UNIT - 2

1] the role of parser in detail.

Define parser in your words from unit 1

Here is a detailed explanation of the parser's role in the context of compiler design:

1. Input to the Parser

 The parser gets a list of tokens from the lexer (e.g., keywords, operators, identifiers).

2. Syntax Checking

 It checks if the tokens follow the grammar rules of the programming language.

3. Building the Syntax Tree (Parse Tree)

 The parser creates a syntax tree or parse tree that shows the structure of the program.

4. Abstract Syntax Tree (AST)

 The parser often builds a simplified Abstract Syntax Tree (AST), which removes unnecessary
details but keeps the important ones.

5. Error Detection and Reporting

 The parser catches syntax errors (e.g., missing semicolons) and reports them with specific
error messages.

6. Types of Parsers

 Parsers can be Top-Down (build from the top of the grammar to the bottom) or Bottom-Up
(build from the bottom to the top).

7. Context-Free Grammar (CFG)

 The parser follows Context-Free Grammar (CFG) rules to organize the tokens into valid
structures.

8. Semantic Actions

 The parser can gather extra information, like variable types, during parsing.

9. Interface with the Rest of the Compiler

 After parsing, the syntax tree is used by other parts of the compiler for further analysis and
code generation.

10. Parser Optimization

 The parser is optimized to work efficiently and process the code as quickly as possible.

In short, the parser checks if the code follows the language’s rules, builds a structure (tree) for the
code, catches errors, and passes the info to the next part of the compiler.
2] the process of error handling.

Error handling in compiler design is a critical process that ensures the compiler can identify, report,
and manage errors in the source code during various phases of compilation.

Here's a simplified explanation of how error handling works in a compiler:

1. Lexical Errors

 Cause: Invalid tokens that don't match valid patterns.

 Example: Using an unknown character like @ in an identifier.

 Handling: Lexer reports the error with position info and skips the invalid token.

2. Syntactic Errors

 Cause: When the sequence of tokens doesn’t follow grammar rules.

 Example: Missing parentheses or extra semicolons.

 Handling: The parser reports the error and may try to recover by skipping or fixing tokens.

3. Semantic Errors

 Cause: Correct syntax, but illogical code.

 Example: Assigning a string to an integer variable.

 Handling: The semantic analyzer reports type or logical errors with explanations.

4. Runtime Errors

 Cause: Errors that occur when the program runs.

 Example: Division by zero or accessing an invalid array index.

 Handling: Handled at runtime (during program execution) by adding checks in the generated
code.

5. Type Checking Errors

 Cause: Incompatible data types in operations.

 Example: Adding a number to a string.

 Handling: The compiler checks types and reports errors during semantic analysis.

6. Error Recovery Techniques

 Panic Mode: Skips over tokens until it finds a safe point to continue.

 Phrase Level Recovery: Attempts to fix minor errors by adding or removing tokens.

7. Error Reporting

 The compiler reports errors with:

o Type of error (lexical, syntax, semantic).

o Location (line number, position).

8. Graceful Error Handling

 The compiler should continue processing after an error and report as many errors as possible
in one run, helping the programmer fix issues easily.

In short, error handling involves detecting, reporting, and recovering from errors in the code during
the compilation process. The goal is to make errors clear and allow the compiler to continue
analyzing as much code as possible.

3] grammar in the context of programming languages.

In compiler design, grammar is a set of rules that defines how a programming language's code
should be written. It specifies how different parts of the code (like statements and expressions) can
be combined to form valid programs, helping the compiler understand and analyze the code.

1. Formal Grammar: Defines the structure and rules of a programming language’s syntax,
helping the compiler understand the code.

2. Context-Free Grammar (CFG): The most common grammar used to describe syntax in
programming languages.

3. Components:

o Terminals: Basic symbols (e.g., keywords, numbers).

o Non-terminals: Abstract categories (e.g., expression, statement).

o Production Rules: Describe how to combine terminals and non-terminals.

o Start Symbol: Represents the whole program.

4. Parsing: The compiler checks if the code follows the grammar rules and builds a syntax tree.

5. Grammar Example: Rules like expression -> expression + term.

6. Role in Compiler:

o Lexical Analysis: Breaks code into tokens.

o Syntax Analysis: Checks code structure.

o Semantic Analysis: Ensures logical correctness.

7. Error Handling: Grammar helps find and report syntax errors.

Importance:

 Grammar defines how programs should be written, guides parsing, detects errors, and helps
generate machine code.

In short, grammar in compilers defines the rules for code structure, checks for errors, and aids in
compiling code to machine language.
4] concept of Top-down parsing in detail.

1. Definition:

o Top-down parsing starts from the start symbol of the grammar and breaks it down
into smaller parts until it matches the input.

2. Recursive Descent:

o This is a common method where each part of the grammar has a corresponding
function that tries to match the input using the grammar rules.

3. Parse Tree:

o The process builds a parse tree (or syntax tree) from top to bottom, starting with the
start symbol and breaking it down into subparts.

4. Backtracking:

o If the parser makes a wrong guess, it can backtrack and try another rule. However,
this can be inefficient.

5. Advantages:

o Simple: Easy to understand and implement, especially with recursive descent.

o Natural: The parsing process follows the grammar rules directly.

6. Disadvantages:

o Limited Grammars: It struggles with left-recursive grammars (where a non-terminal

o Backtracking: It may need to backtrack, leading to inefficiency.

7. Types of Top-Down Parsers:

o Recursive Descent Parser: Uses functions to match parts of the input with grammar
rules.

o Predictive Parser: A more efficient version that uses lookahead to avoid

8. Left Recursion:

o Left recursion (where a rule refers to itself in a way that causes infinite recursion) is
fixed by refactoring the grammar.

Summary:

Top-down parsing starts from the start symbol and breaks it down into smaller parts. It’s simple and
intuitive but can be inefficient with certain types of grammars, especially if left recursion is present.
5] the concept of Bottom-up parsing in detail.

1. What is Bottom-Up Parsing?

 Bottom-up parsing starts from the input tokens and works its way up to the start symbol of
the grammar. It tries to reduce the input to the start symbol by applying grammar rules in
reverse.

2. How Does It Work?

 The parser starts with the input and tries to reduce sequences of symbols into non-terminals
using the production rules.

 This continues until the entire input is reduced to the start symbol.

3. Key Features

 Shift-Reduce Parsing:

o Shift: Move the next input symbol onto the stack.

o Reduce: Replace a sequence of symbols on the stack with a non-terminal symbol.

 Handles: A "handle" is a part of the string that matches a production rule and can be
reduced.

4. Example

For the grammar:

S→AB

A→a

B→b

And the input: a b

 First, shift a and b onto the stack.

 Then, reduce b to B and a to A.

 Finally, reduce A B to S.

5. Types of Bottom-Up Parsers

 LR Parsers: These parsers are efficient and can handle many types of grammars.

o L: Left-to-right scanning of the input.

o R: Rightmost derivation in reverse.

 Variants include:

o SLR: Simpler but can handle fewer grammars.

o CLR: More powerful and general.

o LALR: Efficient and commonly used in practice.

 Efficient: Fast parsing of complex grammars.

 General: Handles many programming languages.

 Error Handling: Easier to recover from errors.

7. Disadvantages

 Complex: Harder to implement.

 Memory Usage: Requires more memory.

8. Shift-Reduce Conflicts

 The parser might get stuck when deciding whether to shift or reduce, requiring special
handling.

6] differences between top-down parsing and bottom-up parsing.

7] LR parsing in detail

1. What is LR Parsing?

 LR Parsing is a bottom-up parsing technique used in compilers. It reads the input from left to
right and creates a rightmost derivation in reverse.

2. How It Works

 The parser uses a stack and a state machine to process the input.

 It performs two main operations:

o Reduce: Replace a sequence of symbols on the stack with a non-terminal using a

3. LR Parser Tables

 Action Table: Tells whether to shift, reduce, or accept based on the current state and next
input symbol.

 Goto Table: Directs the parser to the next state after a reduction.

4. Types of LR Parsers

 SLR (Simple LR): Simple and efficient but can handle fewer grammars.

 CLR (Canonical LR): Powerful but uses more memory and states.

 LALR (Look-Ahead LR): More efficient than CLR, commonly used in tools like Yacc and Bison.

5. Example

For the grammar:

css

Copy

S→AB

A→a

B→b

Input: a b

 Shift a, reduce a to A.

 Shift b, reduce b to B.

 Reduce A B to S.

 Accept the input.

6. Advantages

 Efficient: Fast parsing, good for large grammars.

 Powerful: Can handle complex language constructs.

 Error Recovery: Easier to manage errors.

7. Disadvantages

 Complex: Difficult to implement and requires large tables.

 Memory Usage: Can use a lot of memory for large grammars.

8. Applications

LR parsers are used in many compilers (e.g., GCC, Clang) and parser generators like Yacc and Bison.