the curve in the field:

1) Set up the instrument at the PC, and set out the first curve between the PC and the PCC
( stations A and D in fig 3.12) by the use of deflection angles calculated as outlined under
section 3.7.3.
2) Shift the instrument to the PCC ( station D in fig 3.12); set off 180 0 on the A vernier and
backsight to station A with the telescope direct; loosen the upper motion and turn the
telescope by 1800. The line of sight is along the extension of AD and the reading on the
vernier is 00. Rotate the telescope by an angle of 2. The line of sight is now along the
common tangent A’DB’. Now set out the second curve in the same manner as the first curve.
3) Check the observations by measuring <ADB which should be equal to (180 0 - /2

Solved Example: Two straights AB and BC are intersected by a line D 1D2. The straights are to be
joined by a two-center compound with radii of 600m and 800m each. If the chainage of the PI is
8248.10m, calculate the chainages of the PC, PT and PCC. Also compute the deflection angles
required to set out the entire curve taking a normal chord of 20m. The angles BD 1D2 and BD2D1
are 40030’ and 36024’ respectively.

Solution: 40030’; 36024'; RL = 600m; RR = 800m

(1) 76054’
(2) t1 = RL tan 600 tan 20015’ = 221.40m
(3)` t2 = RR tan 2 / 2 = 800 tan 18012’ = 263.00m
(4) D1D2 = t1 + t2 = 484.40m
(5) BD1 = D1D2 (sinsin = 295.10m
 BD2 = D1D2 (sinsin323.00m
(7) TL = t1 + BD1 = 516.50m
(8) TR = t2 + BD2 = 586.00m
(9) chainage of PI (station B) = 8248.10
- TL = 516.50
chainage of PC = 7731.60m
+ length of first curve = L1 = RL 1800 = 424.10m
chainage of P.C.C ( station D) = 8155.70m
+ length of second curve = L2 = RR /1800 = 508.20m
chainage of PT (station C) = 8663.90m
Deflection angles
Length of normal chord = 20m
i)First curve c1 = 8.40m c = 20m c2 = 15.70m
= 1718.873 * 8.40/600 = 00 24’ 3.8’’
= 1718.873 * 20/600 = 00 57’ 17.7’’
= 1718.873 * 15.70/600 = 00 44’58.6’’
ii)Second curve c1 = 4.30m c = 20m c2 = 3.90m
Chapter 3 Curve Setting 11

= 1718.873 * 4.30/800 = 0009’14.34’’

= 1718.873 * 20/800 = 0042’58.3’’
= 1718.873 * 3.90/800 = 00 08’ 22.8’’

3.9 Transition Curves

Principle: The centrifugal force acting upon a vehicle as it moves along a curve increases as the
radius of the curve decreases. A vehicle moving from a straight - with no centrifugal force acting
up on it- into a curve would suddenly receive the maximum amount of centrifugal force for that
radius of curve. To prevent this sudden lateral shock on passengers in the vehicle a transition
curve is inserted between the straight and the circular curve. The radius of the transition curve
varies from infinity at its tangency with the straight to a minimum at its tangency with the
circular curve. The centrifugal force thus builds up gradually to its maximum amount.
Centrifugal force, P = m v2/R  

Fig 3.13 Transition curve

Figure 3.13 shows a curve composed of two transition curves T 0T1 and T2T3 , and a circular curve
T1T2. The following notations are used to define stations for transition curves.
1. Tangent to spiral ( T.S ) - is the beginning point of the first transition curve.
2. Spiral to curve ( S.C ) - is the ending point of the first transition curve.
3. Curve to spiral ( C.S ) - is the beginning point of the second transition curve.
4. Spiral to tangent ( S.T ) - is the ending point of the second transition curve.

The provision of transition curves only prevents the sudden build up of centrifugal force but will
not eliminate it. Therefore some frictional force is required to hold the vehicle on the road surface
if the surface is flat. This force can be eliminated by superelevation ( cant).

Considering fig 2.14 it can be seen that a

vehicle moving along a flat curve is subjected to
a side thrustequal to the centrifugal force. By
lifting the outer edge of the roads or railways
( superelevation or cant) the resultant N can be
made to lie along the normal to the road surface
for a given speed. Therefore, the frictional force
necessary to hold the vehicle on the
resultantmg road surface can be
eliminated where

v
Fig 3.14 tan   Centrifugalratio (3.17)
gR
Chapter 3 Curve Setting 12

where v is the design average speed of the car for roads.

For railways it is generally the maximum probable speed at which the train will use the track. R
is the radius of curvature and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
The superelevation must not be too great since the vehicle may stop on the curve. For roads it
varies between 1:14.5 to 1:48 for good drainage. In railways, a maximum superelevation of
150mm is allowed.

Length of the transition curve

a)We know that P v2 / R where v2 / R is the radial acceleration.
Let the time taken to travel along the transition curve be t. t = Ls / v
Rate of change of radial acceleration,  = v2 /R = v2 /R = v3 / LsR
t Ls /v
v3
from which Ls  (3.18)
R
A maximum ‘comfort limit’ for  beyond which a side-throw is expected is 0.3m/s 3.

Spiral formula
Transition curves may be spirals, parabolas or lemniscates. The equation defining a spiral is
l2

2 LR
where  is the deflection angle between the straight and the tangent to the transition curve at a
distance l along the transition curve. L is the total length of the transition adopted to reach a
minimum radius of R of the circular curve.
Deflection angles
The deflection angle  to any point on the transition curve is  /3,
the total deflection being ’ /3, where
L2 L
  radians (3.19)
2 LR 2 R
The deflection angle  to any station on the transition
in minutes is
l2 1 180
 =  /3 =   60 minutes
2 LR 3 
l2
:.  572.958 min utes (3.20)
LR

Fig 3.15

Shift
When transition curves are included between a circular curve, the circular curve is shifted from
its original position by a reduction S in its radius. The original curve of radius R+S is replaced by
two transition curves and a circular curve of radius R. The original tangent point A is now moved
to To. The amount of the shift is calculated from the formula
2
L (3.21)
S s
24 R
Tangent length
The tangent length of the original circular curve AB is

PA ( R  S ) tan
2
Chapter 3 Curve Setting 13

The length ToA is taken to be half the length of the transition curve for all practical purposes.
Therefore, the tangent length of the combined curve is
 L
To P ( R  S ) tan  s (3.22)
2 2
Length of the circular portion of the curve
The central angle subtended by the circular portion of the curve is  c   2 ’
:. Lc  R c  R(   2 ) (3.23)
Offsets from tangent
The length x being offset from tangent to curve can be used to locate points on the transition
curve. It is calculated from
l3
x (3.24)
6 LR
where l is the length of a point on the transition curve from To.

Setting out procedure

1. Set out the two transition curves starting from tangent points T o and T3 using deflection
angles calculated from the tangents, or for short curves, using lengths of chords measured the
tangent points along the line of sight.
2. To locate the circular curve, shift the instrument to T 1. Set up and backsight to T o with the A
vernier set on 1800 and telescope direct. Release the upper motion, turn the telescope through
1800 and align the line of sight along the direction of the tangent to the circular curve by
setting of an angle of 2 ' 3 on the vernier. The stations on the
circular curve can then be located by turning the deflection angles computed as explained
earlier.

Solved Problem:
Two roads meet at a point V with a deflection of 80 000’. Design a combined curve for the
following data: design speed of vehicle = 100km/hr; maximum centrifugal ratio = 1/4; maximum
rate of change of radial acceleration = 0.3m/s 3. The curve consists of a circular curve and two
spirals.

Solution:  = 80000’; v = 100km/hr; v2/gR = 1/4;  = 0.3m/s3

(1) v2/gR = 1/4 => R = 4v2/g = 4* (100/3.6)2/ 9.81 = 314.62m
v3 (100 3.6) 3
(2) Length of transition curve L s   227.08m
R 0.3 * 314.62
Chapter 3 Curve Setting 14

Ls *180
'  200 4036
' "
2 R *
 c (  2' ) 380 3846
' "
R c
Lengthof circular arc Lc  212.21m
180
Combined (totalcurve) length L Lc  Ls 66637
. m
Ls 2 227.082
Shift S   683
. m
24R 24 * 314.62
 L 227.08
. ) tan 400 
Tangent dis tan ce ( R  S) tan  s (314.62  683 38327
. m
2 2 2
Chainage of P. I (V )  428  62.00
 tan gent dis tan ce  38327
.
Chainageof beginning of first transition (T0 ) 424  7873
.
 Ls 227.08
Chianage of end of first transition (T1 )  427  0581
.
 Lc 212.21
Chainage of beginning of sec ond transition (T2 ) 429 1802
.

Chaiange of beginning of sec ond transition ( T2 )  429  18.02

 Ls 227.08
Chainage of end of curve ( T3 ) 431  4510
.
:. Chianage of beginning of circular curve ( T1 )  427  05.81
:. Chainage of end of circular arc ( T2 )  429  18.02
Deflection angles for setting out the transitions ( taking chords of multiples of 10m
l2
 572.958 ( Note: l is the progressive chainage from the PC of the transition curve )
LR
l3
Offsets from tan gent x 
6 LR

l, m Offset x, m  l, m Offset x, m 
0 0 0 120 4.03 1055’29.0”
10 .002 000’ 48.1” 130 5.12 2015’31.9”
0
20 .02 0 3’12.5” 140 6.40 2037’11.1”
30 .06 00 7’13.1” 150 7.87 3002’6.6”
40 .15 0012’49.8” 160 9.56 3025’18.2”
50 .29 0020’03” 170 11.46 0
3 51’46.1”
60 .50 0028’52.2” 180 13.60 4019’50.2”
0
70 .80 0 39’17.7” 190 16.00 4049’30.6”
80 1.19 0051’19.5” 200 18.66 5020’47.2”
90 1.70 1004’57.6” 210 21.60 5053’40.1”
100 2.33 1020’11.8” 220 24.84 6028’09.2” = ’/3
110 3.10 1037’02.3” (check1)

Note: each transition curve is set out from the nearest tangent point.

Deflection angles for setting out the circular portion:

Chapter 3 Curve Setting 15

Length of initial subchord c1 = 427+20.00 - 427+05.81 = 14.19m

 = 1718.873 c1 /R = 1718.873* 14.19/314.62 = 1017’ 31.4’’
Length of normal chord c = 20m
 = 1718.873 c /R = 10 49’ 16.0’’
Length of final subchord c2 = 429+18.02 - 429+00.00 = 18.02m
 1718.873 c2 /R = 10 38’ 26.9’’

3.10 Vertical curves

Curves used to provide smooth transition between grade lines in roads or railways are called
vertical curves. These curves provide a sight distance for the vehicle operator to react to
dangerous situations. In addition, they help the vehicle to negotiate the curve smoothly. The
parabola is most commonly used for connecting two different grades in order to provide the
transition. It is easy to compute the elevation of points on a parabola. Moreover, a parabola
provides a constant rate of change of grade. The results of the vertical curve computations are the
elevations at selected points along the route from the beginning of the curve to its end. These
elevations are used in turn to control grading operations when the road bed is to be brought to the
desired grade by excavation and construction of embankments.
V

Fig. 3.16 Vertical curves

Fig. 3.16 shows a vertical curve joining two grade lines g 1 and g2. The length of the vertical curve
is measured horizontally in stations of 100m is shown as L

The beginning point and the ending of the curve are designated as BVC and EVC, respectively.
The total change in grade is (g 2 - g1). The rate of change of grade per station, designated as r, is
found from
g g
r  2 1 where g1 and g2 are in percent. (3.25)
L
Either r or L must be assumed if two gradients are to be connected by a vertical curve, and the
value of the other computed.
An equal-tangent parabolic vertical curve is a curve where the point of vertical intersection V lies
midway between the two ends of the curve horizontally.
The two methods for computing the elements of the vertical curve are
1) using the equation of the parabola
2) using the geometric properties of the parabola.

3.10.1 Vertical curves by equation of the parabola

Fig 3.17 shows a vertical curve
joining two grade lines g1 and
g2. The y-values are elevations on
the curve and the x-values are
Chapter 3 Curve Setting 16

distances from the BVC in

stations of 100m.
The x-axis lies on the datum.

The equation of a parabola with the axis in the y-direction is

y = ax2 + bx + c
When x = 0, y = c, the elevation of the BVC. The above equation becomes
y = ax2 + bx + elevation of BVC
First derivative of y with respect to x gives the slope of the curve at point x.
dy
2ax  b
dx
When x = 0, the slope of the curve is g1. Therefore, g1 = b.
The second derivative of y with respect to x is the rate of change of slope r of the curve.
d2y r
2
2 a Therefore r 2a  a 
dx 2
Substituting in the equation of the parabola, we get
r
y  x 2  g1 x  elevation of BVC (3.26)
2
If the elevations above or below the BVC are required, the x-axis may be moved to the x’-axis
(fig 3.17) and c becomes zero. For these conditions,
r
y   x 2  g1 x (3.27)
2
Note: The value of r must be assigned its proper algebraic sign. If the curve opens upward, r is
plus; if it opens downward, r is minus. See fig 3.18.

Fig 3.18 Algebraic signs of r

3.10.2 Vertical curves by offsets from grade lines

The three properties of an equal-tangent parabolic vertical curve are as follows (fig 3.19):
1. The offsets from the tangent to the curve at a point are proportional to the squares of the
horizontal distances from the point.
2. Offsets from the two grade lines are symmetrical with respect to the point of vertical
intersection of the two grade lines.
3. The curve lies midway between the point of intersection of the grade lines and the middle
point of the chord joining the BVC and EVC.
From the figure,
elevation of M = 1/2 ( el. Of BVC + el. Of
EVC)
elevation of O = 1/2 (el. Of V + el. Of M)

Given offset OV,

aA = OV (12/42) = OV (1/16)
Chapter 3 Curve Setting 17

bB = OV ( 22/42) = OV (4/16)
cC = OV ( 32/42) = OV ( 9/16)
OV = OV ( 42/42) = OV (3.28)
Fig 3.19 Properties of an equal-tangent vertical curve

Solved problem:
A 200m vertical curve is to join two grade lines g 1 and g2 which are -5% and -3%,
respectively. The vertex of the intersection of the grades is at a station of 62 + 00 and the
elevation is 1000.00m. Compute the grade elevations at 20-m intervals throughout the curve. Use
both methods.

Solution: An equal-tangent parabolic curve is provided.

Method 1: Equation of parabola
r
y ax 2  bx  el. of BVC  x 2 g1 x  el. of BVC
2
g  g1  3  (  5)
r 2  1
L 2
el. of BVC 1000.00  5 1005.00m
1
:. y  x 2  5x  1005.00 where x is dis tan ce in stations from the BVC.
2
The elements for setting out are tabulated below

x, stations elev. on curve, y, m elevation on grade line, m offset from gradeline, m

0.0 1005.00 1005.00 0.00
0.2 1004.02 1004.00 0.02
0.4 1003.08 1003.00 0.08
0.6 1002.18 1002.00 0.18
0.8 1001.32 1001.00 0.32
1.0 1000.50 1000.00 0.50
1.2 999.72 999.40 0.32
1.4 998.98 998.80 0.18
1.6 998.28 998.20 0.08
1.8 997.62 997.60 0.02
2.0 997.00 997.00 0.00

Method 2: Property of parabola

El. M = 1/2 ( el. BVC + el. EVC) = 1/2[ (100*.05 + 1000) + (1000 - 0.03*100)] = 1001.00m
El. O = 1/2 (El. M + El. V) = 1/2 ( 1001.00 + 1000.00) = 1000.50m
:. The offset OV = 1000.50 - 1000.00 = 0.50m

aA = VO/25 = 0.5 / 25 = 0.02m = hH

bB = 4* VO / 25 = 4* 0.02 = 0.08m = gG
cC = 9* VO/25 = 9*0.02 = 0.18m = fF
dD = 16* VO/25 = 16*0.02 = 0.32m = eE

Elevations of stations on the curve are computed from knowledge of these offsets and elevations
on stations on the grade lines at 20-m intervals ( as computed under method 1 above).
Chapter 3 Curve Setting 18

El. on grade,m 1005.00 1004.00 1003.00 1002.00 1001.00 1000.00 999.40 998.80 998.20 997.60
997.00
Offset,m 0.00 0.02 0.08 0.18 0.32 0.50 0.32 0.18 0.08 0.02
0.00
El. on curve,m1005.00 1004.02 1003.08 1002.18 1001.32 1000.50 999.72 998.98 998.28 997.62
997.00

3.11 Miscellaneous items relating to vertical curves

3.11.1 Elevations of intermediate points on vertical curves

Sometimes it may be necessary to calculate the elevations of points on the curve at irregular
intervals. Such data can be furnished from the equation of the parabola directly, where x is the
horizontal distance in stations beyond the BVC.

Example: For the example problem of section 3.10, determine the elevation on the curve at 62 +
25.80.
Solution
1
The equation of the curve is y  x 2  5x  1005.00
2
The BVC station is at 61 + 00.00. Therefore, x = 62 + 25.80 - 61 + 00.00 = 1 + 25.80 = 1.258
1.258 2
:. y   5 * 1.258  1005.00 999.50m
2
The elevation of the intermediate points can also be determined by the use of the properties of the
parabola as follows:
0.742 2
( 997.00.03 * 74.2)  ( * 0.5) 999.50m starting from the EVC.
12
This is obtained by first calculating the elevation at the station and then computing the offset at
the station.

3.11.2 Location of Highest or Lowest point

When g1 and g2 have opposite algebraic signs, there exists a high or low point between the BVC
and EVC. This point will probably not fall on a full station, and yet its position is of paramount
importance under some conditions, as for example, when drainage facilities are being considered,
or to locate a clearance point. The high or low point (or where the slope of the curve is zero) may
be obtained from
dy dy
rx  g1 0 ( is the slope of the curve at any po int x )
dx dx
(3.29)
g1
:. x 
r
where x is the distance in station from the BVC to the high or low point. The elevation of the
r
point is then computed by substituting x into y  x 2  g1 x  el. BVC and solving for y.
2
Example: For a vertical curve of length 800m that joins two grades g 1 = 5% and g2 = -3%,
determine whether a high or low point exists on the curve. Also find its elevation.
Solution: r = (g2 - g1)/L = (-3-5) / 8 = -1
:. x = -g1 /r = -5 / -1 = 5.0 stations from the BVC
Since 5.0 stations is in the limit of the curve, a high or low point exists on the curve.
Chapter 3 Curve Setting 19

The elevation of the point is

r 1
y   x 2  g1 x  (5.0 2 )  5 * 5.0 12.50m above the BVC.
2 2
3.11.3 Sight Distance
Vertical curves should be so constructed that drivers will have certain minimum sight distances
for seeing vehicles or other objects on the road. The driver should be able to see an object of a
given height at no less than the estimated distance he would travel while reacting to place his
foot on the brake pedal plus the distance required for the vehicle to stop.
The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials ( AASHTO) has
developed criteria for the distance required to pass another vehicle traveling in the same direction
on a vertical curve and also the distance required to stop a vehicle in an emergency. The former
distance, called the safe passing sight distance (S sp) is based on the assumption that the eyes of
the driver of a vehicle are about 3.75ft (1.125m) above the pavement and the top of the on-
coming vehicle is about 4.50ft (1.35m) above the pavement. The latter required distance, called
the safe stopping sight distance (S np) is based on the assumption that an obstruction ahead of the
vehicle is 0.50ft (0.15m) above the pavement. The values of S sp and Snp for different design
speeds are given in the table below.

Design speed (mph) Ssp (ft) Snp (ft)

30 1100 200
40 1500 275
50 1800 350
60 2100 475
70 2500 600
80 2700 750
If it is assumed that the safe passing sight distance is less than the length of the vertical curve L,
then,
S sp 2 ( g 1  g 2 )
L
3 3 .0
(3.30)
but if it is assumed that the safe passing sight distance is greater than the curve length L, then
3 3 .0
L  2 S sp 
g 1  g 2 (3.31)
If the safe stopping sight distance is less than the length of the vertical curve L, then
S np 2 ( g 1  g 2 )
L (3.32)
1 4 .0
but if the safe stopping sight distance is assumed to be less than the length of the curve L, then
1 4 .0
L  2 S np  (3.33)
g1  g 2
in which L, Ssp and Snp are in feet and g1 and g2 are expressed as ratio.

Example: Two grades g1 = +2% and g2 = -3% are joined by a vertical curve. Calculate the
lengths of vertical curves required for the safe passing and safe stopping sight distances
recommended by AASHTO for a design speed of 40 mph.

Solution:
Assume that the length of the curve is greater than the safe passing sight distance. Then
Chapter 3 Curve Setting 20

S sp 2 ( g1  g 2 )
1500 2 (0.02  0.03)
L  3409 ft
33.0 33.0
Assume that the safe passing sight distance is greater than the length of the curve. Then
33.0 33.0
L  2 S sp   2 * 1500   2340 ft
g1  g 2 0.02  0.03
Therefore, the length of the curve required for the safe passing sight distance is 3409ft since S sp <
L.
Assume that the safe stopping sight distance is less than the length of the vertical curve. Then
S np 2 ( g1  g 2 )
275 2 (0.02  0.03)
L  270 ft
14.0 14.0
Assume that the safe stopping sight distance is greater than the curve length. Then
14.0 14.0
L 2 S np  2 * 275  270 ft
g1  g 2 0.02  0.03
Therefore, the length of the curve required for the safe stopping sight distance is 270ft since S np >
L.

With a highway with four or more traffic lanes, the safe stopping sight distance can be used to
determine the length of a vertical curve because there is little chance of meeting on-coming
vehicles in the passing lane. On a two-lane highway, however, the safe passing sight distance
must be used if a vehicle is allowed to pass another one traveling in the same direction on the
vertical curve. For more details the student is referred to Highway Engineering books.

Exercises

1) How can you locate the intersection point of the lines of sights of the two theodolites when
you set out a simple circular curve by two theodolites?
2) In setting out a circular curve you may encounter an obstruction on the route. Describe how
you set out the curve beyond the obstruction point in (i) one section; (ii) in two sections.
3) It is proposed to connect two straight portions of a road that make a deflection of 40 0 by a
horizontal curve. From a study of the map of the project area, a preliminary design was
produced with a circular curve of 400m radius. On a later date, the design was modified due
to anticipated construction difficulties. The modified design consists of two spirals and a
circular arc. The midpoint of the circular arc is to be shifted from that of the original curve of
400m radius by 4m towards the center ( the P.I). Design the combined curve. The chainage
of the P.I is 25 + 25.80.
4) The elevations of the BVC and EVC of an equal-tangent parabolic vertical curve joining two
grades are to be 224.42m and 226.42m. The first grade is -4% but the second grade is not
established. The approximate length of the curve is 400m. Determine, by using any one
method
i) the station and elevation of the P.I if the station of the BVC is 25 + 00.
ii) the second grade.
iii) the elevation on the vertical curve and the offsets from the grade lines to the curve at 50-m
intervals.
iv) the position and elevation of the highest or lowest point if there is any. State which one it is.

Field Practice problems

Chapter 3 Curve Setting 21

1. Set out a simple horizontal circular curve by a theodolite and tape:

Tangent distance = 25m
Deflection angle = 60o
In your procedure, assume that there is an obstruction immediately after the fifth station on
the curve. Move the instrument to this station and set out the remainder of the curve from this
set up.
2. Set out the curve in 1 above by two theodolites.