MATH MIDTERM REVIEWER Conjunction (∧): And - True only if both

propositions are true.

WEEK 7
 p ∧ q is true if both p and q are true.
Logic is the formal study of reasoning, primarily
focusing on the principles that govern valid
inference and demonstration. It uses a symbolic
Disjunction (∨): Or - True if at least one
system to represent and analyze propositions and
proposition is true.
the relationships between them. In propositional
logic, we examine the truth value (true or false) of  p ∨ q is true if either p or q is true or both.
statements, and how complex propositions can be
built and evaluated using logical operators.
Implication (→): If…then - True except when the
1. Proposition (Statement):
first is true and the second is false.
A declarative sentence that is either true or
false, but not both. They are also denoted by  p → q is false only when p is true and or q is
lowercase letters or variables such as p, q, r, false.
s. Parentheses are used to group parts of a
proposition to ensure clarity and proper evaluation.
These are the basic building blocks in propositional Biconditional (↔): If and only if - True if both
logic. propositions have the same truth value
Example: "The sky is blue" is a proposition.  p ↔ q is true if both are either true or both is
false.
2. Truth Value:
The truth or falsity of a proposition. There are
To determine the truth value of propositional
two possible truth values: True (T) and False (F)
statements, we apply logical rules based on the truth
"The sky is blue" (True) values of individual propositions and their
"2 + 2 = 5" (False) combination using logical operators. A truth
table helps by displaying all possible combinations
of truth values, allowing us to evaluate whether
3. Logical Operators (Connectives):
complex statements are true or false in each
These are symbols used to connect, combine
scenario.
or modify propositions to form more complex
logical statements. The truth value of the compound
statement depends on the truth values of its Negation (¬p or ~p) - Not - Inverts the truth value
components. of a proposition.

p ¬p
The following are primary (connectives) operators: T F
Negation (¬ or ~): Not - Inverts or reverse the truth F T
value of a proposition.
 If p is true, then ¬p (not p) is false.
Conjunction ( p ∧ q) And - True only if both
propositions are true
p q p∧q Here are five examples of propositional statements
in mathematical logic, with operations performed to
T T T
determine their truth values:
T F F

F T F Example 1: Conjunction (∧)

F F F Statement: "Both 2 is an even number and 3 is a

prime number."

Disjunction (p ∨ q) Or - True if at least one Let p represent "2 is an even number" (True, T).
proposition is true
Let q represent "3 is a prime number" (True, T).
p q p∨q

T T T Logical Expression:
T F T p q p∧q
F T T T T T
F F F Conclusion: The conjunction is True (T) because
both propositions are true.

Implication (p → q) If-then - True except when the

Example 2: Disjunction (∨)
first is true and the second is false
Statement: "Either 5 is an odd number or 10 is a
p q p→q
prime number."
T T T

T F F Let p represent "5 is an odd number" (True, T).

F T T Let q represent "10 is a prime number" (False, F).

F F F
Logical Expression:

p q p∨q
Biconditional (P ↔ Q) If and only if - True if
both propositions have the same truth value T F T

p q p ↔q Conclusion: The disjunction is True (T) because at

least one of the propositions is true.
T T T

T F F Example 3: Negation (¬)

F T F Statement: "It is not true that 7 is an even number."
F F T
Let p represent "7 is an even number" (False, F ).
Logical Expression: Mathematical logic is essential in many real-
life areas, including computer science, engineering,
p ¬p
decision-making, and everyday problem-solving. It
F T supports programming and AI, aids in designing
circuits, and guides the development of
Conclusion: The negation is True (T) because the mathematical proofs. Logic also plays a key role in
proposition p is false, and negating it makes it true. scientific research, legal reasoning, and ethical
analysis, providing a clear framework for structured
Example 4: Implication (→) thinking. Overall, it enhances our ability to make
informed decisions, solve complex problems, and
Statement: "If 8 is a multiple of 4, then 9 is an odd reason critically in both technical and everyday
number." contexts.

WEEK 8
Let p represent "8 is a multiple of 4" (True, T).
THE STATEMENTS IN SYMBOLIC FORM
Let q represent "9 is an odd number" (True, T). AND VICE VERSA

To express statements symbolically, we assign

Logical Expression: symbols to propositions or statements and then use
p q p→q logical operators to represent their relationships.

T T T Symbols:

Conclusion: The implication is True (T) because a Let p: "It is raining."

true proposition implies another true proposition. Let q: "I will bring an umbrella."

Logical Operators:
Example 5: Biconditional (↔) Negation (not): ¬p ("It is not raining.")
Statement: "5 is a prime number if and only if 15 is Conjunction (and): p ∧ q ("It is raining and I will
a composite number." bring an umbrella.")
Disjunction (or): p ∨ q ("It is raining or I will bring
an umbrella.")
Let p represent "5 is a prime number" (True, T). Conditional (if-then): p → q ("If it is raining, then I
Let q represent "15 is a composite number" (True, will bring an umbrella.")
T). Biconditional (if and only if): q ↔ p ("It is raining
if and only if I will bring an umbrella.")

Logical Expression: Example Translation to Symbolic Form:

p q p ↔q Statement: "If it is not raining, then I will not bring

an umbrella."
T T T Symbolic Form: ¬p → ¬q
Conclusion: The biconditional is True (T) because Example Translation from Symbolic Form to
both propositions are true, and a biconditional is English:
true when both parts have the same truth value.
Symbolic Statement: p ∧ ¬ q allowing us to represent and analyze complex
English Translation: "It is raining and I will not logical statements systematically.
bring an umbrella."
Evaluating truth values strengthens logical
THE TRUTH VALUE OF STATEMENTS reasoning by helping us verify whether a statement
is true or false based on given conditions. Truth
To determine the truth value, we assess whether a
tables provide a method for examining how truth
statement is true or false based on the values of its
values of individual statements impact compound
components.
statements.
Example 1:
Statement: p → q CREATING ORIGINAL LOGICAL
Meaning: "If it is raining, then I will bring an PROBLEMS AND EVALUATING THEIR
umbrella." TRUTH VALUES
Below are some original logical problems, with
Truth Table Analysis:
truth evaluations, to showcase how logical analysis
p q p→ q can aid in problem-solving.

T T T If p is true (it is raining) and q is true (I Problem 1

bring an umbrella), p → q is true. Statement: "If I save money, then I can buy a new
laptop."
T F F If p is true (it is raining) and q is false (I Symbolic Form: w → e, where:
do not bring an umbrella), p → q is false.
w: "I save money."
F T T If p is false (it is not raining), p → q is e: "I can buy a new laptop."
true regardless of q's value.
Truth Evaluation:
F F T If p is false (it is not raining), p → q is This statement is only false if I save money ( p is
true regardless of q's value. true) and cannot buy a new laptop ( q is false).

Interpretation:
Example 2: This problem reinforces the cause-effect
Statement: p ∨ q relationship between saving money and achieving a
Meaning: "It is raining or I will bring an umbrella." goal, encouraging practical reasoning about
Truth Table Analysis: financial planning.

p q p∨q Problem 2
Statement: "I will finish my homework if and only
T T T If either p or q is true, p ∨ q is true. if I have enough time."

T F T If either p or q is true, p ∨ q is true. Symbolic Form: x ↔ y, where:

F T T If either p or q is true, p ∨ q is true. x: "I finish my homework."

y: "I have enough time."
F F F If both p and q are false, p ∨ q is
false. Truth Evaluation:
This statement is true if both x and y are either both
true or both false.
Understanding the translation and truth values of It’s false if only one is true and the other is false.
statements forms the basis of propositional logic,
Interpretation: Inductive reasoning makes generalizations
The “if and only if” structure shows that finishing from data, while deductive reasoning applies
homework is fully dependent on having enough general rules to specific cases.
time, demonstrating a reciprocal relationship. This
Inductive reasoning cannot be definitively
type of logical reasoning is beneficial for planning
proven, only evaluated for its strength based on the
and time management.
evidence provided. A strong inductive reasoning is
THE VALUE OF DETERMINING TRUTH well supported by its premises, while a weak one is
VALUES IN LOGICAL REASONING poorly supported. The strength is subjective and can
vary by interpretation, and the truth of an inductive
By analyzing truth values, we develop a more
reasoning does not necessarily reflect its strength—
systematic approach to reasoning. For example, if
a weak argument may be true, and a strong one may
someone evaluates statements about conditions for
be false.
academic success, they gain insight into the impact
of study habits or time management. This logical In contrast, deductive reasoning can be
analysis can then apply to real-life decision-making, evaluated for validity and soundness. Validity
helping individuals predict and control outcomes depends on whether the conclusion logically
more effectively. follows from the premises, while soundness
depends on whether the premises are true. An
Logical reasoning through truth values not only aids
argument must be valid to be sound, even if the
in mathematics but also equips people with a
premises appear reasonable.
framework for structured thinking that applies to
various real-world scenarios.

WEEK 9 POLYA’S PROBLEM SOLVING TECHNIQUE

INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE REASONING George Pólya was a Hungarian
mathematician known for his contributions to
Logical reasoning involves using premises to
problem-solving, mathematical education, and
support a conclusion. It can have one or more
heuristics. His work emphasizes systematic
premises, but must always lead to a conclusion. The
approaches to tackling mathematical problems,
two types of reasoning are inductive and deductive
which can be applied across various fields. Pólya's
reasoning.
ideas are primarily encapsulated in his book How to
Inductive and deductive reasoning differ in Solve It, published in 1945, where he outlines a
how they move between premises and conclusions. practical methodology for problem-solving. Here
In inductive reasoning, specific instances or are the key concepts related to Pólya's approach:
observations lead to a general conclusion. For
example, "I forgot my wallet at the store last week
and today, so I always forget my wallet when I go to Four Steps of Problem Solving
the store." This reasoning moves from specific cases
Pólya proposed a four-step process for
to a broader generalization.
solving problems:
In contrast, deductive reasoning starts with
a. Understand the Problem
general premises and leads to a specific conclusion.
For instance, "All nurses know CPR, Henry is a Identify what is being asked.
nurse, so Henry knows CPR." Here, the general
Determine the known information and the
statements (premises) lead to a specific outcome.
unknowns.
Visualize the problem through diagrams or Are there similar problems that can provide
equations if applicable. insights?

b. Devise a Plan

Consider possible strategies to solve the problem. Mathematical Induction and Proof

Explore various heuristics such as working While Pólya is primarily recognized for his
backward, looking for patterns, or breaking the problem-solving strategies, he also contributed to
problem into smaller parts. mathematical induction and proof techniques,
emphasizing the importance of rigorous reasoning
c. Carry Out the Plan
in mathematics.
Implement the chosen strategy step-by-step.

Be meticulous in calculations and logical reasoning.

Teaching Problem Solving
d. Review/Reflect
Pólya's methods have had a significant impact
Check the solution for accuracy and completeness. on mathematics education. He believed that
teaching should focus on developing students'
Reflect on the approach taken and consider
problem-solving abilities rather than just rote
alternative methods that could have been used.
memorization of procedures. He advocated for
encouraging students to explore, experiment, and
articulate their reasoning.
Heuristics
Pólya's contributions have established a
Pólya emphasized the importance of
foundational framework for mathematical problem-
heuristics, which are rules of thumb or strategies
solving that continues to influence educators and
that aid in problem-solving.
students today. His systematic approach not only
Working Backward: Starting from the desired enhances mathematical understanding but also
solution and reasoning back to the known data. cultivates critical thinking and creativity in tackling
complex problems across various disciplines.
Finding Patterns: Recognizing regularities or
sequences in the problem.

Simplifying the Problem: Reducing the Step Description of Step Example

complexity by solving a simpler version of the Number
problem.
1. Figure out what is There are 22
Understand being asked. What is total students.
the problem. known? What is not There are three
Importance of Asking Questions
known? What type of groups of
Pólya encouraged asking specific questions to answer is required? students:
guide problem-solving, such as: Is the problem Students who
similar to other only play
What is known?
problems you’ve recorder,
What is the goal? seen? Are there any students who
important terms for only sing in
What strategies can be applied?
choir, and
 which you should students who do difficulties using the students, 5 of
look up definitions? both. Initially, strategy, you may whom play
we do not know want to use resources recorder and 3
how many such as the textbook of whom are in
students are in to help. If the the choir. In this
any of these strategy itself case, we know
groups, but we appears not to be that there is only
know the total of working, return to one student who
the three groups Step 2 and select a doesn’t play
adds up to 22. different strategy. recorder, and so
We also know this student must
that a total of 8 sing in the choir.
students play the That means the
recorder, and a other two choir
total of 20 singers must
students sing in play the
the choir. We recorder, so
must find the there are 2
number of students who do
students who do both. Now, let’s
both. try that same
method with the
2. Make a Come up with some We could list out
original
plan. strategies for solving the 22 students
problem. Since
the problem. and then assign
only 8 of the 22
Common strategies to each either
students play
include making a list, recorder, choir,
recorder, the
drawing a picture, or both until we
other 14 must
eliminating got the right
sing in the choir
possibilities, using a totals. We could
and not play
formula, guessing draw a Venn
recorder. But
and checking, and Diagram that
there are 20
solving a simpler, separates out
students in the
related problem. the three types
choir, so 6 of
of groups. We
these choir
could try solving
students also
a similar
play the
problem with a
recorder. So the
class of fewer
answer is 6.
students.
4. Look back Part of Step 4 is to Let’s check our
3. Execute Use the strategy Let’s try solving
and reflect. find a way to check answer with a
the plan. chosen in Step 2 to a similar
your answer, Venn Diagram,
solve the problem. If problem with a
preferably using a which was one
you encounter class of 6
different method than of the other
what you used to strategies we more general
solve the problem. considered in pattern
Another part of Step Step 2. We first
4 is to evaluate the fill in each
method you used to region based on WEEK 10
solve the problem. the results we
Mathematics plays a crucial role in data
Was it effective? Are found in Step 3.
management, particularly in ensuring that data is
there ways you could Now we check
collected, analyzed, and interpreted effectively.
have made it more to see if the
When it comes to research, especially in fields like
effective? Are there numbers match
social sciences, business, healthcare, and
other types of the original
engineering, understanding how to manage data
problems with which problem. Notice
appropriately is critical to obtaining valid and
you might be able to that 2 + 6 + 14
reliable results.
use this type of = 22 total
solution method? students, 2 + 6 SAMPLE SIZE AND SAMPLING
= 8 students TECHNIQUES
playing the
Sample size refers to the number of observations or
recorder, and 6
data points selected from a larger population for the
+ 14 = 20
purpose of a study. In research, it's often impractical
students in
or impossible to study an entire population, so a
choir. So our
sample is drawn instead. The size of the sample
answer checks
plays a crucial role in determining how accurately it
out!
represents the population.
Looking back on
The Importance of sample size
our answer, we
now see that our A sample that is too small may lead to inaccurate or
process of biased results because it may not fully capture the
subtracting from diversity or characteristics of the population.
the total can be Conversely, a sample that is too large may be
used in any unnecessarily costly and time-consuming. The
similar correct sample size helps in making inferences
situation, as about the population while minimizing errors and
long as all ensuring the results are reliable.
students must be
Factors Influencing Sample Size
in at least one of
Population Size: The larger the population, the
the two groups.
more data points might be needed to capture its
In the future, we
variability.
wouldn’t even
Confidence Level: Higher confidence levels (e.g.,
have to use the
95% confidence) require larger sample sizes.
simpler related
Margin of Error: A smaller margin of error
problem since
necessitates a larger sample size.
we’ve found a
Variability in Data: If the population data is highly
variable, a larger sample size will be required to
account for this variability.
Mathematical formulas, like the Slovin’s Formula Purposive Sampling: Participants are selected
and Cochran’s Formula, are often used to based on specific characteristics or criteria relevant
calculate the ideal sample size based on these to the study.
factors.
Quota Sampling: Researchers set quotas to ensure
Types of Sampling Techniques representation of different subgroups but don't
randomly select individuals.
Sampling techniques are methods used to select
individuals or data points from the population for Snowball Sampling: Used for hard-to-reach
inclusion in a study. The choice of technique populations; participants recruit others to be part of
depends on the research design, population the study.
characteristics, and the researcher's objectives.
Determining the Appropriate Sampling
1. Probability Sampling: Every member of the Technique
population has an equal chance of being selected.
Selecting the appropriate sampling technique is
This method is often considered the most reliable
crucial because it affects the generalizability of the
because it minimizes selection bias.
study. Probability sampling techniques are usually
Simple Random Sampling: Each member of the preferred when the goal is to make inferences about
population has an equal probability of being a large population, while non-probability sampling
selected, ensuring that the sample is representative can be more useful for exploratory research or when
of the entire population. the population is not easily accessible.

Stratified Sampling: The population is divided into

subgroups (strata), and samples are taken from each
DATA GATHERING TECHNIQUES
subgroup to ensure representation of all
characteristics. Importance of Data Gathering
Systematic Sampling: Researchers select every nth Data gathering is the process of collecting
individual from the population list. This can be information from various sources to address
simpler than random sampling but may introduce research questions. The accuracy and reliability of
bias if there is an underlying pattern. research results are highly dependent on the data
collection methods used. Poor data collection
Cluster Sampling: The population is divided into
techniques can lead to errors, inaccuracies, and
clusters, often based on geography or another
biased results.
grouping. A random sample of clusters is then
selected, and all members of the chosen clusters are Types of Data Gathering Techniques
studied.
1. Surveys and Questionnaires
2. Non-Probability Sampling: Not all members Widely used in social sciences and business
have an equal chance of being selected, leading to research.
potential biases. It’s typically used in exploratory Can be administered in person, via phone, or online.
research where the goal is not generalization but The questions can be open-ended (qualitative) or
gaining specific insights. closed-ended (quantitative), depending on the
nature of the data needed.
Convenience Sampling: Researchers select
participants who are easily accessible. 2. Interviews
Used for more in-depth data collection.
Can be structured (predefined questions), semi-
structured (guideline questions with room for Determining Sample Size
elaboration), or unstructured (informal
In a research study aimed at understanding the
conversations).
eating habits of college students, the researcher has
Interviews allow researchers to explore attitudes,
a population of 5,000 students. Using Cochran’s
opinions, and behaviors in detail.
formula, they calculate the required sample size to
3. Observation be 400 for a 95% confidence level with a margin of
Researchers observe subjects in their natural error of 5%. They then decide to use stratified
environment without interference. random sampling to ensure that the sample reflects
Can be participant or non-participant observation, different class years (freshman, sophomore, junior,
depending on whether the researcher is involved in senior).
the activities being studied.
Example 2
Often used in qualitative research to gain insight
into behaviors and social interactions. Data Gathering in Healthcare Research

4. Document Analysis A researcher is studying the impact of a new

Involves the review and analysis of existing treatment on patient outcomes. They use random
documents, such as reports, letters, emails, meeting sampling to select participants from a population of
minutes, etc. patients. To collect data, they use a combination of
Common in historical research and studies that surveys to gather subjective responses about quality
focus on written communication or archival data. of life and clinical observations to gather objective
data on health improvements.
5. Experiments
Primarily used in the natural and applied sciences, WEEK 11
experiments involve manipulating one or more
Data management involves collecting, processing,
variables to observe the effect on another variable.
and analyzing data to make informed decisions, and
Control and treatment groups are typically used to
mathematics plays a crucial role in this process.
compare outcomes, making it easier to draw causal
Mathematical tools, such as proportions,
inferences.
percentages, and ranking systems, allow us to
Ensuring Data Accuracy and Reliability organize, interpret, and present data effectively.
These tools are fundamental in descriptive statistics,
Effective data gathering techniques are essential for
which help summarize and describe the essential
ensuring the accuracy and reliability of research
features of a dataset.
results.

Researchers must:
PROPORTIONS AND PERCENTAGES
Use well-designed instruments (e.g., well-
constructed questionnaires). Proportions
Ensure consistency in data collection methods
A proportion is a way of comparing parts to the
across all subjects.
whole. In data analysis, proportions help us
Be mindful of potential biases or errors that could
understand how much of the data is categorized
arise during the data collection process (e.g.,
under specific groups relative to the entire dataset. It
response bias, interviewer bias, observer bias).
is expressed as a ratio of the part to the whole and is
Practical Application often converted into a percentage to facilitate easier
comparison.
Example 1
For example, if a company surveyed 100 employees results. For example, a political poll might
and found that 60 of them prefer working remotely, show that 45% of respondents support a
the proportion of employees who prefer remote particular candidate. This helps in making
work is: inferences about the larger population's
preferences.
Proportion =
2. Business Analytics: Companies use
This tells us that 60% of the employees favor
percentages to understand market share,
working remotely. This value can then be used to
customer satisfaction, and employee
make generalizations or inferences about the
performance. For instance, knowing that
workforce's preferences.
80% of customers are satisfied with a
Proportions are critical in areas such as market product provides a clear measure for
research, public health, and education, where decision-making.
comparing different parts of a population is
3. Public Health: In epidemiology, percentages
essential for understanding trends and making
are used to represent infection rates,
decisions.
recovery rates, and vaccination coverage.
For instance, knowing that 70% of a
population is vaccinated can guide public
Percentages
health policies.
A percentage is a proportion expressed out of 100. It
is one of the most commonly used tools in data
management because it standardizes data, making it ASSIGNING RANKS
easier to compare different sets of data regardless of
Ranking is a method used to organize data based on
their size. The formula for converting a proportion
a specific criterion, such as size, importance, or
into a percentage is:
performance. Ranking is particularly useful in
Percentage = Proportion x 100 comparative studies and competitive environments,
where it is essential to know how individuals or
Continuing the previous example, the proportion of
items stand relative to each other.
employees preferring remote work is 0.60, so the
percentage would be:

Percentage = 0.60 x 100 = 60% Types of Ranking Systems

Percentages are especially useful in representing 1. Simple Ranking

data such as growth rates, success rates, and
This involves ordering data from highest to lowest
demographics. For example, in finance, a
(or lowest to highest) based on a particular variable.
company's profit margin is often expressed as a
For example, if we have test scores for five
percentage of revenue, allowing for easy
students, we can rank them from the highest score
comparison between companies of different sizes.
to the lowest:

Student Score Rank

Applications of Proportions and Percentages in
A 95 1
Data Management

1. Surveys and Polls: Proportions and B 88 2

percentages help in presenting survey
C 85 3 2. Sports: Athletes or teams are often ranked
based on their performance in various
D 80 4
competitions. Rankings help in determining
E 75 5 the strongest competitors, who may advance
to higher levels or receive awards.
In this case, Student A has the highest rank (1st),
while Student E has the lowest rank (5th). 3. Business: In competitive industries,
companies may rank products or services
based on customer satisfaction, sales
2. Tied Ranking performance, or market share. This helps
businesses identify their strengths and
When two or more items have the same value, they weaknesses relative to competitors.
are given the same rank, and the next rank is
skipped. For instance, if two students score 88, they 4. Economics: Countries or regions are ranked
would both be ranked 2nd, and the next student based on economic indicators like GDP,
would be ranked 4th, as shown below: unemployment rates, or human development
indices. These rankings provide insights into
Student Score Rank economic performance and quality of life,
A 95 1 influencing policy decisions.

B 88 2
Descriptive Statistics in Data Management
C 88 2
Proportions, percentages, and ranks are all part
D 80 4
of descriptive statistics, a branch of statistics that
E 75 5 deals with summarizing and presenting data.
Descriptive statistics provide simple summaries
about the sample and the measures, and they form
3. Weighted Ranking the foundation of data analysis.

Sometimes, data points are ranked based on Mean, Median, and Mode
multiple criteria, where each criterion has a
These measures of central tendency help to identify
different level of importance. For example, in a job
the average or most common data points in a
application process, candidates might be ranked
dataset.
based on their qualifications, experience, and
interview performance, each weighted differently. Range and Standard Deviation
The overall rank is determined by the sum of
These measures of dispersion show how spread out
weighted scores for each criterion.
the data points are, helping to assess variability
within the dataset.

Applications of Ranking in Data Management

The Role of Data in Decision-Making
1. Education: Ranking is commonly used to
compare student performance based on test The ability to scientifically gather data, logically
scores or overall academic performance. present it, and critically interpret it is crucial for
Schools may rank students by GPA or class making informed decisions. Whether it's analyzing
standing to highlight top achievers. market trends, evaluating academic performance, or
measuring public opinion, data management allows
for the drawing of accurate conclusions and making
predictions. Misinterpreting data or presenting it in
a misleading way can lead to faulty conclusions,
highlighting the importance of proper data
management techniques.

Steps in Data Management:

1. Data Collection: Gathering relevant data

using appropriate methods, such as surveys,
experiments, or administrative records.

2. Data Presentation: Organizing data into

tables, graphs, or charts to make it easier to
analyze and interpret.

3. Data Analysis: Using statistical tools,

including proportions, percentages, and
rankings, to identify patterns, trends, and
relationships within the data.

4. Data Interpretation: Drawing conclusions

based on the analysis, which may involve
making predictions, forming hypotheses, or
offering recommendations.