NUCLEAR REACTIONS

NUCLEAR, REACTIONS
eRutherford.
scattering experiment yielded most important information about the nucleus. This type
tening
isnot a nuclear reaction, as the incident particle does not encounter the nuclear field. This
and the target nucleus is not in excited state. If the energy of the
incident
ewhathigher.the electriC fields of the bombarding particle and the nucleus may interact particle
and the energy1s
ke
transferred
to the nucleus. The scattering becomes inelastic. For the
incident particles,three processes are possible. The Coulomb excitationinelastic
in whichscattering of low
the nucleus gets
the electromagnetic field of the impinging charged particle which does not penetrate into the
fnuclearforces. At still higher energies, the bombarding particle will penetrate to a point where it
gUterstheshort range nuclear force and direct reaction will take place. In this process the collision
the nucleons out of the target nucleus by the so-called pick-up
oneo f reaction. In the reverse
pull bombarding particle composed of more than one nucleon may loss one of them to the target
g
The compound nucleus may form in which the energy of the incident particle is
strppingreaction. the nucleus.
te the particles in
uediwithall particles of higher energies the target nucleus is raised to a very high state of
Withthe bombarding
station. Ashower of individual nucleons may leave the nucleus in a process known as evaporation.
of nucleons may be ejected by the process of spallation. The nucleus may split into two
ralgroups
sof roughly equal mass by the fission process. At very high energies,the subnuclear particles may be
om the target nucleus. The nucleus on heavy excitation, around 0.5 GeV, splits into a light and a
the same NIZ ratio as parent by the process called fragmentation. Depending
yfragment having about may summarise the nuclear reactions into the following categories :
pnthe product nuclei,
we
(a Elastic Scattering. The incident particle strikes the target nucleus and leaves without energy loss
n general, with altered direction of motion. Scattering of a-particles in gold is a good example of this

2He + 1979 Au’ 197 Au+ He.

corresponding increase in the
W) Inelastic Scattering. The scattered particle may loss K.E. This being be
state. This inelastic scattering can
igial energy of the nucleus which is excited to a high quantum
prCsented by the well known example.
3Li+ }H}Li*+}H.
Sar ndicates that, after. scattering nucleus is left in an
excited state. In this present example the
Senergy is later radiated away in the form of a y-quantum.
0) particle is absorbed and a different particle:
On striking the target nucleus the incidenttypical
beected.Disintegration.
The product nucleus differs from target nucleus. The reaction of this type is
 402
taropt
absorbedbythe
Photo
disintcgration. The Yrays
are
one or more particles
nucleus, CXCIting it
may be liberated,
An
d
state, Ifthe
energyis high enough,
}H+y’}H+h.
combine with a
nucleue
to
cxample is
(e) Rediative Capture. A
excited
particle
state.
may
The excess energy is emitted produce
in the form
anew ny
in an
nucleus which is capture
known as radiative
ofprocess is
Mg +|H ’A"’AL
27
+.
Reactions. A collision of an incident particie with the nucleus may
the nucleons
O Directout of the target nucleus by the so called pickup reaction. In the inverse
narticle composed of more than one nucleon may loss one of them ta the target by the

reaction, e.g.
imrnetia
Cu+ fd’Cu +}H.
(e) Spontaneous decay. B-and a-decay processes may be regarded as this type of
experimenter's control.
These reactions are not under the
(h) Spallation Reactions. On capture a incident particle, a heavy nucleus has sufficient ene
a reaction is known as spallation reaction, e.p
ejection of several particles. Such
which heavy nucleus splits mainly in two
nuclei, he
U+nZr+Te +2hn.
mucieA
() High energy Reactions. In the energy range about 150 MeV, spallation
kinds of reactions in which new kinds of particles (mesons, strange particles) process
are
neutrons and protons.
) Heavy Ion Reactions. Nuclear reactions induced by heavy ions (A 12)also
produced
reaction mechanisms, such as Coulomb excitation, elastic scattering, compound
direct reactions.
The nuclear reactions may be classified in the different way depending on the
nuceus Tora
energy,or target such as
Charged particle reactions-produced by incident charged particles (p, d, a, ions)
bombarcing
Neutron reactions
Photonuclear reactions-produced by gamma rays.
Electron induced reactions.
The energies are classified as thermal (= 0.025 eV), epithermal (- le), slow neutrons (e lb
neutrons (= G.1- 10 MeV), low energy charged particles (= 0.l- 10 MeV), high energy
(=10- 100 MeV). chareci
The targes are often called light nuclei (AS 40:, medium weight nuclei (40 <A< I50) nt'
nuclei (A 150).
10.2 CONSERVATION LAWS
In any nuclear reaction, certain quantities must be conserved. We shall
merely list the
conservation laws that appear to be valid inordinary nuclear interactions.
1. Conservation of Energy. The total
energy of the products,
energy of the particies plus the energy involved must be equal to theincluding both ofmass
mass energy
energy
theinitiali
plus the kinetic energy of the
2. Conservation of
bombarding particle.
Momentum. The total linear momentu:n nf the products must ieequal
momentum of the bombarding particle (the target nucleus is
ordinarily taken to be at Ty
 403
Reactions
sum of
of
Conservatlon Angular Momentum. The total angular momentum I comprising the vector
angular momentum s and rclative orbital angular momentum I of the products must be equa
t momentum of the initial particles.
intrinsiC
angular electric
of
del tConservation
wthe
al
Chârge. The total electric charge of the products must be equalIto the total
of
initialparticles. neither
Conservationof Nucleons. The law of conservation of nucleons states that the nucleons can in the
s norcanbe destroyed
so that the number of nucleons minus the number of anti-nucleons
uiverse
remainsconstant
.crealed
of a closed
Conservation of Spin. The important conservation law asserts that the spin character
6 cannotchange,i.e,
the statistics remains same that existed before reactions.
bombarding
Conservationof
rstem Parity. The parity of the system determined by the target nucleons and
7. conservedthroughoutthe reaction. The total parity ofthe system is the product of intrinsiC-
ArTticle.ust a nuclear
be nucleus
target and bombarding nucleus. No violation of parity has been observedin
interactions.
ofthe nuclearforces). Although parity does not appear to be conserved in weak
Anities
(strong
Conservation of Isotopic spin. The invariance of the nuclear
action Hamiltonian function towards the
shifts of
8.ch.aracterofthe nucleons can be expressed analytically as an invariance towards rotational
there should corespondingly exist a conservatiot, law for ihe isotopic
isotopic spin space, and
charge
in
axes
ohe
nuclearsystem.
of
coin NUCLEAR
a REACTIONAKINEMATICS
conservation of energy and momentum imposes certain
restrictions on the reactions. These
method is known as kinematics.
Consider
The called kinematic restrictions and this mathematical
restrictionsare
A
NUClearreaction
X+x’Y+y,
bombarding
and y are the target nucleus,
bt nucleus and product particle, respectively.
sO it has no
med that target nucleus is at rest
nuclear
Since total energy isconserved in a
m,
re, we get
E, +M)+(E, +mc. .2) My
represent respective masses of
Where m, M, m, My all product particle and
incident particle, target nucleus,
quentity 0 which
Droduct nucleus. We now introduce a energy of the
kinetic
represents the difference uetween the Fig. 10.1. Schematic diagram ofa nuclear reaction.
particle.
products of reaction and that of the incident .3)
Q= Ey+E,-E;
From Equations (2) and (3), we have ..4)
(My+ n,-M,-m)e =Q.
- value of the reaction.
Ihe quantity Q is called the energy balance of the reaction or morc commonly
if sum of the masces of incident particle and
TQis + ve the reaction is said to be exoergic. This Gccurs
nuclei. The K.E. of the product nuclei being
Rrget nucleus is greater than that of masses of the product
said to be endoergic, i.e., energy must be
eater than that of the incident particle. If O is -ve the reaction is and Y
take place unless particles y
Ppied usually as a K.E,. of the incident párticle. A reaction cannot
Although this condition is necessary,
ge withpositive kinetic energies, i.e., E. +E,20 or0+ E, 20.
is not suffic1ent.
the product nucleus. It is usually smalland
em Ey In equation (2) represents the recoil energy of conservation of momentum. In an
Oneasure but can be eliminated by taking into account the
 f the tfifsal rartxies
fChatge.

Nscdeons.
destroyed

(sNITItionof Spin. The impart

chage.Le, the
aVIKn law zss e n chare of a cis
TTationoff Parity..The
parity i te syten
becotservedthrcughut the retKn. 1he deaireÁ
ty the ta
aalpity fte syem isshe s
proót trra
iTTS
ie2pencleus and bombarding cies No voiion f parity has been abserved in 2 aciex
fcsces). Aithough parity des noA appez to be cOser ved in weak
(oservationofIsotwpic spin. The invariace af tte ncea irteractios
Hamilorian fuxtion wwris e
ofthe nucleons can be expressed anziyticaity 2s 2 nveriznce trwrás rotatiocai sifs a
spi spin space, and there shouid corTesponditngty exís: 2 conservation law for he iscope
fIsysem
NEAP
RREACTION KINEMATICS
of energy and mormentum imposes cerrain restrictions on the reactions. These
called kinematic restrictions anátS maremtical mhod is koD 5 hinematics. Consice

X+1’Y+y.
and y are the target nucleus bombarding
rucleus and product particle. respectivly.
that target nucleus is at rest so it has no
EEg. incetotal
energy is conservedin 2 nuciezr
teetore, weget

E-mi = E,+M-E, - m. 2)
respective masses of
r, M, m, M,all represent particle and
article, target nucleus. product
clens. We now introduce aquantity 0 which
sthe difference uetween the kinetic energy of the Fig. 10.1. Schematic diagram of anuciear resction
Ts of reaction and that of the icident particle.
-3)
Q = E,+ E, -E,
m Equations (2) and (3), we have
-4)
(M, +m,-M,-mc= -value of the reactio
*anuty is called the energy balance of the reaction or morr. commonly
incdent particle and
3*ie the reaction is said to be exoergic. Tiis rcurs if sum of the mass oí
KE. of the product nuclei being
s5 reater than that of masses of the product nuclei. The
Le., energy must be
t Of the incident particie. If O is -ve the reaction is said o be enloergic. y and Y
Sualy as a KE. of the incident particle. Areaction cannot take place unless particlesnecessary.
condition is
*h pusitive kinetic
energieS. i.e., E - E,>0 or0+ E, >0. Aithough this
Te1erm E,1n equation (2) nucleus. It is usually smali and
represenis the recoil energy of the product
conservation of momentum. In an
2sure but can De eliminated by taking into
account the
 and
bombarding energy E the
404
eyeriment to measure a value, energy he
Qneasured. Thus by applying the laws of conservationof
the

mormejenstued
angle are
m,y, = M,Vy cos +m,y, cos 9 of
sOmespecified
M,V,sin = m,y, sin 0,
and velocities offincident particle, ejected particle and of
and V, are the
where v, , and (6), we have
Eliminating from equations (5)
M =mË; +míy, - 2m,m,v,y, cos0.
Since E, = m,v,E, =m,v, and Ey =M,V, hence after eliminating
2E,M, = 2Eym, +2£ym,-4(mym DE) cos 9
E, = E, my Ey my 2
or
My
Substituting the value of E, in equation (3), we get
My My (m,m,E,E, cOs.
2
Q= E,|1+-E1-"
My M,My -(m m,E,E,)2 cos.
This is known as -equation. It gives the desired relation between the
energy
quantities E, E, and in lab-system. It is independent of the reaction
mechanismreleased
types of two-body non-relativistic reaction processes. For a special case whenand canl
outcoming particle y at 90° to a collimated beam of projectile, the above relation
e= E,(l+ m/M,) -E{1-m<M,). reduces to
Itcan be utilized for the particular cases :
() Elastic scattering, in which m, =m, and M,=My
Q= 0.
() Inelastic scattering, in which m, =m, and My=M,but
Q= -E*,
where E* is the excitation energy imparted to the target nucleus My
If E, is the excitation energy of the product nucleus Y, then the Q-value of
the equation is
The quantity , - E, is denoted as and is called -value of the ground state.
With the modern techniques, it is possible to measure values, for nuclear reaction producins A
particles, toan accuracy of 1 part in a thousand or better.
General Solution of the Q-equation. It is clear from Equation (9) that the
fixed , can also the shown by regarding the Q-equation as quadratic in VE, variation of E, wià i,
in the form Thus its solution ca

where p = N(m,m,E,) cos

m, +My
andq= MQ+ E,(My - m)
m, + My
The energetically possible reactions are those for which E, is
classified energetically as real and positive. Nucie i
(1) Exoergic Reactions. These reactions are
gives possitble even for E = 0. Thus for E,7

E, =QMJ(n, +M,) (Q>0).

 406
isthe same for all angles 6. Physically, this is because the total mamentum is
thiscase
’0.In
Q E, + Ey and 0+= 180°. ..(16)
lighter than the product nucleus Y. Thus g is 4ve for all
pjecle
r is values of te
one of the two solutions of Equation (14) will be positive. Thus E, to od
my E, depends on cos and is smallest in the backward direction
My > All endoergic reactions have negative O-values. WhenE. -’ 0, Equation
and
Reactions.
-VeANd hence VE, is imaginary. It means that these reactions are not possible. I ne
which reaction can take place is called the threshold energy, The reaction first
at enoughto make p+q=0,hence
E,is large
E,
ofw hen

Sble

E, = my + My ..(17)
Lmy +My - m,- (m,m,IMy)sin
minimumpossible and is the threshold energy.
..(18)
(E) = -Qim, + M,Mm, +My-m).
and an excellent approximation M, > le', we have
relation(4) ...(19)
(E) = m,+ MJM
thatat
the threshold of the reaction, particles first appear in the 0=0 direction with the
soe
we
m,my .(20)
(m, + My)
boombardingenergyatis6 raised, particles ybegin to appear at >0. Equation (17) shows that the
when q =0, i.e.,
the (E,=0)t90°,
firstappear ..(21)
As
(E)s- =-MJ(My-m,).
in the forward
Values of E,, As E, is increased above threshold, the particle m, can appear bombarding
Double
) witheitheroftwo diiscrete values of E, as given by
equation (14), within a domain of
ton
whichisspecified by
the inequalities
MY
...(22)
E!SE, s (EJsor
domain there are no m, particles emitted at > 90º in the laboratory-system.
Orerthis
momentum of a particle are related as
relativistic velocities, the energy and the
ncase of
E = mc' & me
p= my = mcB.
and
E= P +met.
For very light particles m, 0 and we get
E = pc and v=c.

For particles having velocity almost that of light.

E= pc(l+me 12p'c)=pc+ me 2pc.
Kinetic energy = E - mc = (m - mc'.
E? = (K.E +m =p'e + m,e.
pc = [K.E. (K.E. + 2m)]2
for a particular problem. However the general solution
osng above relations the reaction kinematics can be established
i complicated.
 406

E, - Proton energy, in MeV

198 2.00
nkav250
1881 190 192 194 1.96 2.02 \n a
9,
irection
200 0=0°
=-f \6th4e cheripaieuMeey
ener gies
in

hsplhproownmoatceboansrinignal,are ioutnhde
150
energy 0=45°

Neutron
100
see that
he
=
teac
Ey 50

20
(Ex)so
40 60 80
0=90°

100
0=180°

120
140
bombardinge
enerMeappear,gy wei294n n lhe Te
As the energY
E,-(E,)d=Prton energy above threshold, in keV
Fie. 10.2 The distribution of neutrons
energies of protons.
energies in 3i(P, n) ¿Be reactionfor various found he parincrteicasleesd, (
angle increases with E,, until at (E)one =1.920 MeV all directions a small forwa
of
possible. neutron emission
10.4 NUCLEAR TRANSMUTATIONS
In transmutation reactions,
involving particles of not too higlh energy (<
majority of instances is the formation of compound nucleus. For the formation50of
be discussed latter) the incident
particle
MeV). he
reference will be made to speçificcases of must
Coulombcompoun
barrier. TiuC
overcome or penetrate the
1. Transmutation by alpha
nuclear reactions with various projectilee
partices : (a) (a - p) reaction.
transmutation of the nitrogen nucleus by a-particles in which a-particleRutherford ärst
a compound nucleus which was obs
of other (a-p) reactions are :disintegrated immediately into a new nucleus bycaptured by :
the
erved
ejection
B+He-N)*’C+}H +4.04 MeV
PF+He’fNa*’1oNe
Al+
+H+1.58 MeV
He’P*’Si+H +2.26 MeV
Si +$He’*’P+}H-1.92 MeV
32

He’gAr)*’Cl+ H-2.10MeV
GK+jHe-’Sc)*’Ca +H-0.89 MeV
Few (a-p) reactions lead toScthe+$He -’GV*’Ti+H -0.3
formation of radiative isotopes thatMeV.
B+He-(N
followed ’C+}H +0.75 MeV
decay by B-emission. For ex:
(b) (a - n)byCN +B
+k,T=5580 years.
Reaction.
neutrons one of the (a-n)
is
The bombardment of beryllium by a-particles with the
reactions. Few of other of (a-) type of nuclear subsequen: ca
reactions are
i+}HeB)*’B+n-2.79 MeV
 407
Be +¿He ’'c)*.’C+n+
He -’6N)* ’N 5.70 Mev
"N+He ’)*. |++L05
MeV
ice -’F+ -4.73 MeV
9+He 22
’ i Na)*’fNa +hn-1.95 MeV
21 Al| +jHe -> (G;P)* ’ p.+n-2.65 MeV
13
rcactionsthe Droduct nuclei are left in excited states. Most of the
ron t
these
reactionare
unstable isotopes which
their
bale
lives.
product
then disintegrate with the emission of a nuclel
positron.
- n ) beiowwth

he iven 13N C +B°, T=9.96 m

9
17F’O+B*,T=64.5 s
22 Na ’10 Ne +B*, T=2.6 y
11
26 Al’ Mg + B*, T=717 ky
13

Si-’ sAl +B*,T= 4.2s

P ’ Si+ B*,T = 2.5 m.
Capture.
I is also possible, for the Compound nucleus formed by the capture of an
.ndiative stable configuratjon without emitting a particle but with emitting ay-ray photon.
more B’B+hv.
{Li+He may be expelled in a
energyofthe a
particle is large enough, two or more nucleons
the (a, 2n), (a, np), (, 3n), (a, 4n), (a, 3np), etc., types have been detected.
,processesoft
the
When
first artificial transmutation produced by
by
sasIUtation Protons : (@) (p - a) Reaction. The
is by equation
Cockcroft and Walton (1932). The nuclear reaction given
?i+}H Be)* -’He +He +17.28 MeV.
herexamples
are
Li+ }H’4B)*’He + He+ 4.02 MeV
MeV
Be+H’B)* ’}i+He + 2.12
!B+}H’C)*’ Be+He +20.10 MeV
5 20 Ne)*’0+He +8.11MeV
19F+}H’0
+t jHe +2.37 MeV
Na + H’(pMg)* ’NeSHe+1.86
l+H’(GAr)*’éS + MeV sufficient
35 high if the proton has
(p, n) reaction is relatively
Reaction---The probability of the
Hlg-n) the Coulomb energy. Fewexamples are :
g0penetrate 'B+}HC)*’C+on-2.76 MeV
BO+}H’F)*’F+n-2.44 MeV
+H’Mg)*’Mg+bn-4.84 MeV
" Na 9Cu+on -9.35 MeV
58 Ni +H’Cu)*’
59

H ’Z)*’Zn +on-2.13 MeV but its atomic

numberis
29 Cu+ as the target nucleus
produci nucieus is nearly same
htiesereactions, the
usually endoergic. protons. Examples of this type
are by
zmthigher. These equations disintegration caused
another type of
p-d) Reaction--It is an
ChOn are :
Li+ }H’Li+¡H-5.02 MeV
energy.
+0.56 MeV of fairly high
Be + H’`Be+H heavier elements and protons
common with
Reaxtions ofthis Ype are more any compound nucleus.
pear to be pick-upreaction and do notform
 408
nucleu
Poton captureIn some cases (he compound is in arc:
sBate()
with the gamma ray photon. Examples of this type of reactions
cxcited state
i+}’ Be)*’}Be +y+17.25 Mev
6 'C+}H(N)*’}N+y+1.94 Mey
"N+ }HO)*’O+y +7.30 MeV
1F+ }H ( Ne)*’oNe +y +12.84 Mev
2Al+ }H ’(Si)* Si +y+11.58 MeV
Cr +}H’ Mn)* ’ Mn +y
(e) If the incident proton has an energy (> 20 +5.27
MeV the
MeV
energy to permit the expulsion to two or more nucleons.
6Cup, pn) Cu, °Cu (p, 2n) -Zn and Sr (p, 3n) 86yFew
3.
compound
examples are.:nucleus
Transmutation by Neutrons. Neutrons have no
electric charoe
nuclei without any experience of repulsive
extremely effective. electrostatic forces, hence and can
(o) (n - c) Reaction. In this
a-particle. Few examples are :
type of reactions, the capture of
slow
neutrons penetrate
10
B+n’( B)*’{Li+ He+2.79 MeV
neutron results
i+’GLi)*’H +$He +4.78 MeV
N+aNB+jHe
The capture of fast neutrons by Li+jHe+ H He
pucleus usually
is heavier nuclei results in the
radioactive. Some examples are: emission of an
Na + n’ Na)* lpha parice,
followed by F’ Ne F+$He-3.87
+
MeV
27

13Al+n’Aly* B,T=11.1s
’Na +$He-3.13 MeV
followed by Na ’
(b) (n - p) Reaction. In this SMg +B,T =14.96 h
reaction the proton in the nucleus is
number is not changed but the charge
byslow neutrons are : is decreased by one unit. Few replaced by a
examples of
(n-p) nereuaCitona
1
He + on’GHe)* -’H+H+0.76 MeV
followed by H ’He +B + Emy.(12.32 y)
N+2Ny*’C+}H +0.63 MeV
followed byC’N+ß +Emax (5.7 ky)
on’ 9Cl* ’S+H+0.61 MeV
followed by
Other (n -p) reactions s’CI* +ß +Emx. (87.5 d)
performed with fast neutrons have Q-values negative. Few exampls a
27
sAl +n-A)*’Mg +H -1.83 MeV
s+2’G)*’P+}H -0.93 MeV
9Cu +n’Cu)*’Ni+H -1.35 MeV
In all these reactions the product nuclei are radioactive producing finally nuclei Idential
initial target nuclei.
(c) (n-y) Reaction. The radioactive capture reaction with slow neutrons is proobablythe mot
nuclear process. It takes place with nearly all elements. The product is an isotopeeof the targel
mass number larger by unity. Few examples are :
 H+n-> ). H+Y +2.22 Mev 409

+Y +6.26 MeV.
neutron
of a limit of increasCs hCutron to proton tatio, lt
the
uppcr stability, the roduct nucleus is this rativs in the
target nucteus
the
Cu)*.
radioactive. usually emitting D particle.
104 Rh)*’Cu
+on (5.| m) +y +7.06
’s104
Rh MeV
45
(42.3 s)
49 n (14.1 s) + +y+7.0 MeV
16
116
198 y+6.78 MeV
Au + o? ’239h9° Au)* ’ 19 Au (2.7 d) + y
239U +6.51 MeV
02 (23.45 m)
(n- ) Reactions. (n, ) reactions have
+y +4.81
+ MeV
Dand neutrons. been detected as a result of the
These reactions do not produce
MeV
pick-uptype. (n, ) reactions can take any compound nucleusbombardment
and are
of
place in a similar manner. Tritium direct
produced by the following found in atmosphere
being reaction :
4N +on-C. +jH -6.88 MeV
Reaction.In this type of reaction, one
ea-n), neutron is the massbynumber
otitedleavingthe charge of the nucleus unchanged and lesscaptured the nucleus and unit.
by one two neutrons
Thus the
dualnucieusisthe isotope of the target nucleus. Q-value of the reaction is negative and fast neutrons
tobringabout this reaction. In most of the cases
residual nucleus is unstable and followed by
Few examples are :
2C+6n’dcy*’C(20.39 m) +2,n-18.7 MeV
39K+n-(g K)*- K(7.64 m) + 2hn-13.1 MeV
19
121 ^b + on’Sb)* 120 Sb (15.89m) + 2,n -9.24 MeV
51 198
obtained in the. 80 Hg (n, 2n) g0 Hg process, decays by equivalent orbital electron capture.
emSSIonof án electron Occurs in a number of instances, especially where neutron to proton ratio 1s at
limit ofthe stability for the given atomic number. Original target nuclei of this type are Ge,
Ceand2381
Neutron-three or more particles-If the energy of the incident neutron approaches 30 MeV, sufficient
M
available overcome the electrostatic potential barrier, three neutrons or even two neutrons and a
to
y ejectedfromthe compound nucleus. When neutrons (- 100 MeV) are used as projectiles, nuclei
0are
mass number may undergo spallation
and those of high mass number, e.g., Bi and Pb suffer
noderate
by spallation.
a probably accompanied have been observed with high energy
4Transmutation by Deuterons. A great many nuclear reactions
particles, because about 2 MeV is sufficient to cause its rupture intO a neutron
ONSastheibombarding
proton.
Reaction--Because of the high nuclear potential energy barrier for a-particles, which
o ld- a) of fairly
reactions of this type are observed only with high energy deuterons and elements
AS with Z,
ZFew examples are :
qLi+¡H’Be)* jHe +jHe +22.4 MeV
O+H’F)*’N+$He +3.1 MeV
20
10 Ne +(H’
Na)* ’F+He +2.79MeV
+jHe +2.91 MeV
12 Mg + fH’(A)*’Na
26 28

+6.71MeV
ijAl +(H’Si*’Mg +jHe product is always an isotope
of
27
common, and the
d-p) Reaction-Reactions of this type are quite
het elerment with mamass number one unit higher. Few examples are :
ms)-0.19 MeV
i+{H’Be)* ’i+}H(electrondecay 840
 410

RC+}H 'N)* 'C+}H+ 2.72 Mev

+H (electron-decay,
2.0 MeNuler y
}Na HMg)*’Na
’S)*’P+}H(clectron decay 14.26 14.96 h)
d)
P+}H
ca+}H -»dn)* ’Cd +}H
’Bi +}H
(electron
decay
(electron decay 53.46 h)
+5.71
Mey
’'Po)* 5.01 d) +2.3
38392 Mev Mey
Bi+H
number of transmutatiOns of this kind
(c) (d- n) Reaction. Alarge
have becn reportcd. i.c.
Li+jH ’Be)* ’ }Be + n+15.03
MeV especial y
+4.36 MeV
Be +jH’B)*"B+7
+n
PC+ }H ’N)*’ i'N (positron decay, 9.96 m)
When two deuterons interact both the (d, n) and
the (d, p)reactioDs
have -been
0.28 Mey
fH+}H’ (çHe)*
H+H + 4.02 MeV
He + o2+3.25 MeV
obscrved.
about 12 years.
The tritium is unstable and has a half life of
reaction becomes a
At high energies (> 50Me), the (d, n)
Compound nucleus formation.
stripping process
(a) (d-) Reaction. Although the probability of the reaction of this type is
known. Among these are :
Li+jHBe)* ’Li+H-0.99 MeV
Be +fH’ B)*’Be +jH +4.59 MeV
isP+fH’GS)*’gPtjH+42.82 Me V
30

Ag +jH’ Ca)*’Ag +}H-2.93 MeV

108

(e) The probability of radiative capture reaction is quitesmall because the extra nucleons
nucleus are in virtual states. When the energy of the incident deuterons is about 20
of the types (d, 2n), (d, 3n), (d, 2p) and (d, pa) are possible.
5. Transmutation by particles of mass three. Some reactions obtained
given below :
with tritum and he
¡H+jH’ ÇHe)*’ jHe +hn+17.59 MeV
{Li+/H’Be)* -’He+He +9.84 MeV
AI+H’S)*’Mg +He- 2.59 MeV
qLi+jHBe)* -’Li+{H +0.99 MeV
s+H’GC*’i+n+5.30 MeV
7Co+jH’Ni)* ’ Co+fH +1.23 MeV
GCu+jHZn)*’Cu +{H +1.66 MeV
fH+He’ÇLiy*’jHe +}H +18.35 MeV
3
H+ He ’GLi)* ’ He+H+18.49 MeV
He +}He’Be)*i+H +10.89 MeV
147 N+ He-’F)*’ F+ on-0.96 MeV
C+}He-0j*’+{H-3.55 MeV
C+He’0j’N+H-2.24 MeV
"N+}He’F*N+He +10.02 MeV.
6. Transmutation by
TaClathis

Radiation. Reactions
een referred to as photo disintegrations. of thisthistypeprocess,
To produce broughttheabout by high
energy
energy
oftheincidentphe
 rliong

energyof the particle to be 411

the nucleus may enter onecjected.
binding
1If the energy of
eutron
ot its excited the y.tadiation isis not sufficten
Exanples
er en arc: states. The ercess eneroy then emite
H+y. H)* ’H+
Be+ y Be)* -’ Be +1 n
+y’GBBe)* ’Li+}H
Be
9!P+Yy’s P)* ’iP+
10B+ y - B)* ’Be +H
'B+Y’G B)* ’ Be +H
i2C+y’C)* ’Be+He
Mg +Y ’2Mg)* 4 Na+H
Kr +y- Kr)* ’6 Kr +y
Sr)* ’76
3gSr+y.
Sr +Y’Gg
neutron
either or proton can be emitted when
nucleon
energiesreactions of the types (Y, np), (Y, y-rays
2n), (Y, n 2p) and areothers.
of energy of thetheorder
inyolving of 10ofMeV.
ejection two
One
particles, have been observed. The examples are :
1Û0+y o*’C+ont on+n+H+H
1PC+y-’C)*’He+He +He.
6
Reactions with Heavy lons. Nuclear reactions with so-called
Nuclear
a-particles heayy ions are those in which
are used as projectiles. These are divided as :
L vierthan
heafirsttype, called transfer
aticles reaction, involves the transfer of a nucleon or a few nucleons from
the other. The examples are:
( The

nUCleusto
N+B’ N+ B

N+}N
SPC+o
BAl+N
AI+N
12Mg+O
direct reactions as they do not formn any compound nucleus.
reactions are known as
These class of reactions with accelerated heavy ions, the compound nucleus is formed and
the second
four or more particles, mostly neutrons Sometimes accompanied by one or two protons or a-
0,three, evaporated from the compound nucleus. The higher the energy of the projectile, the larger the
Aicles are The examples are :
onberof particles expelled.
197Au (12C, 4n) and 5lvló0, 2n) 65 Ga.
205At, "AL(C, an) 4CI, 238U(4N, a5n 24 Bkelements,
ND(CI,2n) 10Ag. especially of the heavier are included in
fragmentation reactions, with
ÀFission spallation and made of another kind of reaction which has been observed
also be nitrogen ions with
third category. Mention may e.g. the products of the interaction of 125 MeV
mpet nuclei of moderate mass number,
38K.
auminium 27 range from Cto 38
BAl+N’Ca)*’H+2,n+K. nuclei in the
emission of alpha particles, can lead to Si and other
Similar reactions, involving the
Ane mass region.
REACTION SPECTROSCOPY discussed
similar to the a-particles,radioactive
lAS CHARGED PARTICLE measured in a way
nuclear reactions are being a
the source, instead of particles produce
e cnarged particles from difference is that
alpha-particle SpectrosCopy. The main of incident particles. The energetic charged eV of
bombarded with a beam electron-ion pair for about every 30
t S a target material. There is an
tactron-ionpairs when pass through a
 princin.t
mree
photograh"
Thereare
made visually obscrvable. asin photographiccmulsions,gas. cloud or buhk hanbe
chamber,
seen sparkN
12 particlein aparticles are he
Acgasteicotnsed canandIabemea
charged trackof he
0gnal The cmilted and can o t
cnergy loss of the onization: ) electrons
light is the proportiona!
particles using this recombinc, the (i)
detectors and 2s n
-1on pairs
scintillation electric signal, sem1-Conductor
count er, cr

dethedetectectoneveorsrS. Ih the
() when the clectron- as in nroducing an referring to scintillation
photosensitive evice, thenehv detectors smallerthan
ficld.
clectric The solid.state much to 1000 mn2 ks
7ng an also 25 ge
counter. detectreond ranges fromjelly(Ge(Li)) c3
dslate
FyCalythan
gas filled
the area ofsilicon
wafer
detectors,
pronounced
much larger(40
and more tic h
deplemoTeted) r0ecahegon
conductor detectors, germanium are made
millimeters thick. The throughthem, proportionalto
sufficient the
lithiumions
extended by drifting
Ufry-ray detection. the electric
puiseis
to
detectors, thesizethe size ofthe important factor of stop
of is
detector
the
enerthBe ) given
Cnarged particle
these
Im most of being detected
When
of
kineticenergymaximum
the particle. The produced bythe
of the peak
particles
fluctuatione
detectofor parice
gives the
Puise heightas the full width at balf to statistical
The identic dh
at, defined
actually measured
1ne quantity width AN of the
is N. which is subject
distribution of Nvalues
obtained for large number gauSsian
the such case is given by
heory gives energyresolution
in
Thus the fractional AN 2.3

most favourable
effected. For the
The number N
photoelectron is emitted for
of
each 110
gas counters and
electrons
is the number eV of energy loss, one
silicon detectors
electronis set free for
respectively. Thus for aa5 sMeVcinaboutparttilatiicoleneas,h syte
eVof energy lossin 2.3 =1.1% for scintillator
AE
(5x10°/110o)"2
2.3
=0.58% for gas counter
(5x 10°/30/2
2.3
=0.19% for semiconductor
(5x10°/3.5)2
Thus semiconductor detectors have a very distinct advantage over the other types. The scint
counter has proved very much useful when too high resolving power is not required and is special
when coincidences are being studied between the charged particles and y-rays de-exciting the state
in the reaction. The scintillator can be mounted quite close to the target to yield alarge solid ang
and to help to cut down the background pulses from Y-rays, neutrons and cosmic rays. It -
acceptance have a relativelven
be very thin because the charged particles in low ener8y nuclear spectroscopy
in solid materials.
For highresolution work, the magnetic spectroscopes are used in nuclear reaction studies. Sinole hr
instruments, as used in a-spectroscopy, produce a line image of a point source located in the median ne
the magnet, at some distance from the exit of the magnet I to the median plane because there are nofx
forces acting perpendicular to the median plane. Point image of apoint source is produced by double tu
instruments, can be designed in various ways. Avery popular spectrometer of this kind utilizes amagrk
an inhomogeneous field similar to the instrument used in B-spectroscopy except that it is asector magkd
both the source and the detector outside the field. We shall describe now acomplex instrument usedin
reacton studies in association with an 8MeV Van de Graaff machine at the Massachusets Inst
Technology. Actuallyinthis spectrograph twenty fourinstruments are placed in one large vacuumenco
Each spectrograph records abroad range spectrum of particles emitted at agiven angle fromtheincidenti
In steps of7.5°the range of angles is 0° to 172.5°. Thetoroidal magnetic circuit comprises1fortyeight1
iron wedges, some of which are thinner than others so that gaps are left between them. These arerigidlydhe
 spacersdefining
" 413
yenveofhe
gapsare wide,
Bach offthe former
five % s on
turns cach ofthe
gap. The latter
by
eneired to
Aaccnt
twenty turns on cach
by reaches the
beam target
centreofthetorus) region by Beemin
frcehole through the Targl
the field
F i o 10.3shows
athe a cross-
erp
v a
ofthe
o ite , spectrograph with
hole,the target and the
side
12 g2ps 0-172.5
enteringin-the
erjectories 0° gap. The pole
focalsurface geometry
are
d range of energy
gaps.Theapproximately22
all
for
Replew
1S
neexpoSure
/protonsare foused to the
surface,5 MeV protons Nudear-track plates
focal
the
lowerend,
efocused the
of

throughthe energy
entering
ter the
beam analyzing magnet,
pasSesthròugh an electrostatic BeamIn
eAn
designedto produce a U
R50 cm
lens
tupole
defining slit on 26.
o f energy
image the situáted inside a low- Coll
is
d
Thislens tubeinthe 3" diameter Secion AA.
shielding magnification is 3
husteel
torus. Its
Fig.10.3 Simplified drawing of the multiple gap
the iron and unity in the spectrograph at Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
verticaldirection
in

t e direction.Thetarget
chamber consists of alow-carbon steel pipe of 24" diameter, closed atthe bottom
ontal plate used as a reference surface and atthe top by aliquid nitrogen cooled copper plate. The
end of the target
steel
asainleas.
throughthe thin target, can be collected by a Faraday cup at the opposite
after passing gap.
products are recorded on nuclear track plates mounted in rigid holders above each after
reaction three 2 x 10" plates are used in each holder. The plates,
The
30" long partof the focal surface, number
half millimeter strips across the plate. The 30" is
Overthe
th scanned under microscopes in
developed and. counted. The number of mm strips in
ASre,are direction are
having correct length and correct
number of angles normally utilized (24) gives 36,000
Eacks multiplied by the duration. The over all
1500. This quantity when instrument in one single exposure of 1to 10 hrs but, in general, by the
inte obtainable with this determined by the instrument alone vertical
olbing nower of such an
instrument is not
beam of the Van de Graaff generator, (b)theacross the
stability of the with the microscope
Hlowing factors : (a) the energy target, (c) the width of the strips scanned spectrograph. The resolving
on the of the
Sension of the beam spoteffective target thickness and (e) the aberration
Dlear track plates,(d) the apparatus was E/AE 10°.
Ner ofthe above described These neutrons are harder to
M6 NEUTRON SPECTROSCOPY particle is a neutron. also
reactions in which the emitted no charge. Thus their energy iseither
We nave number of they have neutron,
deuterons, a-particles, etc., because additional step in which the particle. The main
prOotons, introduce an charged
we detectable
|DMe dificult to analyze. For this purpose scattering process, produces a
be compensated by increasing
can
rough asecond reaction or an elastic decreases the yield. This reductionresolving power.
step
dticulty is that this additionaletc., show a reduction inthe
get thicknes., which again
solid angles,
 KNRCISNS
the O value fon ihe umaton of "p n the ground tate
Allwingewle of nwlear rencttons !
,WPn 12.17 Mey

"S 6.240 MeV

)dMe2,814 Mev
wrlllenaA
wp"P+y+ 12.37 MeV.
the reACtion
P glvenbyuE + d P+n+0.
oquationa with reactions (0),(MI) and (lv) gives
fthene 4d 2He + 0+44.3$9 MeV.
O2(2d- He)- 44.359= 47.668 44.359 3.309 MeV.
MeV a-partlcle Inieract with a target nucleus Nto produce a residual nucleus
pancle !H. The protona emied at 90° to the tncldent beam direction are found to
dapodwt MeV, Calculatethe Q-value of the reactlon and the atomie mass of the residual
he atomic masses
MG He) 4.0026033u and M N) 14.0030742u.
nucloar roactions,
tha inthe
lnow
W *+X’+y+0.
reaction is given by
Mvaluoofthe

problemE7.70 MeV, E, =4.44 MeV and e = 90°,

with sufficiernt accuracy we can take
pthegiven my/M, 4/17.
M7and
Q- 4.44 (1 + 1/17)-7.70 (1 - 4/17) =- 1.187 MeV.
atomic mass units while the Q-value is
obtained in MeV, thus we use the
given in
masses are
w 931.5 MeV, we therefore get
Q-1.187/931.5 = 0.0012743 u.

M('O) = M(GHe) + MG N)- M(GH)-Qún u)

1.0078252 - 0.0012743
=4.0026033 + 14.0030742 -
= l6.9966077 u.
kinetic energy
abeam of monoenergeticprotons of are : 'H =
Lumple 3. Atritium gas target is bonibarded with tomic
30° to the incident beam? A
masses
emitted at
.What is the K.E. of the neutrons
'n= 1.008665 u, H=3.016049 u, and 'He =3.016029 u.
elear reaction in question can be written as
p+}H’He +hn+2.
mp)+ m} H) - m He) - mGn) 3.016049 -3.016029- 1.008665
= 1.007276 +
=-0.001369 u =- 1.2745 Mel.
 (| D a.
neutron is given by cquation
456

The A as«ated wth the emtted

U.007276 x1.008665 3, 2
3.016029 + I.008665 2
- 0.3753.
My,l+ E,(mH -m,)
mH, + m,
and
-3.016029 x1.2745 +3×2.008752
3.016029 + 1.008665
VE, = 0.3753 + 0.8266
MeV,
= 1.2019 =0.5424.
E = 1.444
target, the (p, d) reaction is
of

Example 4. For which of the following strongest?

(b) Estinate the temperature necessary in
a fusion reactor to supporn
jH+jH’He +on.
the
reactiowhn.y? Ca
these three given. In
strongest with a target of Ca, out of
The reaction is
combines with a neutron in 4Ca to form a deuteron. Since the 41 Ca-isotope has an this reacOS
which indicates that the binding energy of the
the double full shell (Z= 20, N= 20),
thanthose of 4°Ca, 39Ca and thus easier to pick up.
The reaction H + H’He +on is possible if the two deuterons are able to
betweenthe deuterons. For
barrier Vr) =e14nE,r, where r is the distance

min 4x 101m, and Vmax

1

4TEo Imin
deuteron nof
ovraericuosmte
Thetemperature required for fusion
1 hc 1
T2
4TE, Tnin k 4ne,hc Tnin k
197x 10-15
4x10-15 8.6x 10-l1 =4x 10 K
X

137
Thus the temperature must be higher than 4 x 10Kfor the fusion reaction
d+d’jHe +7.
Example 5. When Fl9 is bombarded with protons (p, n) reaction with subsequent
Calculate the excitation energy of the compound nucleus that corresponds to the resonance C-emissior
energy of4.99 MeV.
19
}H+F’ oNe)* ’Ne+on.
The convertible energy of the protons or the energy of relative motion is
4.99
E= = 4.745 MeV.
1+ m/M 1+1/19
The binding energy contribution of the absorbed proton in the compound nucleus is
AE =
[M(GF)+MGH)-Ne)u = [18.998405 + 1.007276 19.99240:
=
0.01324lu = 12.332 MeV.
Excitation energy of the compound nucleus
= 4.745+ 12.332 = 17.077 MeV
 Ractions
Whe loround61 state )is 457
6. 4 ’ bonbarded deuteone the
a + . I| by
and mp,
compound
nuclcus
deuteron ground stotetesononce
the
.00su. Determinethe peak - ot5 m.
is 's, and m,parity
fthe sO energy,
formed. What partial wave angular momentum nd of the
cnergy f the compound
dteneate effective in prou
utton
nucleus Be* in the reaction
Li+(d ’ Be* ’a+a is given by
E* = ma t mË - MJc +
E4
= [2.015 mt m
= 22.97 MeV, +6.017-8.0081
938.2 +0.6 x 6.017/8.032
decayprocess, of a is O", the symmetry of the total wave funetion of the final state requires
wthe
relstiveorbitalangular momentum of the two a-particles be even and the decay, being a stro
conserveparity,the parity of Be* is (-1y(+ 1)²- 1.
angular otribution of the Tinal state
a-particles is not spherically symmetric but corresponds
theW have
4s
r[Be*] = 2*,
momentum of the initial state Li+ dis also I,
/
totalangular
I, = l, +I, =2. As
the
Thus
+,=1+1+4,
maybe 1 or 2, Thus the possible value of l, are 0, 1,2,3 and 4. As the ground state| parties of
+1 positive, L. must therefore be even. As the angular distribution of thefinal state is not isotropl
SinceI
tare both possible values of l, are 2and 4. Hence d-waves producethe main effect.
the
therefore
surface of a detector of area 2cm' is coated with athin layer of a naturally fissioning
sEample
l 7. The
(mean life 33.33 x10 y). Twenty fissions are detected per second. The detector then placed
neutron lux of 10" neutrons/cm/sec. The number of fissions detected in the neutron flux IS
the cross section for neutron-induced fission?
secona Calculate
iper nuumber of the heavy nuclei, then the number of fission taking place per second is
Nbethe dNldt = -N=- No
0.693/33.33 x107 3.15 x1077= 10-16, therefore N= Ny
x
fission, therefore number of induced
Asi=
neutron flux, Gthe cross section for neutron induced
the
Ifois GNd.
seC= oNo + ANo 120
SJonsper
20
As
ao/ = l00/20 = 5
51 5x10-16 =5x10-27 cm =5 mb.
10! 10!2
is irradiated with a neutron beam of flux densitybarns,
0.04 cm thick neutron capture by Co is 30 cm
Damnle 8, Athin sheet of Co, thecross-section for
period of3 lir. f irradiation period per
atons Der cm per secfor aof the isotope Co produced at the end of thedensity of°Co 8.9 gm/cm'.
wlulate the number of nucleisample. Given : half-life ofoCo 5.2 years and
dhe initial B-activity of the
reactions/second/m² = N,olt =N(plM)olt 10/59) x 30x 10-28 x 10!6 x 0.04 x 10-2
Number of (8.9 x
=6.02252 x 1020 x
= 1.092 x 1015,
hours
produced= No. of transmutations in3 118x 10!7
.No. of Conuclei 1.092x 10! x 3x 60 x 60 =
=
0.693 x l18 x 10'7
mtal activity per m²= Ax 118 x
10!" = 5.2 x 365 x 24 x
60 x 60
decayssec= 134 micro curies.
= 5x 10º
 are bombarded on the "Fe target. The
MeV protons
Nurle
458
Example 9. 1heb0
ineiatc scattered
sonf r the )amp. the detector
prolons
of
at 40" is found to be L3 10 barn per
area l0-5 mis measur en dif e,
located at l0 cm fromn the
srcond recoded
curtent is cvents per
beam the number of the taroet
01 kelm calculate ucleicontaincd in a unt area of
The nunbern of 0.1kglm?
54 x 1.66 x 10kg/nucleus

Sold angle subtended by

the detcctor at the target
d2 = ds/ nucleim'
=J0-5 m/(0.1)m² = 10 steradian
per nucleus = (dald) r
Dfferential-Cross section do = the effectíve arca 13x 104
= L3 x 10- x 10- barn
= 1.3 ×
incident proton is detected isgiven by 1G4
Theprobability P that one
P= Effective area pr nucleus dg x no. of
= l3 x 10-34 × |.l x 1024= 1.43 x 10-10
the incident beam
nucleila
event/proton.rea
Thenumber of protons per second in
beancurrent or chargelsec 10-7
charge per proton 1.6x 10-19
dN =Pl= 143 x 1010x 6.2 x 10!1
=6.2x 10 pr
Number of eventsdetected per sec.=87 events/sec.
forl MeV neutrons is
Example 10. The total cross-section of nickel through asheet of 3.5 barns. Whas is
attenuation of a beam of such neutrons on
passing nickel 0.01 cm in the ye
density of nickel8.9 gmcm'. (plM)Ng
Macroscopic cross-section 2 = , G==(8.9 x 10/58)x 6.02252 x 102 x3.5x 102
= 32.37 m.
thúck.
We know the relation l= I e or 2.3036 log,, /!= Dx
32.37 0.01 × 10-2
= Anti log = 0.0014.
2.3036
Example 11. Cadmium has a resonunce for neutrons of energy 0.18 eV and the
totulcrass-Section 7000 barns. Estimate the contribution of scattering to the resonance peak. vae
The Breit-Wigner equation for the cross-section of the compound nucleus formation by a
ClergyEis pr.
(E, - E) +r'4
Neglecting the spin factor, the total cross section at resonance is
, = 4n7TT.
If only scattering and capture contribute to the resonance, then I=T,+ I and the scattering

For the heavy nucleus, as a cadmium, the centre of mass

correction is negligible and we ti
4n2' = 145 × 10-2l m'.
theretore
O,n =3.37b.
Example 12. Estimate the relative probabilities of (n, n) and (n, ) in indium, known to havear
sonnceat 144 eV with u fof 0.1 eV and
Ål resonance (E = E), cross-section of 28DbarnS.
Breit-Winger formula simplifies to
 Rrctions

459
o(n, y) =
wavelength à = h/N(2mE) =2.4 x
1ll m.
3.14x2.8x10 x(0.1)
= 1.5x 104 (2.4 x1011
I,
=>=0.1,
eutron capture reacton hence
of
IT, =0.015.
of Au at neutron
resonances.
F eV. The compound nucleus 1he mostin this resonance
formed prominent energies upto
absorption
is at 4.906 eV andhas spin
hundred eV is
a few2. Calculate the
r= 0./24 eV and
has

#e
know
the
I,0.007
relation for resonance cross-section
El= 0.007 x (4.906)1/2
0.0155 eV.
a 21, +1 r,r,. 21, +1
R 2(21 + 1) (T, +r,) 2amE 2(21 +1) (T, +I,)
(6.625 x10-4y? 2(2 + 1) 0.124 x 0.0155
2x3.14 x1.67 x 10 X
x 4.906 x 1.6x 1o-19 2(3 +1) X (0.1395)
= 3.446 x 10 barns.
Erample14.,Eetimate by the aid of the semi-classical stripping theory the angles at which the (d, p)
cross-section has its maximum for the
Frential
following I-values : l= 0, 1,,2, 3, 4. Use R = 5 E, =10
14
MeV
E=
'andsemi-classicaltheory for stripping reaction, the angles are given by the
From
relation
cos s
2kakp 2kgk,R?
- 0.98 f' and k, =V(2m,Eyh =0.82f1"
sterek,= 0.98 +0.822
cos <
2x0.98 x0.82 2x0.98 x 0.82 × 5
s1.015-P40.18.

Hence from natural cosines table, we get

3 4
1 2
38° 52°
9° 24°

MeV tritons
15. In the(d, t) reactionwith 90
Zr target using 21 MeV deuterons, a peak of l4
Brample
estimate of the angular nomentum transfer.
sobserved at an angle of 23°. Give the rough related to the momenta of the
neutron picked up from the target is
The linear momentum gh of the
emitted triton k, h, as given by the relation
xident deuteron k,hand
q²= k +k -kyk, cos 0.
m2
For thedeuteron k Pa 2mE = 2.02 x 100
m-2
Similarly for the triton 2 , 2 . 0 2 x 10*0}
1n 1030-2 x 2.02 × 1030 cos 23° = 0.32 x 103 m2,
q = 2.02x +2.02 x
9= 0.57 fm-l.