46 Injective modules

Recall. If R is a ring with identity then an R-module P is projective iff one of

the following equivalent conditions holds:

1) For any homomorphism f : P → N and an epimorphism g : M → N there

is a homomorphism h : P → M such that the following diagram commutes:

P
}
}
}
h }
} f
}
}
~} g 
M / N

f g
2) Every short exact sequence 0 → N −→ M −→ P → 0 splits.

46.1 Proposition. Let R be a ring and let J be an R-module. The following

conditions are equivalent.

1) For any homomorphism f : N → J and an monomorphism g : M → N

there is a homomorphism h : M → J such that the following diagram
commutes:
JO `A
A
A
Ah
f A
A
A
A
M /N
g

f g
2) Every short exact sequence 0 → J −→ M −→ N → 0 splits.

Proof. Exercise.

185
46.2 Definition. An R-module J is an injective module if J satisfies one of the
equivalent conditions of Proposition 46.1.

46.3 Theorem (Baer’s Criterion).

Let R be a ring with identity and let J be an R-module. The following conditions
are equivalent.

1) J is an injective module.

2) For every left ideal I C R and for every homomorphisms of R-modules

f : I → J there is a homomorphism f¯: R → J such f¯|I = f .

Proof.
1) ⇒ 2) Given a homomorphism f : I → J we have a diagram

JO

 i /R
I

where i : I ,→ R is the inclusion homomorphism. By the definition of an injective

module there is a homomorphism f¯: R → J such that f = f¯i = f¯|I

2) ⇐ 1) Assume that J is an R-module satisfying 2). It is enough to show

that if M is an R-module, N is a submodule of M , and f : N → J is an R-
module homomorphism then there exists a homomorphism f¯: M → J such that
f¯|N = f

Let S be a set of all pairs (K, fK ) such that

(i) K is a submodule of M such that N ⊆ K ⊆ M

(ii) fK : K → J is a homomorphism such that fK |N = f

186
Define partial ordering on S as follows:

(K, fK ) ≤ (K 0 , fK 0 ) if K ⊆ K 0 and fK 0 |K = fK

Check: assumptions of Zorn’s Lemma 29.10 are satisfied in S, and so S contains

a maximal element (K0 , fK0 ).

It will suffice to show that K0 = M . Assume, by contradiction, that K0 6= M ,

and let m0 ∈ M − K0 . Define

I := {r ∈ R | rm0 ∈ K0 }

Check: I is an ideal of R and the map

g : I → J, g(r) = fK0 (rm0 )

is a homomorphism of R-modules. By the assumptions on J we have a homo-

morphism ḡ : R → J such that ḡ|I = g. Define

K0 + Rm0 := {k + rm0 | k ∈ K, r ∈ R}

Check: K0 + Rm0 is a submodule of M and the map

f 0 : K0 + Rm0 → J, f 0 (k + rm0 ) = fK0 (k) + ḡ(r)

is a well defined homomorphism of R-modules such that f 0 |N = f . This shows

that (K0 + Rm0 , f 0 ) ∈ S. We also have

(K0 , fK0 ) < (K0 + Rm0 , f 0 )

This is impossible since by assumption (K0 , fK0 ) is a maximal element in S.

46.4 Corollary. Let R be an integral domain and let K the field of fractions of
R. Then K is an injective R-module.

Proof. Let I be an ideal of R and let f : I → K be a homomorphism of R-

modules. For 0 6= r, s ∈ I we have

rf (s) = f (rs) = sf (r)

187
As consequence in K we have f (r)/r = f (s)/s for any 0 6= r, s ∈ I. Denote
this element by a. Define

f¯: R → K, f¯(r) := ra

Check: f¯ is a homomorphism of R-modules and f¯|I = f .

By Baer’s Criterion (46.3) it follows that K is an injective R-module.

46.5 Example. Q is an injective Z-module.

46.6 Definition. Let R be an integral domain. An R-module M is divisible if

for every r ∈ R − {0} and for every m ∈ M there is n ∈ M such that rn = m.

46.7 Theorem. If R is a PID then an R-module J is injective iff J is divisible.

Proof. Exercise.

46.8 Example.

Since Z is a PID injective Z-modules are divisible Z-modules (i.e. divisible abelian
groups).

Exercise: an abelian group G is divisible iff G is isomorphic to a direct sum of

copies of Q and Z(p∞ ) for various primes p.

46.9 Corollary. If R is a PID, J is an injective R-module and K is a submodule

of J then J/K is injective.

188
Proof. Since J is divisible thus so is J/K (check!).

46.10 Note. If R is not a PID then a quotient of an injective R-module need

not be injective.

Note. If R is a ring with identity then for any R-module M there exists an
epimorphism of R-modules:
f : P −→ M
L
where P is a projective module (take e.g. P = m∈M R).

46.11 Theorem. If R is a ring with identity then for any R-module M there
exist a monomorphism
j : M −→ J
where J is an injective R-module.

46.12 Lemma. For any abelian group G there exists a monomorphism

i : G −→ D
where H is a divisible abelian group.

L
Proof. We have an epimorphism f : g∈G Z → G which gives an isomorphism
∼
=
M
ϕ : G −→ Z/ Ker(f )
g∈G
L L
Moreover, the monomorphism g∈G Z → g∈G Q induces a monomorphism
M M
ψ: Z/ Ker(f ) −→ Q/ Ker(f )
g∈G g∈G
L
We can take D := g∈G Q/ Ker(f ) and i := ψϕ.

189
46.13 Note. Let G is an abelian group, let R let be a ring, and let HomZ (R, G)
be the set of all homomorphisms of abelian groups ϕ : R → G.

Check: HomZ (R, G) is an R-module with pointwise addition and with multipli-
cation by elements of R given by

(r · ϕ)(s) := ϕ(sr)

for r, s ∈ R.

46.14 Lemma. If D is a divisible abelian group and R is a ring with identity

then HomZ (R, D) in an injective R-module.

Proof. Exercise.

Proof of Theorem 46.11. Let M be an R-module. Consider M as an abelian

group. By Lemma 46.12 we have a monomorphism of abelian groups

i : M −→ D

where D is a divisible abelian group. Consider the induced map

i∗ : HomZ (R, M ) → HomZ (R, D), i∗ (ϕ) = i ◦ ϕ

Check:

1) i∗ is a monomorphism.
2) i∗ is a homomorphism of R-modules.

Since M is an R-module we also have a map

f : M → HomZ (R, M ), f (m)(r) = rm

Check:

1) f is a monomorphism.

190
 2) f is a homomorphism of R-modules.

As a consequence we obtain a monomorphism of R-modules

i∗ f : M −→ HomZ (R, D)

Moreover, by Lemma 46.12 HomZ (R, D) is an injective R-module.

191
47 Exact functors

47.1 Definition. A chain complex of R-modules is a sequence of R-modules

and R-homomorphisms
di+1 i d di−1
. . . −→ Mi+1 −→ Mi −→ Mi−1 −→ Mi−2 −→ . . .

such that di di+1 = 0 for all i.

47.2 Note. If M∗ = (Mi , di ) is a chain complex then Im(di+1 ) ⊆ Ker(di ).

47.3 Definition. If M∗ = (Mi , di ) is a chain complex of R-modules then the

i-th homology module of M∗ is the module

Hi (M∗ ) = Ker(di )/ Im(di+1 )

Recall. A sequence
di+1
i d di−1
M∗ = (. . . −→ Mi+1 −→ Mi −→ Mi−1 −→ Mi−2 −→ . . .)

is exact if Ker(di ) = Im(di+1 ) for all i. Therefore M∗ is exact iff Hi (M∗ ) = 0

for all i.

47.4 Definition. Let R, S be rings. A functor F : R-Mod → S-Mod is exact

if for every short exact sequence of R-modules
f g
0 −→ N −→ M −→ K −→ 0

the sequence
F (f ) F (g)
0 −→ F (N ) −→ F (M ) −→ F (K) −→ 0
is short exact.

192
47.5 Note. If F : R-Mod → S-Mod is a functor such that F (0) = 0 and
di+1
i d
M∗ = (. . . −→ Mi+1 −→ Mi −→ Mi−1 −→ . . .)

is a chain complex of R-modules then

F (di+1 ) F (di )
F (M∗ ) = (. . . −→ F (Mi+1 ) −→ F (Mi ) −→ F (Mi−1 ) −→ . . .)

is a chain complex of S-modules.

Moreover, the functor F is exact iff for every chain complex M∗ we have isomor-
phisms
F (Hi (M∗ )) ∼ = Hi (F (M∗ ))
for all i.

47.6 Note. For a ring R and R-modules L, M let HomR (L, M ) be the set of all
R-module homomorphisms ϕ : L → M . Notice that HomR (L, M ) is an abelian
group (with respect to the pointwise addition of homomorphisms). Moreover,
for any homomorphism of R-modules f : M → N the map

f∗ : HomR (L, M ) → HomR (L, N ), f∗ (ϕ) = f ◦ ϕ

is a homomorphism of abelian groups. This defines a functor

HomR (L, −) : R-Mod −→ Ab

This functor is in general not exact. Take e.g. R = Z, L = Z/2Z. We have a

short exact sequence of abelian groups:
·2
0 → Z −→ Z −→ Z/2Z → 0

On the other hand the sequence

0 → HomZ (Z/2Z, Z) −→ HomZ (Z/2Z, Z) −→ HomZ (Z/2Z, Z/2Z) → 0

is not exact since HomZ (Z/2Z, Z) ∼

= 0 and HomZ (Z/2Z, Z/2Z) ∼
= Z/2Z.

193
47.7 Proposition. Let R be a ring and let L be an R-module. If
f g
0 −→ N −→ M −→ K −→ 0

is a short exact sequence of R-modules then

f∗ g∗
0 −→ HomR (L, N ) −→ HomR (L, M ) −→ HomR (L, K)

is an exact sequence of abelian groups.

Proof. Exercise.

47.8 Theorem. Let R be a ring with identity and let P be an R-module. The
functor HomR (P, −) is exact iff P is a projective module.

Proof. By Proposition 47.7 is suffices to show that P is a projective module iff

for every epimorphism of R-modules g : M → K the map

g∗ : HomR (P, M ) −→ HomR (P, K)

is an epimorphism. This follows directly from Theorem 43.9.

47.9 Definition. Let C, D be categories. A contravariant functor F : C → D

consists of

1) an assignment
Ob(C) → Ob(D), c 7→ F (c)

2) for every c, c0 ∈ C a function

HomC (c, c0 ) → HomD (F (c0 ), F (c)), f 7→ F (f )

such that F (idc ) = idF (c) and F (gf ) = F (f )F (g).

194
47.10 Example. Let R be a ring and let L be an R-module. For any homo-
morphism of R-modules f : M → N we have a map

f ∗ : HomR (N, L) −→ HomR (M, L), f ∗ (ϕ) = ϕ ◦ f

Moreover, f ∗ is a homomorphism of abelian groups.

This defines a contravariant functor

HomR (−, L) : R-Mod −→ Ab

47.11 Note. The functor HomR (−, L) is in general not exact. Take e.g. R = Z,
L = Z. We have a short exact sequence of abelian groups:
·2
0 → Z −→ Z −→ Z/2Z → 0

On the other hand the sequence

0 → HomZ (Z/2Z, Z) −→ HomZ (Z, Z) −→ HomZ (Z, Z) → 0

is not exact.

47.12 Proposition. Let R be a ring and let L be an R-module. If

f g
0 −→ N −→ M −→ K −→ 0

is a short exact sequence of R-modules then

g∗ f∗
0 −→ HomR (K, L) −→ Hom(M, L) −→ Hom(M, L)

is an exact sequence of abelian groups.

Proof. Exercise.

195
47.13 Theorem. Let R be a ring with identity and let J be an R-module. The
functor HomR (−, J) is exact iff J is an injective module.

Proof. By Proposition 47.12 is suffices to show that J is an injective module iff

for every monomorphism of R-modules f : N → M the map

f ∗ : HomR (M, J) −→ HomR (N, J)

is an epimorphism. This follows directly from Proposition 46.1.

47.14 Note. Let

id
M∗ = (. . . −→ Mi −→ Mi−1 −→ . . .)

be a chain complex of R-modules. For any R-module L we have the induced

chain complex of abelian groups

i d∗
HomR (M∗ , L) = (. . . −→ HomR (Mi−1 , L) −→ HomR (Mi , L) −→ . . .)

Homology groups of the complex HomR (M∗ , L) are called cohomology groups
of M∗ with coefficients in L. We denote:

H i (M∗ , L) := Hi (HomR (M∗ , L))

If L is an injective module then by Theorem 47.13 the functor HomR (−, L) is

exact. By (47.5) in such case we have

H i (M∗ , L) ∼
= HomR (Hi (M∗ ), L)

196