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YOUR NOTES
AS Chemistry CIE 

1.1 Atomic Structure

CONTENTS
1.1.1 Particles in the Atom & Atomic Structure
1.1.2 Mass, Charge & Subatomic Particles
1.1.3 Determining Subatomic Structure
1.1.4 Atomic & Ionic Radius
1.1.5 Isotopes
1.1.6 Electronic Structure
1.1.7 Electron Subshells & Orbitals
1.1.8 Electron Configuration
1.1.9 Determining Electronic Configurations
1.1.10 Ionisation Energy
1.1.11 Ionisation Energy Trends
1.1.12 Ionisation Energies & Electronic Configurations

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1.1.1 Particles in the Atom & Atomic Structure YOUR NOTES


Structure of an Atom
All matter is composed of atoms, which are the smallest parts of an element that can take
place in chemical reactions
Atoms are mostly made up of empty space around a very small, dense nucleus that
contains protons and neutrons
The nucleus has an overall positive charge
The protons have a positive charge and the neutrons have a neutral charge
Negatively charged electrons are found in orbitals in the empty space around the nucleus

The basic structure of an atom (not to scale)

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Subatomic Particles YOUR NOTES

The protons, neutrons and electrons that an atom is made up of are called subatomic 
particles
These subatomic particles are so small that it is not possible to measure their masses and
charges using conventional units (such as grams or coulombs)
Instead, their masses and charges are compared to each other, and so are called ‘relative
atomic masses’ and ‘relative atomic charges’
These are not actual charges and masses but charges and masses of particles relative to
each other
Protons and neutrons have a very similar mass, so each is assigned a relative mass of 1
Electrons are 1836 times smaller than a proton and neutron, and so their mass is often
described as being negligible
The relative mass and charge of the subatomic particles are:
Relative mass & charge of subatomic particles table

 Exam Tip
You can see from the table how the relative mass of an electron is almost
negligibleThe charge of a single electron is -1.602 x 10-19 coulombs, whereas the
charge of a proton is +1.602 x 10-19 coulombs. So, relative to each other, their
charges are -1 and +1 respectively

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Atoms: Key Terms YOUR NOTES

The atomic number (or proton number) is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom 
and has the symbol Z
The atomic number is also equal to the number of electrons present in a neutral atom
of an element
E.g. the atomic number of lithium is 3, meaning that a neutral lithium atom has 3
protons and therefore, also has 3 electrons
The mass number (or nucleon number) is the total number of protons + neutrons in the
nucleus of an atom, and has the symbol A
The number of neutrons can be calculated by:
Number of neutrons = mass number - atomic number
Protons and neutrons are also called nucleons, because they are found in the nucleus

 Exam Tip

The mass (nucleon) and atomic (proton) number are given for each element in the
Periodic Table

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1.1.2 Mass, Charge & Subatomic Particles YOUR NOTES


Mass & Charge Distribution
The mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus, because the nucleus contains the
heaviest subatomic particles (the neutrons and protons)
The mass of the electron is negligible
The nucleus is also positively charged due to the protons
Electrons orbit the nucleus of the atom, contributing very little to its overall mass, but
creating a ‘cloud’ of negative charge
The electrostatic attraction between the positive nucleus and negatively charged
electrons orbiting around it is what holds an atom together

The mass of the atom is concentrated in the positively charged nucleus which is attracted to
the negatively charged electrons orbiting around it

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Behaviour of Subatomic Particles in an Electric Field YOUR NOTES

Protons, neutrons and electrons behave differently when they move at the same velocity in 
an electric field
When a beam of electrons is fired past the electrically charged plates, the electrons are
deflected very easily away from the negative plate towards the positive plate
This proves that the electrons are negatively charged; like charges repel each other
It also shows that electrons have a very small mass, as they are easily deflected
A beam of protons is deflected away from the positive plate and towards the negative
plate
This proves that the proton is positively charged
As protons are deflected less than electrons, this also shows that protons are heavier
than electrons
A beam of neutrons is not deflected at all
Which proves that the particle is neutral in character; it is not attracted to, or repelled
by, the negative or positive plate

The lighter electrons undergo much more deflection than the protons

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1.1.3 Determining Subatomic Structure YOUR NOTES


Determining the Subatomic Structure of Atoms & Ions
An atom is neutral and has no overall charge
Ions on the other hand are formed when atoms either gain or lose electrons, causing them
to become charged
The number of subatomic particles in atoms and ions can be determined given their
atomic (proton) number, mass (nucleon) number and charge
Protons
The atomic number of an atom and ion determines which element it is
Therefore, all atoms and ions of the same element have the same number of protons
(atomic number) in the nucleus
E.g. lithium has an atomic number of 3 (three protons) whereas beryllium has atomic
number of 4 (4 protons)
The number of protons equals the atomic (proton) number
The number of protons of an unknown element can be calculated by using its mass number
and number of neutrons:
Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons
Number of protons = mass number - number of neutrons
Worked example: Determine the number of protons

Answer
Answer 1: The atomic number of a magnesium atom is 12 suggesting that the number of
protons in the magnesium element is 12
Therefore the number of protons in a Mg2+ ion is also 12
Answer 2: The atomic number of a carbon atom is 6 suggesting that a carbon atom has 6
protons in its nucleus
Answer 3: Use the formula to calculate the number of protons
Number of protons = mass number - number of neutrons
Number of protons = 63 - 34
Number of protons = 29
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Element X is therefore copper YOUR NOTES

Electrons 
An atom is neutral and therefore has the same number of protons and electrons
Ions have a different number of electrons to their atomic number depending on their charge
A positively charged ion has lost electrons and therefore has fewer electrons than
protons
A negatively charged ion has gained electrons and therefore has more electrons than
protons
Worked example: Determine the number of electrons

Answer
Answer 1: The atomic number of a magnesium atom is 12 suggesting that the number of
protons in the neutral magnesium atom is 12
However, the 2+ charge in Mg2+ ion suggests it has lost two electrons
It only has 10 electrons left now
Answer 2: The atomic number of a carbon atom is 6 suggesting that the neutral carbon
atom has 6 electrons orbiting around the nucleus
Answer 3: The number of protons of element X can be calculated by:
Number of protons = mass number - number of neutrons
Number of protons = 63 - 34
Number of protons = 29
The neutral atom of element X therefore also has 29 electrons
Neutrons
The mass and atomic numbers can be used to find the number of neutrons in ions and
atoms:
Number of neutrons = mass number (A) - number of protons (Z)
Worked example: Determine the number of neutrons

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YOUR NOTES


Answer
Answer 1: The atomic number of a magnesium atom is 12 and its mass number is 24
Number of neutrons = mass number (A) - number of protons (Z)
Number of neutrons = 24 - 12
Number of neutrons = 12
The Mg2+ ion has 12 neutrons in its nucleus
Answer 2: The atomic number of a carbon atom is 6 and its mass number is 12
Number of neutrons = mass number (A) - number of protons (Z)
Number of neutrons = 12 - 6
Number of neutrons = 6
The carbon atom has 6 neutrons in its nucleus
Answer 3: The atomic number of an element X atom is 29 and its mass number is 63
Number of neutrons = mass number (A) - number of protons (Z)
Number of neutrons = 63 - 29
Number of neutrons = 34
The neutral atom of element X has 34 neutrons in its nucleus

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1.1.4 Atomic & Ionic Radius YOUR NOTES


Atomic & Ionic Radius
Atomic radius
The atomic radius of an element is a measure of the size of an atom
It is half the distance between the two nuclei of two covalently bonded atoms of the same
type

The atomic radius of a hydrogen atom is determined by halving the distance between the
nuclei of two hydrogen atoms covalently bonded
Atomic radii show predictable patterns across the Periodic Table
They generally decrease across each Period
They generally increase down each Group
These trends can be explained by the electron shell theory
Atomic radii decrease as you move across a Period as the atomic number increases
(increased positive nuclear charge) but at the same time extra electrons are added to
the same principal quantum shell
The larger the nuclear charge, the greater the pull of the nuclei on the electrons which
results in smaller atoms
Atomic radii increase moving down a Group as there is an increased number of shells
going down the Group
The electrons in the inner shells repel the electrons in the outermost shells, shielding
them from the positive nuclear charge

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This weakens the pull of the nuclei on the electrons resulting in larger atoms YOUR NOTES


Trends in the atomic radii across a period and down a group

The diagram shows that the atomic radius increases sharply between the noble gas at the
end of each period and the alkali metal at the beginning of the next period
This is because the alkali metals at the beginning of the next period have one extra principal
quantum shell
This increases shielding of the outermost electrons and therefore increases the atomic
radius
Ionic radius
The ionic radius of an element is a measure of the size of an ion
Ionic radii show predictable patterns
Ionic radii increase with increasing negative charge
Ionic radii decrease with increasing positive charge
These trends can also be explained by the electron shell theory
Ions with negative charges are formed by atoms accepting extra electrons while the
nuclear charge remains the same

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The outermost electrons are further away from the positively charged nucleus and are YOUR NOTES
therefore held only weakly to the nucleus which increases the ionic radius 
The greater the negative charge, the larger the ionic radius
Positively charged ions are formed by atoms losing electrons
The nuclear charge remains the same but there are now fewer electrons which
undergo a greater electrostatic force of attraction to the nucleus which decreases
the ionic radius
The greater the positive charger, the smaller the ionic radius

Trends in the ionic radii across a period and down a group

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1.1.5 Isotopes YOUR NOTES


Isotopes: Basics
Isotopes are atoms of the same element that contain the same number of protons and
electrons but a different number of neutrons
The symbol for an isotope is the chemical symbol (or word) followed by a dash and then
the mass number
Eg. carbon-12 and carbon-14 are isotopes of carbon containing 6 and 8 neutrons
respectively

The atomic structure and symbols of the three isotopes of hydrogen

Isotopes: Chemical & Physical Properties

Isotopes have similar chemical properties but different physical properties
Chemical properties
Isotopes of the same element display the same chemical characteristics
This is because they have the same number of electrons in their outer shells
Electrons take part in chemical reactions and therefore determine the chemistry of an
atom
Physical properties
The only difference between isotopes is the number of neutrons
Since these are neutral subatomic particles, they only add mass to the atom
As a result of this, isotopes have different physical properties such as small differences in
their mass and density

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1.1.6 Electronic Structure YOUR NOTES


Electron Shells: Basics
Shells
The arrangement of electrons in an atom is called the electronic configuration
Electrons are arranged around the nucleus in principal energy levels or principal quantum
shells
Principal quantum numbers (n) are used to number the energy levels or quantum shells
The lower the principal quantum number, the closer the shell is to the nucleus
The higher the principal quantum number, the higher the energy of the shell
Each principal quantum number has a fixed number of electrons it can hold
n = 1 : up to 2 electrons
n = 2 : up to 8 electrons
n = 3 : up to 18 electrons
n = 4 : up to 32 electrons

Electrons are arranged in principal quantum shells, which are numbered by principal
quantum numbers
Subshells
The principal quantum shells are split into subshells which are given the letters s, p and d
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Elements with more than 57 electrons also have an f shell YOUR NOTES
The energy of the electrons in the subshells increases in the order s < p < d 
The order of subshells appear to overlap for the higher principal quantum shells as seen in
the diagram below:

Electrons are arranged in principal quantum shells, which are numbered by principal
quantum numbers
Orbitals
Subshells contain one or more atomic orbitals
Orbitals exist at specific energy levels and electrons can only be found at these specific
levels, not in between them
Each atomic orbital can be occupied by a maximum of two electrons
This means that the number of orbitals in each subshell is as follows:
s : one orbital (1 x 2 = total of 2 electrons)
p : three orbitals ( 3 x 2 = total of 6 electrons)
d : five orbitals (5 x 2 = total of 10 electrons)

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f : seven orbitals (7 x 2 = total of 14 electrons) YOUR NOTES

The orbitals have specific 3-D shapes 

Representation of orbitals (the dot represents the nucleus of the atom) showing spherical s
orbitals (a), p orbitals containing ‘lobes’ along the x, y and z axis

Note that the shape of the d orbitals is not required at AS Level

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YOUR NOTES


An overview of the shells, subshells and orbitals in an atom

Ground state
The ground state is the most stable electronic configuration of an atom which has the
lowest amount of energy
This is achieved by filling the subshells of energy with the lowest energy first (1s)
The order of the subshells in terms of increasing energy does not follow a regular pattern at
n= 3 and higher

The ground state of an atom is achieved by filling the lowest energy subshells first
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1.1.7 Electron Subshells & Orbitals YOUR NOTES


Electron Orbitals
Each shell can be divided further into subshells, labelled s, p, d and f
Each subshell can hold a specific number of orbitals:
s subshell : 1 orbital
p subshell : 3 orbitals labelled px, py and pz
d subshell : 5 orbitals
f subshell : 7 orbitals
Each orbital can hold a maximum number of 2 electrons so the maximum number of
electrons in each subshell are as follows:
s : 1 x 2 = total of 2 electrons
p : 3 x 2 = total of 6 electrons
d : 5 x 2 = total of 10 electrons
f : 7 x 2 = total of 14 electrons
In the ground state, orbitals in the same subshell have the same energy and are said to be
degenerate, so the energy of a px orbital is the same as a py orbital

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Shells are divided into subshells which are further divided into orbitals YOUR NOTES
Summary of the arrangement of electrons in atoms table 

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Subshells & Energy YOUR NOTES

The principal quantum shells increase in energy with increasing principal quantum 
number
E.g. n = 4 is higher in energy than n = 2
The subshells increase in energy as follows: s ＜ p ＜ d ＜ f
The only exception to these rules is the 3d orbital which has slightly higher energy than
the 4s orbital
Because of this, the 4s orbital is filled before the 3d orbital
All the orbitals in the same subshell have the same energy and are said to be degenerate
E.g. px, py and pz are all equal in energy

Relative energies of the shells and subshells

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The s & p Orbitals YOUR NOTES

s orbitals 
The s orbitals are spherical in shape
The size of the s orbitals increases with increasing shell number
E.g. the s orbital of the third quantum shell (n = 3) is bigger than the s orbital of the first
quantum shell (n = 1)

The s orbitals become larger with increasing principal quantum number

p orbitals
The p orbitals are dumbbell-shaped
Every shell has three p orbitals except for the first one (n = 1)
The p orbitals occupy the x, y and z-axis and point at right angles to each other so are
oriented perpendicular to one another
The lobes of the p orbitals become larger and longer with increasing shell number

The p orbitals become larger and longer with increasing principal quantum number

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1.1.8 Electron Configuration YOUR NOTES


Electron Configurations: Basics
The electron configuration gives information about the number of electrons in each shell,
subshell and orbital of an atom
The subshells are filled in order of increasing energy

The electron configuration shows the number of electrons occupying a subshell in a specific
shell

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Electron Configurations: Explained YOUR NOTES

Electrons can be imagined as small spinning charges which rotate around their own axis in 
either a clockwise or anticlockwise direction
The spin of the electron is represented by its direction

Electrons can spin either in a clockwise or anticlockwise direction around their own axis
Electrons with similar spin repel each other which is also called spin-pair repulsion
Electrons will therefore occupy separate orbitals in the same subshell to minimize this
repulsion and have their spin in the same direction
Eg. if there are three electrons in a p subshell, one electron will go into each px, py and
pz orbital

Electron configuration: three electrons in a p subshell

Electrons are only paired when there are no more empty orbitals available within a subshell
in which case the spins are the opposite spins to minimize repulsion
Eg. if there are four electrons in a p subshell, one p orbital contains 2 electrons with
opposite spin and two orbitals contain one electron only

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YOUR NOTES


Electron configuration: four electrons in a p subshell

The principal quantum number indicates the energy level of a particular shell but also
indicates the energy of the electrons in that shell
A 2p electron is in the second shell and therefore has an energy corresponding to n = 2
Even though there is repulsion between negatively charged electrons (inter-electrons
repulsion), they occupy the same region of space in orbitals
This is because the energy required to jump to successive empty orbital is greater than the
inter-electron repulsion
For this reason, they pair up and occupy the lower energy levels first

Electron Box Notation

The electron configuration can also be represented using the electrons in boxes notation
Each box represents an atomic orbital
The boxes are arranged in order of increasing energy from lowest to highest
The electrons are represented by opposite arrows to show the spin of the electrons
Eg. the box notation for titanium is shown below
Note that since the 3d subshell cannot be either full or half full, the second 4s electron
is not promoted to the 3d level and stays in the 4s orbital

The electrons in Titanium are arranged in their orbitals as shown. Electrons occupy the
lowest energy levels first before filling those with higher energy

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Free Radicals YOUR NOTES

A free radical is a species with one or more unpaired electron 
The unpaired electron in the free radical is shown as a dot
Eg. a chlorine free radical has the electron configuration 1s22s22p63s23p5
Two of the three p orbitals have paired electrons whereas one of them has an unpaired
electron

One of the p orbitals has unpaired electrons in a chlorine radical

 Exam Tip
Free radicals are formed when a molecule undergoes homolytic fission where the
two electrons of a covalent bond are split evenly between the two atoms.

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1.1.9 Determining Electronic Configurations YOUR NOTES


Determining Electronic Configurations
Writing out the electronic configuration tells us how the electrons in an atom or ion are
arranged in their shells, subshells and orbitals
This can be done using the full electron configuration or the shorthand version
The full electron configuration describes the arrangement of all electrons from the 1s
subshell up
The shorthand electron configuration includes using the symbol of the nearest
preceding noble gas to account for however many electrons are in that noble gas
Ions are formed when atoms lose or gain electrons
Negative ions are formed by adding electrons to the outer subshell
Positive ions are formed by removing electrons from the outer subshell
The transition metals fill the 4s subshell before the 3d subshell but lose electrons from
the 4s first and not from the 3d subshell (the 4s subshell is lower in energy)
The Periodic Table is split up into four main blocks depending on their electronic
configuration:
s block elements
Have their valence electron(s) in an s orbital
p block elements
Have their valence electron(s) in a p orbital
d block elements
Have their valence electron(s) in a d orbital
f block elements
Have their valence electron(s) in an f orbital

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The elements can be divided into four blocks according to their outer shell electron YOUR NOTES
configuration 
Exceptions
Chromium and copper have the following electron configurations, which are different to
what you may expect:
Cr is [Ar] 3d5 4s1 not [Ar] 3d4 4s2
Cu is [Ar] 3d10 4s1 not [Ar] 3d9 4s2
This is because the [Ar] 3d5 4s1 and [Ar] 3d10 4s1 configurations are energetically stable
Worked example: Electron configuration

Answer
Answer 1: Potassium has 19 electrons so the full electronic configuration is:
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1
The 4s orbital is lower in energy than the 3d subshell and is therefore filled first
The nearest preceding noble gas to potassium is argon which accounts for 18 electrons so
the shorthand electron configuration is:
[Ar] 4s1
Answer 2: Calcium has 20 electrons so the full electronic configuration is:
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2
The 4s orbital is lower in energy than the 3d subshell and is therefore filled first
The shorthand version is [Ar] 4s2 since argon is the nearest preceding noble gas to calcium
which accounts for 18 electrons
Answer 3: Gallium has 31 electrons so the full electronic configuration is:
[Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p1
Answer 4: What this means is that if you ionise calcium and remove two of its outer
electrons, the electronic configuration of the Ca2+ ion is identical to that of argon

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Ca2+ is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 YOUR NOTES

Ar is also 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 

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1.1.10 Ionisation Energy YOUR NOTES


Ionisation Energies
The Ionisation Energy (IE) of an element is the amount of energy required to remove one
mole of electrons from one mole of gaseous atoms of an element to form one mole of
gaseous ions
Ionisation energies are measured under standard conditions which are 298 K and 101 kPa
The units of IE are kilojoules per mole (kJ mol-1)
The first ionisation energy (IE1) is the energy required to remove one mole of electrons
from one mole of atoms of an element to form one mole of 1+ ions
E.g. the first ionisation energy of gaseous calcium:
Ca(g) → Ca+ (g) + e- IE1 = +590 kJ mol-1
Trends in Ionisation Energies
Ionisation energies show periodicity - a trend across a period of the Periodic Table
As could be expected from their electron configuration, the group 1 metals have a relatively
low ionisation energy, whereas the noble gases have very high ionisation energies
The size of the first ionisation energy is affected by four factors:
Size of the nuclear charge
Distance of outer electrons from the nucleus
Shielding effect of inner electrons
Spin-pair repulsion
First ionisation energy increases across a period and decreases down a group

A graph showing the ionisation energies of the elements hydrogen to sodium

Ionisation energy across a period
The ionisation energy across a period generally increases due to the following factors:

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Across a period the nuclear charge increases YOUR NOTES

This causes the atomic radius of the atoms to decrease, as the outer shell is pulled 
closer to the nucleus, so the distance between the nucleus and the outer electrons
decreases
The shielding by inner shell electrons remain reasonably constant as electrons are
being added to the same shell
It becomes harder to remove an electron as you move across a period; more energy
is needed
So, the ionisation energy increases
Dips in the trend
There is a slight decrease in IE1 between beryllium and boron as the fifth electron in boron is
in the 2p subshell, which is further away from the nucleus than the 2s subshell of beryllium
Beryllium has a first ionisation energy of 900 kJ mol-1 as its electron configuration is
1s2 2s2
Boron has a first ionisation energy of 800 kJ mol-1 as its electron configuration is 1s2
2s2 2px1
There is a slight decrease in IE1 between nitrogen and oxygen due to spin-pair repulsion in
the 2px orbital of oxygen
Nitrogen has a first ionisation energy of 1400 kJ mol-1 as its electron configuration is
1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1 2pz1
Oxygen has a first ionisation energy of 1310 kJ mol-1 as its electron configuration is 1s2
2s2 2px2 2py1 2pz1
In oxygen, there are 2 electrons in the 2px orbital, so the repulsion between those
electrons makes it slightly easier for one of those electrons to be removed
From one period to the next
There is a large decrease in ionisation energy between the last element in one period, and
the first element in the next period
This is because:
There is increased distance between the nucleus and the outer electrons as you have
added a new shell
There is increased shielding by inner electrons because of the added shell
These two factors outweigh the increased nuclear charge
Ionisation energy down a group
The ionisation energy down a group decreases due to the following factors:
The number of protons in the atom is increased, so the nuclear charge increases
But, the atomic radius of the atoms increases as you are adding more shells of
electrons, making the atoms bigger
So, the distance between the nucleus and outer electron increases as you descend
the group
The shielding by inner shell electrons increases as there are more shells of electrons
These factors outweigh the increased nuclear charge, meaning it becomes easier to
remove the outer electron as you descend a group

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So, the ionisation energy decreases YOUR NOTES

Ionisation Energy Trends across a Period & going down a Group Table 

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1.1.11 Ionisation Energy Trends YOUR NOTES


Ionisation Energies: Trends
Ionisation energies show periodicity - a trend across a period of the Periodic Table
As could be expected from their electronic configuration, the group I metals have a
relatively low ionisation energy, whereas the noble gases have very high ionisation energies
The size of the first ionisation energy is affected by four factors:
Size of the nuclear charge
The nuclear charge increases with increasing atomic number, which means that
there are greater attractive forces between the nucleus and electrons, so more
energy is required to overcome these attractive forces when removing an electron
Distance of outer electrons from the nucleus
Electrons in shells that are further away from the nucleus are less attracted to the
nucleus - the nuclear attraction is weaker - so the further the outer electron shell is
from the nucleus, the lower the ionisation energy
Shielding effect of inner electrons
The shielding effect is when the electrons in full inner shells repel electrons in
outer shells, preventing them from feeling the full nuclear charge, so the more
shells an atom has, the greater the shielding effect, and the lower the ionisation
energy
Spin-pair repulsion
Electrons in the same atomic orbital in a subshell repel each other more than
electrons in different atomic orbitals which makes it easier to remove an electron
(which is why the first ionization energy is always the lowest)
So, the first ionisation energy increases across a period and decreases down a group

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A graph showing the ionisation energies of the elements hydrogen to sodium YOUR NOTES
Ionisation energy across a period 
The ionisation energy over a period increases due to the following factors:
Across a period the nuclear charge increases
This causes the atomic radius of the atoms to decrease, as the outer shell is pulled
closer to the nucleus, so the distance between the nucleus and the outer electrons
decreases
The shielding by inner shell electrons remain reasonably constant as electrons are
being added to the same shell
It becomes harder to remove an electron as you move across a period; more energy
is needed
So, the ionisation energy increases
There is a rapid decrease in ionisation energy between the last element in one period, and
the first element in the next period because:
There is increased distance between the nucleus and the outer electrons as you have
added a new shell
There is increased shielding by inner electrons because of the added shell
These two factors outweigh the increased nuclear charge
There is a slight decrease in IE1 between beryllium and boron as the fifth electron in boron is
in the 2p subshell, which is further away from the nucleus than the 2s subshell of beryllium
Beryllium has a first ionisation energy of 900 kJ mol-1 as its electron configuration is
1s2 2s2
Boron has a first ionisation energy of 800 kJ mol-1 as its electron configuration is 1s2
2s2 2px1
There is a slight decrease in IE1 between nitrogen and oxygen and phosphorus due to
spin-pair repulsion in the 2px orbital of oxygen
Nitrogen has a first ionisation energy of 1400 kJ mol-1 as its electron configuration is
1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1 2pz1
Oxygen has a first ionisation energy of 1310 kJ mol-1 as its electron configuration is 1s2
2s2 2px2 2py1 2pz1
Ionisation energy down a group
The ionisation energy down a group decreases due to the following factors:
The number of protons in the atom is increased, so the nuclear charge increases
But, the atomic radius of the atoms increases as you are adding more shells of
electrons, making the atoms bigger
So, the distance between the nucleus and outer electron increases as you descend
the group
The shielding by inner shell electrons increases as there are more shells of electrons
These factors outweigh the increased nuclear charge, meaning it becomes easier to
remove the outer electron as you descend a group
So, the ionisation energy decreases
Ionisation energy trends across a period & going down a group table
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YOUR NOTES


Successive ionisation energies of an element

The successive ionisation energies of an element increase
This is because once you have removed the outer electron from an atom, you have formed
a positive ion
Removing an electron from a positive ion is more difficult than from a neutral atom
As more electrons are removed, the attractive forces increase due to decreasing shielding
and an increase in the proton to electron ratio
The increase in ionisation energy, however, is not constant and is dependent on the atom's
electronic configuration
Taking calcium as an example:
Ionisation energies of calcium table

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YOUR NOTES


The first electron removed has a low IE1 as it is easily removed from the atom due to the
spin-pair repulsion of the electrons in the 4s orbital
The second electron is more difficult to remove than the first electron as there is no spin-
pair repulsion
The third electron is much more difficult to remove than the second one corresponding to
the fact that the third electron is in a principal quantum shell which is closer to the nucleus
(3p)
Removal of the fourth electron is more difficult as the orbital is no longer full, and there is
less spin-pair repulsion

 Exam Tip
It is easy to remove electrons from a full subshell as they undergo spin-pair
repulsion.It gets more difficult to remove electrons from principal quantum shells
that get closer to the nucleus as there is less shielding and an increase in attractive
forces between the electrons and nuclear charge.

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1.1.12 Ionisation Energies & Electronic Configurations YOUR NOTES


Ionisation Energies: Explained
Energy is required to remove an outer shell electron as this involves breaking the attractive
forces between the electron and the positively charged nucleus
There are several factors which affect the magnitude of the ionisation energy:
Nuclear charge
Positive nuclear charge increases with increasing number of protons
The greater the positive charge, the greater the attractive forces between the outer
electron(s) and the nucleus
More energy is required to overcome these forces so ionisation energy increases with
increasing nuclear charge
Shielding
Electrons repel each other and electrons occupying the inner shells repel electrons
located in shells further outside the nucleus and prevent them from feeling the full
effect of the nuclear charge
The greater the shielding effect is, the weaker the attractive forces between the
positive nucleus and the negatively charged electrons
Less energy is required to overcome the weakened attractive forces so ionisation
energy decreases with increasing shielding effects

Shielding makes it easier to remove the outermost electrons

Atomic/ionic radius
The larger the radius, the greater the distance between the nucleus and the outer shell
electron(s)
Increasing distance weakens the strength of the attractive forces
Larger atoms/ions also result in greater shielding due to the presence of more inner
electrons
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Less energy is required to remove the outer shell electron(s) so ionisation energy YOUR NOTES
decreases with increasing atomic/ionic radius 
Spin-pair repulsion
Spin pair repulsion occurs when the electron being removed is spin paired with another
electron in the same orbital
The proximity of the like charges of electrons in the orbital results in repulsion
Less energy is required to remove one of the electrons so ionisation energy decreases
when there is spin-pair repulsion

Summary of factors affecting ionisation energies of atoms

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Ionisation Energies: Electronic Configuration YOUR NOTES

Successive ionisation data can be used to: 
Predict or confirm the simple electronic configuration of elements
Confirm the number of electrons in the outer shell of an element
Deduce the Group an element belongs to in the Periodic Table
By analyzing where the large jumps appear and the number of electrons removed when
these large jumps occur, the electron configuration of an atom can be determined
Na, Mg and Al will be used as examples to deduce the electronic configuration and
positions of elements in the Periodic Table using their successive ionisation energies
Successive ionisation energies table

Sodium
For sodium, there is a huge jump from the first to the second ionisation energy, indicating
that it is much easier to remove the first electron than the second
Therefore, the first electron to be removed must be the last electron in the valence shell
thus Na belongs to group I
The large jump corresponds to moving from the 3s to the full 2p subshell
Na 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
Magnesium
There is a huge increase from the second to the third ionisation energy, indicating that it is
far easier to remove the first two electrons than the third
Therefore the valence shell must contain only two electrons indicating that magnesium
belongs to group II
The large jump corresponds to moving from the 3s to the full 2p subshell
Mg 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
Aluminium

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There is a huge increase from the third to the fourth ionisation energy, indicating that it is far YOUR NOTES
easier to remove the first three electrons than the fourth 
The 3p electron and 3s electrons are relatively easy to remove compared with the 2p
electrons which are located closer to the nucleus and experience greater nuclear charge
This is due to weakened shielding effects through the loss of three electrons
The large jump corresponds to moving from the third shell to the second shell
Al 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1

 Exam Tip
Find the large jumps by subtracting the successive ionisation energies from each
other to identify when an electron has been removed from a different subshell.

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